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ALLEN   AND   GREENOUqH.'§:  - 

NEW 
LATIN    GRAMMAR 

FOR 
SCHOOLS   AND   COLLEGES 

FOUNDED  ON  COMPARATIVE  GRAMMAR 

EDITED    BY 

J.  B.  GREENOUGH     G.  L.  KITTREDGE 
A.  A.  HOWARD         BENJ.  L.  D'OOGE 


GINN  AND  COMPANY 

BOSTON    •    NEW   YORK    •    CHICAGO    •    LONDON 
ATLANTA    •    DALLAS    •    COLUMBUS    •    SAN   FRANCISCO 


~|30 


Entered  at  Stationers'  Hall 


Copyright,  1888,  by 
JAMES  B.  GREENOUGH  and  J.  H.  ALLEN 


Copyright,  1903,  by 
GINN  AND  COMPANY 


Copyright,  1916,  by 
GEORGE  L.  KITTREDGE 


ALL  RIGHTS   RESERVED 
620.4 


C.INN  AXD  COMPANY  •  PKO- 
PRIHTORS  •  BOSTON  •  U.S.A. 


PREFACE 


The  present  book  is  a  careful  revision  of  the  edition  of  1888. 
This  revision  was  planned  and  actually  begun  in  the  lifetime  of 
Professor  Greenough  and  has  been  carried  out  in  accordance 
with  principles  that  met  with  his  full  approval.  The  renum- 
bering of  the  sections  has  made  it  possible  to  improve  the 
arrangement  of  material  in  many  particiilars  and  to  avoid  a  cer- 
tain amount  of  repetition  which  was  inevitable  in  the  former 
edition.  Thus,  without  increasing  the  size  of  the  volume,  the 
editors  have  been  able  to  include  such  new  matter  as  the  advance 
in  grammatical  science  has  afforded.  The  study  of  historical 
and  comparative  syntax  has  been  pursued  with  considerable  vigor 
during  the  past  fifteen  years,  and  the  well-established  results  of 
this  study  have  been  inserted  in  their  appropriate  places.  In 
general,  however,  the  principles  and  facts  of  Latin  syntax,  as 
set  forth  by  Professor  Greenough,  have  stood  the  test  both  of 
scientific  criticism  and  of  practical  use  in  the  class-room,  and 
accordingly  the  many  friends  of  Allen  and  Greenough's  Gram, 
mar  will  not  find  the  new  edition  strange  or  unfamiliar  in  its 
method  or  its  contents.  The  editors  have  seen  no  occasion  to 
change  long-settled  nomenclature  or  to  adopt  novel  classifica- 
tions when  the  usual  terms  and  categories  have  proved  satis- 
factory. On  the  other  hand,  they  have  not  hesitated  to  modify 
either  doctrines  or  forms  of  statement  whenever  improvement 
seemed  possible. 

In  the  matter  of  "  hidden  quantity"  the  editors  have  been  even 
more  conservative  than  in  the  former  revision.  This  subject  is 
one  of  great  difficulty,  and  the  results  of  the  most  recent  investi- 
gations are  far  from  harmonious.     In  many  instances  the  facts 


IV  PREFACE 

are  quite  undiscoverable,  and,  in  general,  the  phenomena  are  of 
comparatively  slight  interest  except  to  special  students  of  the 
arcana  of  philology.  No  vowel  has  been  marked  long  unless  the 
evidence  seemed  practically  decisive. 

The  editors  have  been  fortunate  in  securing  the  advice  and 
assistance  of  Professor  E.  S.  Sheldon,  of  Harvard  University,  for 
the  first  ten  pages,  dealing  with  phonetics  and  phonology.  They 
are  equally  indebted  to  Professor  E.  P.  Morris,  of  Yale  Univer- 
sity, who  has  had  the  kindness  to  revise  the  notes  on  historical 
and  comparative  syntax.  Particular  acknowledgment  is  also 
due  to  Mr.  M.  Grant  Daniell,  who  has  cooperated  in  the  revision 
throughout,  and  whose  accurate  scholarship  and  long  experience 
as  a  teacher  have  been  of  the  greatest  service  at  every  point. 

September  1,  1903. 


CO^^TENTS 

PAET  I  —  WORDS  AND  FORMS 

PAGE 

Letters  and  Sounds •     •     •  1-10 

Alphabet ;  Classification  of  Sounds 1-3 

pithography,  Syllables,  Pronunciation 3-5 

Quantity  and  Accent 5-7 

Combinations ;  Phonetic  Changes 7-10 

Words  and  their  Forms .  11-16 

Parts  of  Speech 11, 12 

Inflection;  Root,  Stem,  and  Base 12-1-4 

Gender,  Number,  and  Case 1-4-16 

Declension  of  Nouns 16-45 

General  Rules  of  Declension 17 

First  Declension 18-20 

Second  Declension 20-24 

Third  Declension 24-37 

'  Mute  Stems 25, 26 

Liquid  and  Nasal  Stems 27, 28 

Pure  i-Stems *. 29,30 

Mixed  i-Stems •.    •.     • 30, 31 

Irregular  Nouns 33,  34 

Greek  Nouns 34-36 

Rules  of  Gender 36, 37 

Fourth  Declension 37-39 

Fifth  Declension 39,  40 

Defective  and  Variable  Nouns 40-44 

Names  of  Persons 45 

Inflection  of  Adjectives 46-62 

First  and  Second  Declensions 46-49 

Third  Declension 49-54 

Comparison 55-57 

Numerals 58-62 

Inflection  of  Pronouns 63-71 

Personal,  Reflexive,  Possessive,  Demonstrative 63-67 

Relative,  Interrogative,  Indefinite 68-71 

Con-elatives  (Pronouns  and  Adverbs) 71 

Conjugation  of  Verbs 72-125 

Inflection 72 

Signification:  Voice,  Mood,  Tense 73-75 

|*ersonal  Endings 76, 77 


VI  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Forms :  Stem  and  Verb-Endings 77-81 

The  Verb  Sum 81-83 

Regular  Verbs 84-103 

The  Four  Conjugations ;  Principal  Parts 84, 85 

Formation  of  the  Three  Stems 85-89 

Synopsis  of  the  Verb 90 

Peculiarities  of  Conjugation 91 

First  Conjugation ,     .     .    92-95 

Second  Conjugation 96, 97 

Third  Conjugation 98, 99 

Fourth  Conjugation 100, 101 

Verbs  in  -16  of  the  Third  Conjugation 102, 103 

Deponent  Verbs 103-106 

Periphrastic  Conjugations .     106-108 

Irregular  Verbs 108-115 

Defective  Verbs ' 116-119 

Impersonal  Verbs 119, 120 

Classified  Lists  of  Verbs » 121-125 

Particles 126-139 

Adverbs 126-130 

Prepositions 130-136 

Conjunctions 137-139 

Interjections 139 

Formation  of  "Words    .,...' 140-162 

Roots  and  Stems 140, 141 

Suffixes:  Primary;  Significant  Endings 141-143 

Derivation  of  Nouns 143-148 

Derivation  of  Adjectives 148-154 

Nouns  w^ith  Adjective  Suffixes ;  Irregular  Derivatives     ....     154-156 

Derivation  of  Verbs 156-159 

Compound  Words 160-162 

PART   II  — SYNTAX    * 

Introductory  Note 163 

The  Sentence 164-208 

Definitions :  Subject  and  Predicate,  Modification,  etc 164-168 

Agreement :  the  Four  Concords 168 

Nouns  :  Apposition  ;  Predicate  Agreement 168-170 

Adjectives  .     .     .     , 170-175 

Rules  of  Agreement 171, 172 

Special  Uses 172-175 

Pronouns      176-192 

Personal  and  Demonstrative 176-180 

Reflexive 180-183 

Possessive 183, 184 


co:ntents  yu 

PAGE 

Relative ,...,....».  184-189 

Indefinite 189-191 

Alius  and  alter «     .     .  192 

VfcRBS 193-195 

Verb  and  Subject,  Incomplete  Sentences 193-195 

Particles  :  Adverbs,  Conjunctions,  Negatives 196-204 

Questions     .     .     .     .     , 205-208 

Construction  of  Cases 209-275 

Introductory  Note 209 

Nominative  Case 210 

Vocative  Case -      210 

Genitive  Case 210-224 

Genitive  with  Nouns 211-216 

Possessive  Genitive 211,212 

Genitive  of  Material,  of  Quality ,     .     .     .  213 

Partitive  Genitive 213-215 

Objective  Genitive 215, 216 

Genitive  with  Adjectives 216,  217 

Genitive  with  Verbs 218-223 

Verbs  of  Kemembering  and  Forgetting      .,.,,...  218,  219 

Verbs  of  Reminding , 219 

Verbs  of  Accusing,  Condemning,  and  Acquitting 220 

Verbs  of  Feeling ,  221 

Interest  and  refert .     .     .     .     , 221,222 

Verbs  of  Plenty  and  Want ;  Special  Verbs 222, 223 

Peculiar  Genitives :  Exclamatory,  etc 223,  224 

Dative  Case 224-239 

Indirect  Object  with  Transitives 225-227 

Indirect  Object  with  Intransitives 227-232 

Dative  cf  Possession ,  232, 233 

Dative  of  the  Agent 233, 234 

Dative  of  Reference 234-236 

Ethical  Dative 236 

Dative  of  Separation 236,  237 

Dative  of  the  Purpose  or  End 237 

Dative  with  Adjectives 238, 239 

Accusative  Case        240-248 

Direct  Object        240-242 

Cognate  Accusative 242-244 

Two  Accusatives ,     .     .     .  244-246 

Idiomatic  and  Special  Uses 247,  248 

Ablative  Case 248-265 

of  the  Ablative  Proper 249-255 

Ablative  of  Separation 249, 250 

Ablative  of  Source  and  Materia,! 260-252 

Ablative  of  Cause 252,  253 


Vlil  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Ablative  ol  Agent      , 25;3, 254 

Ablative  of  Comparison 254, 255 

Uses  of  the  Ablative  as  Instrumental 256-265 

Ablative  of  Means  or  Instrument 256-258 

Ablative  of  Manner 258 

Ablative  of  Accompaniment 258, 259 

Ablative  of  Degree  of  Difference 259, 260 

Ablative  of  Quality    ,     » 260 

Ablative  of  Price  . 261,262 

Ablative  of  Specification 262, 263 

Ablative  Absolute 263-265 

Uses  of  the  Ablative  as  Locative 265 

l^MB  AND  Place    . 266-273 

Special  Uses  of  Prepositions .'^74, 275 

Syntax  >p  thb  Verb    .     , 276-386 

Mood*      ,     ,     .     .     o 276-293 

Introductory  Note 276,277 

Indicative  Mood 277 

SeBJUNCTivE  IN  Independent  Sentences 278-283 

Hortatory  Subjunctive .          ,     .     , 278, 279 

Hortatory  Subjunctive  in  Concessions 279 

Optative  Subjunctive    .     ,. 280, 281 

Deliberative  Subjunctive 281 

Potential  Subjunctive   .     , 282, 283 

Imperative  Mood 283-285 

Prohibition  (Negative  Command) 285 

Infinitive  Mood 286-292 

Infinitive  as  Noun 286,287 

Infinitive  with  Impersonals    .     , 287, 288 

Complementary  Infinitive 289, 290 

Infinitive  witli  Subject  Accusative 290 

Infinitive  of  Purpose  ;  Peculiar  Infinitives 290, 291 

Exclamatory  Infinitive 292 

Historical  Infinitive 292 

Tenses     ......     293-308 

Introductory  Note 293 

Tenses  op  the  Indicative 293-301 

Present  Tense 293-295 

Imperfect  Tense 296-297 

Future  Tense 298 

Perfect  Tense .     , 298-300 

Pluperfect  Tense 800 

Future  Perfect  Tense 300 

Epistolary  Tenses 301 

Tenses  of  the  Subjunctive 801-306 

Sequence  of  Tenses 802-306 


CONTENTS  ix 

PAGE 

Tenses  of  the  Infinitive  ....,.....,..,  307, 308 

Participles 809-316 

Distinctions  of  Tense ,     , 309-311 

Uses  of  Participles 311-314 

Future  Active  Participle    .     » 314, 315 

Gerundive  (Future  Passive  Participle) 315, 316 

Gerund  and  Gerundive 816-319 

iSupiNE o     .     .     .  320 

Conditional  Sentences .  321-888 

Introductory  Note 321 .  322 

Protasis  and  Apodosis 822, 323 

Classificatiou  of  Conditions 828-325 

Simple  Present  and  Past  Conditions .  825, 826 

Future  Conditions 826-328 

Conditions  Contrary  to  Fact .  328-330 

General  Conditions  . 331 

Conditional  Relative  Clauses .  882, 333 

Condition  Disguised 883, 834 

Condition  Omitted 334, 335 

Complex  Conditions 835 

Clauses  of  Comparison  (Conclusion  Omitted) 836 

Use  of  Si  and  its  Compounds 337, 388 

Concessive  Clauses 338,839 

Clauses  of  Proviso 840 

Clauses  op  Purpose  (Final  Clauses) 340-843 

Clauses  of  Characteristic 848-346 

Clauses  of  Result  (Consecutive  Clauses) 346-348 

Causal  Clauses , 348-350 

Temporal  Clauses 350-359 

Ubi,  ut,  cum,  quando,  as  Indefinite  Relatives 850 

Postquam,  ubi,  ut,  simul  atque 851 

Cum  Temporal 852-854 

Cum  Causal  or  Concessive 854,  855 

Antequam  and  priusquam 355,  856 

Dum,  donee,  and  quoad 357-359 

Clauses  with  quin  and  quominus 359-361 

Substantive  Clauses 862-384 

Introductory  Note 362 

Substantive  Clauses  of  Purpose  and  Infinitive  Clauses    ....  362-367 

Substantive  Clauses  of  Result  (Consecutive  Clauses) 367-869 

Indicative  with  quod 369,  370 

Indirect  Questions 870-373 

Indirect  Discourse <  873-384 

Introductory  Note , 873, 374 

Declaratory  Sentences 874-877 

Subordinate  Clauses     ....         377, 378 


X  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Tenses  of  the  Infinitive 378, 379 

Tenses  of  the  Subjunctive 379,380 

Questions  in  Indirect  Discourse 380,  381 

Commands  in  Indirect  Discourse 381 

Conditions  in  Indirect  Discourse 381-384 

^TERMEDIATE  CLAUSES           384-386 

Informal  Indirect  Discourse       385 

Subjunctive  of  Integral  Part  (Attraction) 386 

Important  Rules  of  Syntax        387-392 

Order  of  Words        393-400 

General  Rules 393-398 

Special  Rules       398, 399 

Structure  of  the  Period 399,  400 

PEOSODY 

Quantity 401-405 

Rhythm , 405-409 

Introductory  Note 405, 400 

Measures  of  Rhythm  ;  Feet 406-409 

The  Musical  Accent ;  Csesura ;  Diaeresis 409 

Versification 410-426 

The  Verse;  Scansion  and  Elision 410,411 

Dactylic  Verse 411-414 

Dactylic  Hexameter 411,412 

Elegiac  Stanza ;  Other  Dactylic  Verses 413,414 

Iambic  Verse 414-416 

Iambic  Trimeter 414, 415 

Other  Iambic  Measures 416 

Trochaic  Verse ,   .     .  417 

Mixed  Measures 418 

Logaoedic  Verse 418-421 

Metres  of  Horace 421-425 

Index  to  the  Metres  of  Horace 423-425 

Other  Lyric  Poets 425 

Miscellaneous  Measures 425, 426 

Early  Prosody 426, 427 

Miscellaneous • 428-431 

Reckoning  of  Time 428,  429 

Measures  of  Value,  Length,  and  Capacity 429-431 

Glossary  of  Terms 432-435 

Index  of  Verbs 436-444 

Index  of  Words  and  Subjects 445-475 

Latin  Authors  and  their  Works      , 476, 477 

Parallel  References  .....          » 479-490 


ALLEN  AND  GKEENOUGH'S 

NEW  LATIN  GRAMMAR 


XI 


LATIE^    GRAMMAR 


Latin  Grammar  is  usually  treated  under  three  heads:  1.  Words  and 
Forms;  2.  Syntax;  3.  Prosody.  Syntax  tl^eats  of  the  functioil  of  words 
when  Joined  together  as  ^arts  of  the  sentence  $  Prosody  of  their  arrange- 
ment in  metrical  composition. 


PART  FIRST— WORDS  AND  FORMS 

THfe  ALPHABET 

1.  The  Latin  Alphabet  is  the  same  as  the  English  (which  is 
in  fact  borrowed  from  it)  except  that  it  does  not  contain  J,  U, 
and  W. 

Note  1.  —  The  Latin  alphabet  was  borrowed  in  very  early  times  from  a  Greek 
alphabet  (though  not  from  that  most  familiar  to  us)  and  did  not  at  first  contain  the 
letters  G  and  Y.  It  consisted  "of  capital  letters  only,  and  the  small  letters  with  ^hich 
we  are  familiar  did  not  come  into  general  use  until  the  close  of  the  eighth  century  of 
our  era. 

Note  2.  — The  Latin  names  of  the  consonants  were  as  follows :  —  B,  be  (pronounced 
bay);  0,  ce  (pronounced  kay};  i>,  de  '{day);  F,  ef-;  G,  ge  igay);  H,  ha;  K,  ka;  L,  el; 
M,  em;  'S,en;  'P,pe{pay);  <),qu(k6o);  R,  ery  S,es;  T,  te(tay);  X,ix;  Z,zeta(the 
Greek  name,  pronounced  dzayta).    The  sound  of  each  vovtel  was  used  as  its  name. 

a.  The  character  €  originally  meant  G,  a  value  always  retained  in 
the  abbreviations  <5.  (fot  GSfaft)  and  €ft.  '(for  G^aeas). 

Note.  —  In  early  Latin  C  came  also  to  be  used  for  K,  and  K  disappeared  except  be- 
fore a  in  a  few  words,  as  Kal.  (Kalendae),  Karthago.  Thus  there  was  no  distinction  iri 
writing  between  the  sounds  of  g  and  k.  Later  this  defect  was  remedied  by  forming 
(from  C)  the  new  character  G.  This  took  the  alphabetic  place  formerly  occupied  by 
Z,  which  had  gone  out  of  use.  In  Cicero's  time  (see  N.  D.  ii.  93),  Y  (originally  a  form 
of  V)  and  Z  were  introduced  from  the  ordinary  Greek  alphabet  to  represent  sounds  in 
words  derived  from  the  Greek,  and  they  were  put  at  the  end  of  the  Latin  alphabet. 

h,  I  and  V  were  used  both  as  vowels  and  as  consonants  (see  §  5). 

Note.  — V  originally  denoted  the  vowel  sound  u  (pd),  and  F  stood  for  the  sound  of 
our  consonant  w.  When  F  acCfuited  the  value  of  our  f,  V  came  to  be  used  for  the 
sound  of  w  as  well  ^s  for  the  vowel  u. 

In  this  book  i  is  used  for  both  vowel  and  consonant  i,  u  for  vowel  u,  and 
V  for  consonant  ti :  —  ifis,  vir,  iuvenis. 

1 


^A  WOkDS  AND   PORMS  [§§2-4 

Classification  of  Sounds 

2.  The  simple  Vowels  are  a,  e,  i,  o,  u,  y. 

The  Diphthongs  are  ae,  au,  ei,  eu,  oe,  ui,  and,  in  early  Latin,  ai, 
oi,  ou.  In  the  diphthongs  both  vowel  sounds  are  heard,  one  fol- 
lowing the  other  in  the  same  syllable. 

3.  Consonants  are  either  voiced  (sonant)  or  voiceless  (surd). 
Voiced  consonants  are  pronounced  with  the  same  vocal  murmur 
that  is  heard  in  vowels ;  voiceless  consonants  lack  this  murmur. 

1.  The  voiced  consonants  are  b,  d,  g,  1,  r,  m,  n,  z,  consonant  i,  v. 

2.  The  voiceless  consonants  are  p,  t,  c  (k,  q),  f,  h,  s,  x. 

4.  Consonants  are  further  classified  as  in  the  following  table : 

Labials        Dentals        Palatals 


'  Voiced  (mediae) 

b 

d 

g 

Mutes 

Voiceless  (tenues) 

P 

t 

c  (k,  q) 

Aspirates 

ph 

th 

ch 

Nasals 

m 

n 

n  (before  c,  g,  q) 

Liquids 

l,r 

Fricatives  (Spirants) 

V 

s,  z 

Sibilants 

8,  Z 

Semivo 

wels 

V 

consonant  i 

Double  consonants  are  x  (=  cs)  and  z  (=  dz) ;  h  is  merely  a  breathing. 

1.  Mutes  are  pronounced  by  blocking  entirely,  for  an  instant,  the  passage  of  the 
breath  through  the  mouth,  and  then  allowing  it  to  escape  with  an  explosion  (distinctly 
heard  before  a  following  vowel).  Between  the  explosion  and  the  vowel  there  may  be 
a  slight  puff  of  breath  (h),  as  in  the  Aspirates  (ph,  th,  ch),2 

2.  Labials  are  pronounced  with  the  lips,  or  lips  and  teeth. 

3.  Dentals  (sometimes  called  Linguals)  are  pronounced  with  the  tip  of  the  tongue 
touching  or  approaching  the  upper  front  teeth. 

4.  Palatals  are  pronounced  with  a  part  of  the  upper  surface  of  the  tongue  touching 
or  approaching  the  palate.s 

5.  Fricatives  (or  Spirants)  are  consonants  in  which  the  breath  passes  continuously 
through  the  mouth  with  audible  friction. 

6.  Nasals  are  like  voiced  mutes,  except  that  the  mouth  remains  closed  and  the 
breath  passes  through  the  nose. 

1  Strictly  a  lahio-dental,  pronounced  with  the  under  lip  touching  the  upper  teeth. 

3  The  aspirates  are  almost  wholly  confined  to  words  borrowed  from  the  Greek.  In 
early  Latin  such  borrowed  sounds  lost  their  aspiration  and  became  simply  p,  t,  c. 

3  Palatals  are  often  classed  as  (1)  velars,  pronounced  with  the  tongue  touching  or  ris- 
ing toward  the  soft  palate  (in  the  back  part  of  the  mouth) ,  and  (2)  palatals,  in  which  the 
tongue  touches  or  rises  toward  the  hard  palate  (farther  forward  in  the  mouth) .  Compare 
the  initial  consonants  in  key  and  cool,  whispering  the  two  words,  and  it  will  be  observed 
that  before  e  and  i  the  k  is  sounded  farther  forward  in  the  mouth  than  before  a,  o.  or  u. 


§§  5,  6]  ORTHOGRAPHY  3 

5.  The  vowels  i  and  u  serve  as  consonants  when  pronounced 
rapidly  before  a  vowel  so  as  to  stand  in  the  same  syllable.^  Con- 
sonant i  has  the  sound  of  English  consonant  y;  consonant  u  (v) 
that  of  English  consonant  w. 

Consonant  i  and  u  (v)  are  sometimes  called  Semivowels. 

Note  1. — The  Latin  alphabet  did  not  distinguish  between  the  vowel  and  consonant 
sounds  of  i  and  u,  but  used  each  letter  (I  and  V)  with  a  double  value.  In  modern  books 
i  and  u  are  often  used  for  the  vowel  sounds,  j  and  v  for  the  consonant  sounds ;  but  in 
printing  in  capitals  J  and  U  are  avoided :  —  I V  LIVS  (lulius) .  The  characters  J  and  U  are 
only  slight  modifications  of  the  characters  I  and  V.  The  ordinary  English  sounds  of 
j  and  V  did  not  exist  in  classical  Latin,  but  consonant  u  perhaps  approached  English  v 
in  the  pronunciation  of  some  persons. 

Note  2.  — In  the  combinations  qu,  gu,  and  sometimes  su,  u  seems  to  be  the  conso- 
nant (w) .  Thus,  aqua,  anguis,  consuetus  (compare  English  quart,  anguish,  suave) .  In 
these  combinations,  however,  u  is  reckoned  neither  as  a  vowel  nor  as  a  consonant.^ 

ORTHOGRAPHY 

6.  Latin  spelling  varied  somewhat  with  the  changes  in  the 
language  and  was  never  absolutely  settled  in  all  details. 

Thus,  we  find  lubet,  vort5,  as  earlier,  and  libet,  verto,  as  later  forms.  Other 
variations  are  optumus  and  optimus,  gerundus  and  gerendus. 

The  spelling  of  the  first  century  of  our  era,  known  chiefly  from 
inscriptions,  is  tolerably  uniform,  and  is  commonly  used  in  modern 
editions  of  the  classics. 

a.  After  v  (consonant  u),  o  was  anciently  used  instead  of  u  (voltus,  servos), 
and  this  spelling  was  not  entirely  given  up  until  the  middle  of  the  first 
century  of  o\ir  era. 

6.  The  older  quo  became  cu  in  the  Augustan  period ;  in  the  second  cen- 
tury of  our  era  the  spelling  quu  established  itself  in  some  words :  — 

cum,  older  quom  ;3  equos,  ecus,  later  equus ;  sequontur,  secuntur,  later  sequuntur  ; 
similarly  exstinguont,  exstingunt,  later  exstinguunt. 
Note.  —  In  most  modern  editions  the  spelling  quu  is  adopted,  except  in  cum. 

c.  Between  consonant  i  and  a  preceding  a,  e,  o,  or  u,  an  i  was  developed 
as  a  transient  sound,  thus  producing  a  diphthong  ai,  ei,  etc.,  before  the  con- 
sonant i.  In  such  cases  but  one  i  was  written :  as,  aid  (for  fai-io),  mains 
(for  fmai-ius),  peius  (for  fpei-ius). 

1  Compare  the  English  word  Indian  as  pronounced  in  two  syllables  or  in  three. 

2  In  such  words  it  is  possible  that  the  preceding  consonant  was  labialized  and  that 
no  distinct  and  separate  consonant  u  was  heard. 

'  The  spelliDg  quum  is  very  late  and  without  authority. 


4  WORDS  AND  FORMS  [§§  6-8 

d.  Similarly  in  compounds  of  iacio  but  one  i  was  written  (as,  con-icio, 
not  con-iicio);  but  the  usual  pronunciation  probably  showed  consonant  i 
followed  by  vowel  i  (see  §  11.  e). 

Note.  —  Some  variations  are  due  to  later  changes  in  Latin  itself,  and  these  are  not 
now  recognized  in  classical  texts. 

1.  Unaccented  ti  and  ci,  when  followed  by  a  vowel,  came  to  be  pronounced  alike ; 
hence  nuntio  was  later  spePed  with  a  c  and  dicio  with  a  t. 

2.  The  sound  of  h  was  after  a  time  lost  and  hence  this  letter  was  often  omitted  (as, 
arena  for  harena)  or  mistakenly  written  (as,  humor  for  umor) . 

3.  The  diphthong  ae  early  in  the  time  of  the  Empire  acquired  the  value  of  long  open 
e  (about  like  English  e  in  there) ,  and  similarly  oe  after  a  time  became  a  long  close  e 
(about  like  the  English  ey  in  they) ;  and  so  both  were  often  confused  in  spelling  with 
e :  as,  eoena  or  caeaa  for  the  correct  form  cena. 

Syllables 

;      7.  Every  Latin  word  has  as  many  syllables  as  it  has  vowels  or 
'  diphthongs :  — 

a-6i-e,  mo-ne,  fi-li-us,  fe-ro-ci-ta-te. 

a.  In  the  division  of  words  into  syllables  a  single  consonant  (including 
consonant  i  and  v)  between  two  vowels  is  written  and  pronounced  with 
the  following  vowel.     Ddtibled  consonants  are  separated  :  — 

pa-ter,  mi-li-tes,  in-iiJ-ri-a,  di-vi-d5 ;  mit-to,  tol-16. 

Note  1.  —  Some  extend  the  rule  for  single  consonants  to  any  consonant  group  (as 
sp,  St,  gn)  that  can  begin  a  word.  In  this  book,  dix-it,  sax-um,  etc.  are  preferred  to 
di-xit,  sa-xum ;  the  pronunciation  was  probably  dic-sit,  sac-sum. 

Note  2.  —  A  syllable  ending  with  a  vowel  or  diphthong  is  called  open:  all  others 
are  called  close.    Thus  in  pa-ter  the  first  syllable  is  open,  the  second  close. 

b.  In  compounds  the  parts  are  separated :  — 
ab-est,  ob-latus,  dis-cemo,  du-plex,  di-sto. 

Pronunciation 

8.  The  so-called  Roman  Pronunciation  of  Latin  aims  to  repre- 
sent approximately  the  pronunciation  of  classical  times. 

Vowels  :  a  as  in  father;  ^  as  in  idea. 

§  as  eh?  (prolonged),  or  a  in  date;         S  as  eh?  (clipped)  or  e  in  net. 
I  as  in  machine;  1  as  in  holiest  or  sit. 

o  as  in  holy;  6  as  in  obey. 

u  as  00  in  boot;  H  as  oo  in  foot. 

y  between  u  and  i  (French  u  or  German  ii). 

Diphthongs  :  ae  like  ay;  ei  as  in  eight;  oe  like  oy  in  hoy; 

eu  as  eh'oo;  au.like  ow  in  now;  ui  as  oo'ee. 


^§8-10]  PRONUNCIATION  AND   QUANTITY  6 

Consonants  are  the  same  as  in  English,  except  that  — 

c  and  g  are  as  in  come^  get,  never  as  in  cityj  gem. 

s  as  in  sea,  lips,  never  as  in  ease. 

Consonant  i  is  like  y  in  young;  v  (consonant  u)  like  w  in  toing. 

n  in  the  combinations  ns  and  nf  probably  indicates  nasalization  of  the 
preceding  vowel,  which  was  also  lengthened ;  and  final  m  in  an 
unaccented  syllable  probably  had  a  similar  nasalizing  effect  on 
the  preceding  vowel. 

ph,  th,  ch,  are  properly  like  p,  t,  k,  followed  by  h  (which  may,  for  con- 
venience, be  neglected) ;  but  ph  probably  became  like  (or  nearly 
like)  f  soon  after  the  classical  period,  and  may  be  so  pronounced 
to  distinguish  it  from  p. 

z  is  as  dz  in  adze. 

bs  is  like  ps ;  bt  is  like  pt. 

Note. — Latin  is  sometimes  pronounced  with  the  ordinary  English  sounds  of  the 
letters.  The  English  pronunciation  should  be  used  in  Roman  names  occurring  in 
•English  (as,  Julius  Caesar) ;  and  in  familiar  quotations,  as,  e  pluribus  unutn  ;  viva 
voce;  vice  versa;  a  fortiori;  veni,  vidi,  vici,  etc. 

Quantity 

9.  The  Quantity  of  a  Vowel  or  a  Syllable  is  the  time  occupied 
in  pronouncing  it.  Two  degrees  of  Quantity  are  recognized,  — 
long  and  short. 

a.  In  syllables,  quantity  is  measured  from  the  beginning  of  the  vowel 
or  diphthong  to  the  end  of  the  syllable. 

10.  Vowels  are  either  long  or  short  Bt/  nature^  and  are  pro- 
nounced accordingly  (§8). 

a,  A  vowel  before  another  vowel  or  h  is  short :  as  in  via,  nihil. 

b,  A  diphthong  is  long :  as  in  aedes,  foedus.  So,  also,  a  vowel  derived 
from  a  diphthong ;  as  in  excludo  (from  fex-claudo). 

c,  A  vowel  formed  by  contraction  is  long:  as  in  nU  (from  nihil). 

d,  A  vowel  before  ns,  nf,  gn,  is  long :  as  in  constans,  inferd,  magnus. 
Note.  — But  the  quantity  of  the  vowel  hefore  gn  is  not  certain  in  all  cases. 

e,  A  vowel  before  nd,  nt,  is  regularly  short :  as  in  amandus,  amant. 

In  this  book  all  vowels  known  to  be  long  are  marked  (a,  e,  etc.),  and 
short  vowels  are  left  unmarked  (a,  e,  etc.).  Vowels  marked  with  both  signs 
at  once  (a,  e,  etc.)  occur  sometimes  as  long  and  sometimes  as  short. 

Note.  — The  Romans  sometimes  marked  vowel  length  by  a  stroke  above  the  letter 
(called  an  apex),  as,  A ;  and  sometimes  the  vowel  was  doubled  to  indicate  length.  An 
r  made  higher  than  the  other  letters  was  occasionally  used  for  i.  But  none  of  these 
devices  came  into  general  use. 


6  WORDS  AND   FORMS  L§  ^1 

11.  The  Quantity  of  the  Syllable  is  important  for  the  position 
of  the  accent  and  in  versification. 

a.  A  syllable  containing  a  long  vowel  or  a  diphthong  is  said  to  be  long 
by  nature :  as,  ma-ter,  aes,  au-la-. 

b,  A  syllable  containing  a  short  vowel  followed  by  two  consonants 
(except  a  mute  before  1  or  r)  or  by  a  double  consonant  (x,  z)  is  said  to  be 
long  hy  position,  but  the  vowel  is  pronounced  short :  as,  est,  ter-ra,  sax-um, 
Me-zen-tius. 

Note. — "When  a  consonant  is  doubled  the  pronunciation  should  show  this  dis- 
tinctly. Thus  in  mit-to  both  t's  should  be  pronounced  as  in  out-talk  (not  merely  a 
single  t  as  in  better). 

c,  A  syllable  containing  a  short  vowel  followed  by  a  mute  before  1  or  r 
is  properly  short,  but  may  be  used  as  long  in  verse.  Such  a  syllable  is  said 
to  be  common. 

Note  1.  —  In  syllables  long  by  position,  but  having  a  short  vowel,  the  length  is 
partly  due  to  the  first  of  the  consonants,  which  stands  in  the  same  syllable  with  the 
vowel.  In  syllables  of  "  common  "  quantity  (as  the  first  syllable  of  patrem)  the  ordi- 
nary pronunciation  was  pa-trem,  but  in  verse  pat-rem  was  allowed  so  that  the  syllable 
could  become  long. 

Note  2.  — In  final  syllables  ending  with  a  consonant,  and  containing  a  short  vowel, 
the  quantity  in  verse  is  determined  by  the  following  word :  if  this  begins  with  a  vowel 
the  final  consonant  is  joined  to  it  in  pronunciation ;  if  it  begins  with  a  consonant  the 
syllable  is  long  by  position. 

Note  3.  — In  rules  for  quantity  h  is  not  counted  as  a  consonant,  nor  is  the  appar- 
ently consonantal  u  in  qu,  gu,  su  (see  §  5.  n.  2). 

d,  A  syllable  whose  vowel  is  a,  e,  o,  or  u,  followed  by  consonant  i,  is 
long  whether  the  vowel  itself  is  long  or  short :  as,  a-io,  ma-ior,  pe-ius. 

In  such  cases  the  length  of  the  syllable  is  indicated  in  this  book  by  a 
circumflex  on  the  vowel. 

Note.  —  The  length  of  a  syllable  before  consonant  i  is  due  to  a  transitional  sound 
(vowel  i)  which  forms  a  diphthong  with  the  preceding  vowel:  as,  a-i5  (for  t3^i-io)j 
mS-ior  (for  fmal-ior).    See  §  6.  c. 

e.  In  some  compounds  of  iaci5  (as,  in-icio)  the  consonant  i  of  the  simple 
verb  was  probably  pronounced  (though  not  written).  Thus  the  first  syl- 
lable was  long  by  position :  as,  in-icio  (for  in-iicio).     See  %  Q.  d. 

In  such  cases  the  length  of  the  syllable  is  not  indicated  in  this  book  by 
a  circumflex  on  the  vowel. 

/.  When  a  syllable  is  long  by  position  the  quantity  of  the  vowel  is  not 
always  determinable.  The  vowel  should  be  pronounced  short  unless  it  is 
known  to  be  long. 

Note.  —  The  quantity  of  a  vowel  under  these  circumstances  is  said  to  be  hidden. 
It  is  often  determined  with  a  greater  or  less  degree  of  certainty  by  inscriptional  evi- 
dence (see  §  10.  N.)  or  by  other  means.  In  this  book,  the  quantity  of  all  such  vowels 
known  to  be  long  is  marked. 


12-14]  ACCENT 


Accent 

12.  Words  of  two  syllables  are  accented  on  the  first  syllable : 
as,  Ro'ma,  fi'des,  tan'go. 

Words  of  more  than  two  syllables  are  accented  on  the  Penult  ^ 
if  that  is  long  (as,  ami'cus,  mone'tur,  contin'git) ;  otherwise  on  the 
Antepenult  (as,  do'minus,  a'lScris,  dissocia'bilis). 

a.  When  an  enclitic  is  joined  to  a  word,  the  accent  falls  on  the  syllable 
next  before  the  enclitic,  whether  long  or  short :  as,  dea'que,  amare've,  tibi'ne, 
ita'que  (and  .  .  .  so),  as  distinguished  from  i'taque  (therefore).  So  (accord- 
ing to  some)  ex'inde,  ec'quando,  etc. 

Exceptions :  1.  Certain  apparent  compounds  of  facio  retain  the  accent  of  the 
simple  verb :  as,  benef a'cit,  calef a'cit  (see  §  266.  a) . 
Note.  — These  were  not  true  compounds,  but  phrases. 

2.  In  the  second  declension  the  genitive  and  vocative  of  nouns  in  -ius  and  the 
genitive  of  those  in  -ium  retaui  the  accent  of  the  nominative  :  as,  Come'li,  Vergi'li, 
inge'ni  (see  §  49.  c). 

3.  Certain  words  which  have  lost  a  final  vowel  retain  the  accent  of  the  com- 
plete words  :  as,  illi'c  for  illi'ce,  produce  for  produce,  sati'n  for  sati'sne. 

Combinations 

13.  In  some  cases  adjacent  words,  being  pronounced  together, 
are  written  as  one  :  — 

unusquisque  (unus  quisque),  siquis  (si  quis),  quare  (qua  re),  quamobrem  (quam 
ob  rem ;  cf .  quas  ob  res),  respublica  (res  publica),  iusiurandum  (ius  iurandum), 
paterfamilias  (pater  familias). 

Note.  —  Sometimes  a  slight  change  in  pronimciation  resulted,  as,  especially  in  the 
old  poets,  before  est  in  homost  (homo  est) ,  periculumst  (periculum  est) ,  ausust  (ausus  est) , 
qualist  (qualis  est).  Similarly  there  occur  vin*,  scin'  for  visne,  scisne,  sis  (si  vis),  sodes 
(si  audes),  sultis  (si  vultis).  Compare  in  English  somebody,  to  breakfast;  he  's,  I've, 
thou  'rt. 

Phonetic  Changes 

14.  Latin,  the  language  of  the  ancient  Romans,  was  properly,  as  its  name  implies, 
the  language  spoken  in  the  plain  of  Latium,  lying  south  of  the  Tiber,  which  was  the  first 
territory  occupied  and  governed  by  the  Romans.  It  is  a  descendant  of  an  early  form 
of  speech  commonly  called  Indo-European  (by  some  Indo-Germanic) ,  from  which 
are  also  descended  most  of  the  important  languages  now  in  use  in  Europe,  including 
among  others  English,  German,  the  Slavic  and  the  Celtic  languages,  and  further  some 
now  or  formerly  spoken-  in  Asia,  as  Sanskrit,  Persian,  Armenian.    Greek  likewise 

1  The  Penult  is  the  last  syllable  but  one ;  the  Antepenult,  the  last  but  two. 


8  WORDS  AND   FORMS  [§§  14,  16 

belongs  to  the  same  family.  The  Romance  (or  Romanic)  languages,  of  which  the 
most  important  are  Italian,  French,  Provencal,  Spanish,  Portuguese,  and  Roumanian, 
are  modern  descendants  of  spoken  Latin. 

The  earliest  known  forms  of  Latin  are  preserved  in  a  few  inscriptions.  These  in- 
crease in  number  as  we  approach  the  time  when  the  language  began  to  be  used  in  litera- 
ture; thaLlSj  aliouj;  b,c.  250.  ,  It  is  the  comparatively  stable  language  of  the  classical 
period  (b.c.  80-a.d.  14)  that  is  ordinarily  meant  when  we  speak  of  Latin,  and  it  is 
mainly  this  that  is  described  in  this  book. 

15.  Among  the  main  features  in  the  changes  of  Latin  from 
the  earliest  stages  of  the  language  as  we  know  it  up  to  the  forms 
of  classical  Latin  may  be  mentioned  the  following ;  — 

Vowel  Changes 

1.  The  old  diphthong  ai  became  the  classical  ae  (aedHis  for  old  aidilis), 
old  oi  became  oe  or  u  (unus  for  old  oinos),  and  old  ou  became  u  (diic5  for 
old  douco). 

2.  In  compound  verbs  the  vowel  a  of  the  simple  verb  often  appears  as  i 
or  e,  and  ae  similarly  appears  as  i :  — 

facio,  factum,  but  c6nfici5,  confectum ;  caed5,  but  occido,  and  similarly  cecidi, 
perfect  of  caed5  (cf.  cado,  occido ;  cecidi,  perfect  of  cado). 

Note. — This  change  is  commonly  ascribed  to  an  accentuation  on  the  first  syl- 
lable, which  seems  to  have  been  the  rule  in  Latin  before  the  rule  given  above  (see  §  12) 
became  established.  The  original  Indo-European  accent,  however,  was  not  limited  by 
either  of  these  principles ;  it  was  probably  a  musical  accent  so-called,  consisting  in  a 
change  of  pitch,  and  not  merely  in  a  more  forcible  utterance  of  the  accented  syllable. 

3.  Two  vowels  coming  together  are  often  contracted  :  — 

cogo  for  tco-ago;   promo  for  tpro-em5;   nil  for  nihil;   debeo  for   tde-hibeo 
(tde-habe5). 

Consonant  Changes 

4.  An  old  s  regularly  became  r  between  two  vowels  (rhotacisrn),  passing 
first  through  the  sound  of  (English)  z :  — 

eram  (cf.  est);  generis,  genitive  of  genus. i 

Note. — Final  s  sometimes  became  r  by  analogy:  as,  honor  (older  honos),  from  the 
analogy  of  honoris,  etc. 

5.  A  dental  (t,  d)  often  became  s,  especially  when  standing  next  to  t,  d, 
or  8 :  as,  equestris  for  fequettris,  casus  for  fcadtus  (cf .  6,  below). 

6.  Many  instances  of  assimilation,  partial  or  complete,  are  found :  — 

cessi  for  tced-sl ;  summus  for  tsupmus  ;  scriptus  for  scribtus  (b  unvoicing  to 
p  before  the  voiceless  t);  and  in  compound  verbs  (see  §  16). 

1  A  similar  change  can  ho  seen  in  English;  as,  loere  (cf.  was),  lorn  (cf.  lose). 


§§  15-17]  VOWEL  VARIATIONS  9 

Dissimilation,  the  opposite  kind  of  change,  prevented  in  some  cases  the 
repetition  of  the  same  sound  in  succcessive  syllables  :  — 

Thus,  parilia  for  pamia(from  Pale§) ;  meridies  for  jmedidiesj  naturalis  with  suffix 
-alis  (after  r),  but  populayis  with  -aris  (after  1). 

7.  Final  s  was  in  early  Latin  not  always  pronounced :  as,  plenu(s)  fidM. 
Note. — Traces  of  this  pronunciation  existed  in  Cicero's  time.   He  speaks  of  the  omis- 
sion of  final  s  hef  ore  a  word  beginning  with  a  consonant  as ' '  countrified ' '  (subrusticum) . 

8.  A  final  consonant  often  disappears :    as,  virg5  for  f virg5n ;  lag  for 
flact ;  cor  for  f cord. 

9.  G,  c,  and  h  unite  with  a  following  s  to  form  x  :  as,  rex  for  fregs ;  dux 
for  f dues  ;  traxi  for  f trahsi.^ 

10.  G  and  h  before  t  become  c :  as,  rectum  for  fregtum ;  actum  for  fagtum ; 
tractum  for  ftrahtum.^ 

11.  Between  m  and  s  or  m  and  t,  a  p  is  often  developed :  as,  siimpsi  for 
f sumsi ;  emptum  for  f emtum. 

16.  In  compounds  with  prepositions  the  final  consonant  in  the  preposition  was  often 
assimilated  to  the  following  consonant,  but  usage  varied  considerably. 

There  is  good  authority  for  many  complete  or  partial  assimilations ;  as,  for  ad, 
aoc-,  agg-,  app-,  att-,  instead  of  adc-,  adg-,  etc.  Before  a  labial  consonant  we  find  com- 
(comb-,  comp-,  comm-),  hut  con:^  is  the  form  before  c,  d,  f,  g,  cons,  i,  q,  s,  t,  cons,  v ;  we 
find  conl-  or  coll-,  conr-  or  corr-;  co-  in  conecto,  coniveo,  conitor,  conubium.  In  usually 
changes  to  ira-  before  p,  b,  m.  Ob  and  sub  may  assimilate  b  to  a  following  c,  f,  g,  or 
p ;  before  s  and  t  the  pronunciation  of  prepositions  ending  in  b  doubtless  had  p ;  surr-, 
summ-,  occur  for  subr-,  subm-.  The  inseparable  amb-  loses  b  before  a  consonant. 
Circum  often  loses  its  m  before  i.  The  s  of  dis  becomes  r  before  a  vowel  and  is  assimi- 
lated to  a  following  f ;  sometimes  this  prefix  appears  as  di-.  Instead  of  ex  we  find  ef- 
before  f  (also  ecf-) .  The  d  of  red  and  sed  is  generally  lost  before  a  consonant.  The 
preposition  is  better  left  unchauged  in  most  other  cases. 

VQwel  Variations 

17.  The  parent  language  showed  great  variation  in  the  vowel 
sounds  of  kindred  words.^ 

a.  This  variation  is  often  called  by  the  German  name  Ablaut.  It  has 
left  considerable  traces  in  the  forms  of  Latin  words,  appearing  sometimes 
as  a  diiference  of  quantity  in  the  same  vowel  (as,  u,  u ;  e,  e),  sometimes  as  a 
difference  in  the  vowel  itself  (as,  f ,  o ;  i,  ae)  :  *  — 

tego,  I  cover,  toga,  a  robe ;  pend5, 1  weigh,  pondus,  weight;  fidee,  faith,  fidus, 
faithful,  foedus,  a  treaty ;  miser,  wretched,  maestus,  sad ;  dare,  to  give, 
donum,  a  gift;  regS,  I  rule,  rex,  a  king;  dux,  a  leader,  duco  (for  older 
douco),  I  lead.  Compare  English  drive,  drove  (drave),  driven ;  bind,  bound, 
band ;  sing,  sang,  sung ;  etc. 

1  Really  for  ftraglisi.    The  h  of  traho  represents  an  older  palatal  sound  (see  §  19) . 

2  Really  for  ftraghtum.     These  are  cases  of  partial  assimilation  (cf .  6,  above) . 

8  This  variation  was  not  without  regularity,  but  was  confined  within  definite  limits. 
^  In  Greek,  however,  it  is  more  extensively  preserved. 


10  WORDS  AND   FORMS  [§§  18,  19 


Kindred  Forms 

18.  Both  Latin  and  English  have  gone  through  a  series  of  phonetic  changes,  dif- 
ferent in  the  two  languages,  but  following  definite  laws  in  each.  Hence  both  pre- 
serve traces  of  the  older  speech  in  some  features  of  the  vowel  system,  and  both  show 
certain  correspondences  in  consonants  in  words  which  each  language  has  inherited  from 
the  old  common  stock.    Only  a  few  of  these  correspondences  can  be  mentioned  here. 

19.  The  most  important  correspondences  in  consonants  between 
Latin  and  English,  in  cognate  words,  may  be  seen  in  the  following 

table:  —  ! 

Latin  English 

p  :  pater  f :  foAher^  earlier  fader  ^ 

f  from  bh :  fero,  f rater  b :  to  bear,  brother 

b     "      "     lubet,  libet  v,  f :  love,  Hef 

t :  tu,  tenuis  th :  thou,  thin  ^ 

d:  duo,  dent-  t:  two,  tooth 

f  from  dh  :  f acio  di  do 

d     "      "     medius  d:  mid 

b     "      "     ruber  d:  red 

c :  cord-,  comu  h :  heart,  horn 

qu  :  quod  wh :  what 

g :  genus,  gustus  c,  k,  ch  :  kin,  choose 

h  (from  gh):  hortus,  haedus  y,  g:  yard,  goat 

cons,  i :  iugum  y  :  yoke 

V :  ventus,  ovis  w :  wind,  ewe 

V  from  gv :  vivus  (for  tgvivos),  1  ,  •  ? 

.-  /r      J.  .-N  t  qu,  c,  k:  quick,  come 

vemo  (for  tgvemio).  J 

Note  1.  —  Sometimes  a  consonant  lost  in  Latin  is  still  represented  in  English:  as, 
niv-  (for  fsniv-),  Eng.  snow ;  anser  (for  fhanser),  Eng.  goose. 

Note  2.  —  From  these  cases  of  kindred  words  in  Latin  and  English  must  be  care- 
fully distinguished  those  cases  in  which  the  Latin  word  has  been  taken  into  English  either 
directly  or  through  some  one  of  the  modern  descendants  of  Latin,  especially  French. 
Thus  facio  is  kindred  with  Eng.  do,  but  from  the  Latin  participle  (factum)  of  this  verb 
comes  "Eng.  fact,  and  from  the  French  descendant  (fait)  of  factum  comes  Eng.  feat. 

1  The  Indo-European  parent  speech  had  amoug  its  consonants  voiced  aspirates 
(bh,  dh,  gh).  All  these  suffered  change  in  Latin,  the  most  important  results  being, 
for  bh,  Latin  f,  b  (English  has  b,  v,  or  f) ;  for  dh,  Latin  f,  b,  d  (English  has  d) ;  for  gh, 
Latin  h,  g  (English  has  y,  g).  The  other  mutes  suffered  in  Latin  much  less  change, 
while  in  English,  as  in  the  other  Germanic  languages,  they  have  all  changed  consid- 
erably in  accordance  with  wh9,t  has  been  called  Grimm's  Law  for  the  shifting  of  mutes. 

2  The  th  in  father  is  a  late  development.  The  older  iorm  fader  seems  to  show  an 
exception  to  the  rule  that  English  th  corresponds  to  Latin  t.  The  primitive  Germanic 
form  was  doubtless  in  accordance  with  this  rule,  but,  on  account  of  the  position  of  the 
accent,  which  in  Germanic  was  not  originally  on  the  first  syllable  in  this  word,  the 
consonant  underwent  a  secondary  change  to  d. 

3  But  to  the  group  st  of  Latin  corresponds  also  English  st ;  as  in  Latin  sto,  English 
stand. 


§20]  THE  PARTS   OF   SPEECH  11 


THE  PARTS   OF  SPEECH 

20.  Words  are  divided  into  eight  Parts  of  Speech:  Nouns, 
Adjectives  (including  Participles),  Pronouns,  Verbs,  Adverbs, 
Prepositions,  Conjunctions,  and  Interjections. 

a,  A  Noun  is  the  name  of  a  person,  place,  thing,  or  idea :  as,  Caesar ; 
Roma,  Rome  ;  domus,  a  house  ;  virtus,  virtue. 

Names  of  particular  persons  and  places  are  called  Proper  Nouns  ;  other 
nouns  are  called  Common. 

Note.  —  An  Abstract  Noim  is  the  name  of  a  quality  or  idea :  as,  audacia,  boldness ; 
senectus,  old  age.  A  Collective  Noun  is  the  name  of  a  group,  class,  or  the  like :  as,  turba, 
crowd;  exercitus,  army. 

b,  An  Adjective  is  a  word  that  attributes  a  quahty :  as,  bonus,  good; 
fortis,  bi'ave,  strong. 

Note  1.  —  A  Participle  is  a  word  that  attributes  quality  like  an  adjective,  but,  being 
derived  from  a  verb,  retains  in  some  degree  the  power  of  the  verb  to  assert:  as, — 
Caesar  consul  creatus,  Csesar  having  been  elected  consul. 

Note  2.  —  Etymologically  there  is  no  difference  between  a  noun  and  an  adjective, 
both  being  formed  alike.  So,  too,  all  names  originally  attribute  quality,  and  any  com- 
mon name  can  still  be  so  used.  Thus,  King  William  distinguishes  this  WiUiam  from 
other  Williams,  by  the  attribute  of  royalty' expressed  in  the  name  king. 

c,  A  Pronoun  is  a  word  used  to  distinguish  a  person,  place,  thing,  or 
idea  without  either  naming  or  describing  it :  as,  is,  he ;  qui,  who  ;  nos,  we. 

Nouns  and  pronouns  are  often  called  Substantives. 

d,  A  Verb  is  a  word  which  is  capable  of  asserting  something :  as,  sum, 
/  am ;  amat,  he  loves. 

Note.  —  In  all  modern  speech  the  verb  is  usually  the  only  word  that  asserts  any- 
thing, and  a  verb  is  therefore  supposed  to  be  necessary  to  complete  an  assertion. 
Strictly,  however,  any  adjective  or  noun  may,  by  attributing  a  quality  or  giving  a 
name,  make  a  complete  assertion.  In  the  infancy  of  language  there  could  have  been 
no  other  means  of  asserting,  as  the  verb  is  of  comparatively  late  development. 

e,  An  Adverb  is  a  word  used  to  express  the  time,  place,  or  manner  of 
an  assertion  or  attribute  :  as,  splendide  mendax,  gloriously  false  ;  hodie  natus 
est,  he  was  born  to-day. 

Note.  —  These  same  functions  are  often  performed  by  cases  (see  §§  214-217)  of 
nouns,  pronouns,  and  adjectives,  and  by  phrases  or  sentences.  In  fact,  all  adverbs 
were  originally  cases  or  phrases,  but  have  become  specialized  by  use. 

/.  A  Preposition  is  a  word  which  shows  the  relation  between  a  noun  or 
pronoun  and  some  other  word  or  words  in  the  same  sentence  :  as,  per  agros 
it,  he  goes  over  the  fields  ;  e  pliiribus  iinum,  one  out  of  many. 

Note.  —  Most  prepositions  are  specialized  adverbs  (cf.  §  219).  The  relations  ex- 
pressed by  prepositions  were  earlier  expressed  by  case-endings. 


12  WORDS  AND   FORMS  [§§  20-22 

gr.  A  Conjunction  is  a  word  which  connects  words,  or  groups  of  words, 
without  affecting  tlieh'  grammatical  relations :  as,  et,  and  ;  sed,  but. 

Note.  — Some  adrerbs  are  also  used  as  connectives.  These  are  called  Adverbial 
Conjunctions  or  Conjunctive  (Relative)  Adverbs:  as,  ubi,  where f  donee,  untU. 

ho  Interjections  are  mere  exclamations  and  are  not  strictly  to  be  classed 
as  parts  of  speech.     Thus,  —  heus,  Tialloo  !  5,  oh  ! 

Note.  — Interjections  sometimes  express  an  emotion  which  affects  a  person  or  thing 
mentioned,  and  so  have  a  grammatical  connection  like  other  words :  as,  vae  victis,  woe 
to  the  conqitered  (alas  fpr  the  conquered)  1 

INFLECTION 

21.  Latin  is  an  inflected  language. 

Inflection  is  a  change  made  in  the  form  of  a  word  to  show  its 
grammatical  relations. 

a.  Inflectional  changes  sometimes  take  place  in  the  body  of  a  word,  or 
at  the  beginning,  but  oftener  in  its  termination  ;  -^ 

vox,  a  voice  ;  vocis,  of  a  voice ;  voco,  I  call ;  vocat,  he  ealls  ;  vocet,  let  him  call ; 
vocavit,  he  has  called^  tangit,  he  touches^  tetigit,  he  touched. 

h.  Terminations  of  inflection  had  originally  independent  meanings  which 
are  now  obscured.  They  correspond  nearly  to  the  use  of  prepositions, 
auxiliaries,  and  personal  pronouns  in  English. 

Thus,  in  vocat,  the  termination  is  equivalent  to  he  or  she;  in  vocis,  to  the 
preposition  of;  and  in  vocet  the  change  pf  vowel  signifies  a  change  of  mood. 

c.  Inflectional  changes  in  the  body  of  a  verb  usually  denote  relations  of 
tense  or  mood,  and  often  correspond  to  the  use  of  auxiliary  verbs  in  Eng- 
lish:— 

f rangit,  he  breaks  or  is  breaking ;  fregit,  he  broke  or  has  broken ;  mordet,  he 
bites;  momordit,  he  bit,'^ 

22.  The  inflection  of  Nouns,  Adjectives,  Pronouns,  and  Par- 
ticiples to  denote  gender,  number,  and  case  is  caUed  Declension, 
and  these  parts  of  speech  are  said  to  be  declined. 

.  The  inflection  of  Verbs  to  denote  voice,  mood,  tense,  number, 
and  person  is  called  Conjugation,  and  the  verb  is  said  to  be  con- 
jugated. 

Note.  —  Adjectives  are  often  said  to  have  inflections  of  comparison.  These  are, 
however,  properly  stem-formations  made  by  derivation  (p.  55,  footnote), 

1  The  only  proper  inflections  of  verbs  are  those  of  the  personal  endings ;  and  the 
changes  here  referred  to  are  strictly  changes  of  stem,  but  have  become  a  part  of  the 
system  of  inflections. 


§§23-25]  ROd^r,  STEM,  AND  BASE  18 

23.  Adverbs,  Prepositions,  Conjunctions,  and  Interjections  are 
not  inflected  and  are  called  Particles. 

Note.  —  The  term  Particle  is  sometimes  limited  to  such  words  as  num,  -ne,  an  (inter- 
rogative), non,  ne  (negative),  si  (conditional),  etc.,  which  are  used  simply  to  indicate 
the  form  or  construction  of  a  sentence 

Root,  Stem,  and  Base 

24.  The  body  of  a  word,  to  which  the  terminations  are  attached, 
is  called  the  Stem. 

The  Stem  contains  the  idea  of  the  word  without  relations ;  but,  except 
in  the  first  part  of  a  compound  (as,  arti-fex,  artificer),  it  cannot  ordinarily  be 
used  without  some  te:rmination  to  express  them.i 

Thus  the  stem  voc-  denotes  voice;  y/ith  -s  added  it  becomes  vox,  a  voice  or  the 
voice,  as  the  subject  or  agent  of  an  action  ;  with  -is  it  becomes  vocis,  and  signifies 
of  a  voice. 

Note.  —  The  stem  is  in  many  forms  so  united  with  the  termination  that  a  compari- 
son with  other  forms  is  necessary  to  determine  it. 

25.  A  Root  is  the  simplest  form  attainable  by  analysis  of  a 
word  into  its  component  parts. 

Such  a  form  contains  the  main  idea  of  the  word  in  a  very  general  sense, 
and  is  common  also  to  other  words  either  in  the  same  language  or  in  kin- 
dred languages.2 

Thus  the  root  of  the  stem  voc-  is  voc,  which  does  not  mean  to  call,  or  I  call, 
or  calling,  but  merely  expresses  vaguely  the  idea  of  calling,  and  cannot  be  used 
as  a  part  of  speech  without  terminations.  With  a-  it  becomes  voca-,  the  stem  of 
vocare  (to  call) ;  with  av-  it  is  the  stem  of  vocavit  (he  called) ;  with  ato-  it  becomes 
the  stem  of  vocatus  (called) ;  with  ation-  it  becomes  the  stem  of  vocationis  (of  a 
calling).  With  its  vowel  lengthened  it  becomes  the  stem  of  vox,  v6c-is  (a  voice  : 
that  by  which  we  call).  This  stem  voc-,  with  -alls  added,  means  belonging  to  a 
voice ;  with  -iila,  a  little  voice. 

Note.  — In  inflected  languages,  words  are  built  up  from  Roots,  which  at  a  very 
early  time  were  used  alone  to  express  ideas,  as  is  now  done  in  Chinese.  Roots  are 
modified  into  Stems,  which,  by  inflection,  become  fully  formed  words.  The  process  by 
which  roots  are  modified,  in  the  various  forms  of  derivatives  and  compounds,  is  called 
Stem-building.  The  whole  of  this  process  is  ori.sinally  one  of  composition,  by  which 
significant  endings  are  added  one  after  another  to  forms  capable  of  pronunciation  and 
conveying  a  meaning. 

Roots  had  long  ceased  to  be  recognized  as  such  before  the  Latin  existed  as  a  sepa^ 
rate  language.  Consequently  the  forms  which  we  assume  as  Latin  roots  never  really 
existed  in  Latin,  but  are  the  representatives  of  forms  used  earlier. 

1  Another  exception  is  the  imperative  second  person  singular  in  -e  (as,  rege). 

2  For  example,  the  root  sta  is  found  in  the  Sanskrit  tishthdmi,  Greek  ia-TTjfj.i,  Latin 
sistere  aad  stare,  German  ftc^en,  and  Ilngiish  stand. 


14  WORDS  AND   FORMS  [§§26-30 

26.  The  Stem  maybe  the  same  as  the  root:  as  in  due-is,  q/"  a  leader^ 
fer-t,  he  hears;  but  it  is  more  frequently  formed  from  the  root — 

1.  By  changing  or  lengthening  its  vowel :  as  in  scob-s,  sawdust  (scab, 
shave)',  reg-is,  of  a  king  (reg,  direct);  voc-is,  of  a  voice  (voc,  call). 

2.  By  the  addition  of  a  simple  suffix  (originally  another  root) ;  as  in  fuga-. 
stem  of  fuga,  Jlight  (fug  +  a-)  ;  regi-s,  you  rule  (reg  +  stem-ending  %-) ; 
sini-t,  he  allows  (si  +  nVo")-^ 

3.  By  two  or  more  of  these  methods :  as  in  duci-t,  he  leads  (dug  +  stem- 
ending  %-). 

4.  By  derivation  and  composition,  following  the  laws  of  development 
peculiar  to  the  language.     (See  §§  227  ff.) 

27.  The  Base  is  that  part  of  a  word  which  is  unchanged  in 
inflection :   as,  serv-  in  servus ;  mens-  in  mgnsa ;  ign-  in  ignis. 

a»  The  Base  and  the  Stem  are  often  identical,  as  in  many  consonant 
stems  of  nouns  (as,  reg-  in  reg-is).  If,  however,  the  stem  ends  in  a  vowel, 
the  latter  does  not  appear  in  the  base,  but  is  variously  combined  with  the 
inflectional  termination.  Thus  the  stem  of  servus  is  servo-;  that  of  mensa, 
mensa- ;  that  of  ignis,  igni-. 

28.  Inflectional  terminations  are  variously  modified  by  com- 
bination with  the  final  vowel  or  consonant  of  the  Stem,  and  thus 
the  various  forms  of  Declension  and  Conjugation  (see  §§  36, 164) 
developed. 

GENDER 

29.  The  Genders  distinguished  in  Latin  are  three :  Masculine, 
Feminine,  and  Neuter. 

30.  The  gender  of  Latin  nouns  is  either  natural  or  grammatical. 
a,  Natural  Gender  is  distinction  as  to  the  sex  of  the  object  denoted :  as, 

puer  (m.),  boy;  puella  (f.),  girl;  rex  (m.),  king;  regina  (f.),  queen. 

Note  1.  —  Many  nouns  have  both  a  masculine  and  a  feminine  form  to  distinguish 
sex:  as,  cervus,  cerva,  stag,  doe;  cliens,  clienta,  client;  victor,  victrix,  conqueror. 

Many  designations  of  persons  (as  nauta,  sailor)  usually  though  not  necessarily  male 
are  always  treated  as  masculine.  Similarly  names  of  tribes  andpeop^e*  are  masculine : 
as,  Romani,  the  Romans;  Persae,  the  Persians. 

Note  2.  —  A  few  neuter  nouns  are  used  to  designate  persons  as  belonging  to  a  class : 
as,  mancipium  tuum,  your  slave  (your  chattel). 

Many  pet  names  of  girls  and  boys  are  neuter  in  form :  as,  Paegnium,  Glycerium. 

Note  3.  —  Names  of  classes  or  collections  of  persons  may  be  of  any  gender:  as, 
exercitus  (m.),  acies  (f.),  and  agmen  (n.),  army;  operae  (f.  plur.),  loorkmen;  c5piae 
(f.  plur.),  troops;  senatus  (m.),  senate;  cohors  (f.),  cohort;  concilium  (n.),  council. 

1  These  suflfixes  are  Indo-European  stem-endings. 


§§  30-34]  GENERAL   RULES   OF  GENDER  15 

b.  Grammatical  Gender  is  a  formal  distinction  as  to  sex  where  no  actual 
sex  exists  in  the  object.  It  is  shown  by  the  form  of  the  adjective  joined 
with  the  noun:  as,  lapis  magnus  (m.),  a  great  stone;  manus  mea  (f.),  my 
hand. 

General  Rules  of  Gender 

31.  Names  of  Male  beings,  and  of  Kivers,  Winds,  Months,  and 

Mountains,  are  maseulme:  — 

pater,  father;  luhus,  Julius;  Tiberis,  the  Tiber;  auster,  south  wind;  lanua- 
rius,  January ;  Apenninus,  the  Apennines. 

Note.  —  Names  of  Months  are  properly  adjectives,  the  masculine  noun  mensis, 
month,  being  understood :  as,  lanuarius,  January. 

a»  A  few  names  of  Rivers  ending  in  -a  (as,  Allia),  with  the  Greek  names 
Lethe  and  Styx,  are  feminine ;  others  are  variable  or  uncertain. 

&.  Some  names  of  Mountains  are  feminine  or  neuter,  taking  the  gender 
of  their  termination :  as,  Alpes  (f.),  the  Alps;  Soracte  (n.). 

32.  Names  of  Female  beings,  of  Cities,  Countries,  Plants,  Trees, 
and  Gems,  of  many  Animals  (especially  Birds),  and  of  most  ab- 
stract Qualities,  d^vQ  feminine :  — 

mater,  mother;  lulia,  Julia;  Roma,  Rome;  Italia,  Italy ;  rosa,  rose;  pinus, 
pine;  sapphirus,  sapphire;  anas,  duck;  Veritas,  truth. 

a.  Some  names  of  Towns  and  Countries  are  masculine  :  as,  Sulmo,  Gabii 
(plm\)  ;  or  neuter,  as,  Tarentum,  Illyricum. 

b,  A  few  names  of  Plants  and  Gems  follow  the  gender  of  their  termina- 
tion :  as,  centaureum  (n.),  centaury;  acanthus  (m.),  bearsfoot ;  opalus  (m.), 
opal. 

Note.' — The  gender  of  most  of  the  above  may  also  be  recognized  by  the  termina- 
tions, according  to  the  rules  given  under  the  several  declensions.  The  names  of  Roman 
women  were  usually  feminine  adjectives  denoting  their  gens  or  house  (see  §  108.  b). 

33.  Indeclinable  nouns,  infinitives,  terms  or  phrases  used  as 
nouns,  and  words  quoted  merely  for  their  form,  are  neuter :  — 

fas,  right;   nihil,  nothing;   gummi,  gum;   scire  tuum,  your  knowledge   (to 
know) ;  triste  vale,  a  sad  farewell ;  hoc  ipsum  diu,  this  very  "  long.''"' 

34.  Many  nouns  may  be  either  masculine  or  feminine,  accord- 
ing to  the  sex  of  the  object.  These  are  said  to  be  of  Common 
Gender:  as,  exsul,  exile;  bos,  ox  or  cow;  yarens^  parent. 

Note. — Several  names  of  animals  have  a  grammatical  gender,  independent  of  sex. 
These  are  called  epicene.  Thus  lepus,  hare,  is  always  masculine,  and  vulpes,  fox,  is 
always  feminine. 


16  DECLENSION   OF  NOUNS  [§§36-37 

NUMBER  AND   CASE 

35.  Nouns,  Pronouns,  Adjectives,  and  Participles  are  declined 
in  two  Numbers,  singular  and  plural;  and  in  six  Cases,  nomina- 
tive^ genitive^  dative^  accusative^  ablative,  vocative, 

a»  The  Nominative  is  the  case  of  the  Subject  of  a  sentence. 
h.  The  Genitive  may  generally  be  translated  by  the  English  Possessive, 
or  by  the  Objective  with  the  preposition  of. 

c.  The  Dative  is  the  case  of  the  Indirect  Object  (§  274).  It  may  usually 
be  translated  by  the  Objective  with  the  preposition  to  ov  for. 

d.  The  Accusative  is  the  case  of  the'  Direct  Object  of  a  verb  (§  274).  It 
is  used  also  with  many  of  the  prepositions. 

e.  The  Ablative  may  usually  be  translated  by  the  Objective  with  from, 
by,  with,  in,  or  at.     It  is  often  used  with  prepositions. 

/.  The  Vocative  is  the  case  of  Direct  Address. 

g.  All  the  cases,  except  the  nominative  and  vocative,  are  used  as  object- 
cases ;  and  are  sometimes  called  Oblique  Cases  (pasus  ohhqui). 

h.  In  names  of  towns  and  a  few  other  words  appear  traces  of  another 
case  (the  Locative),  denoting  the  place  where :  as,  Romae,  at  Rome ;  ran,  in 
the  country. 

Note.  —  Still  another  case,  the  Instrumental,  appears  in  a  few  adverbs  (§  215.  4). 

DECLENSION   OF  NOUNS 

36.  Declension  is  produced  by  adding  terminations  originally  significant  to  differ- 
ent forms  of  stems,  vowel  or  consonant.  The  various  phonetic  corruptions  in  the  lan- 
guage have  given  rise  to  the  several  declensions.  Most  of  the  case-endings,  as  given 
in  Latin,  contain  also  the  final  letter  of  the  stem. 

Adjectives  are,  in  general,  declined  like  nouns,  and  are  etyraologically  to  be  classed 
with  them ;  but  they  have  several  peculiarities  of  inflection  (see  §  109  ff .) . 

37.  Nouns  are  inflected  in  five  Declensions,  distinguished  by 
the  final  letter  {characteristic)  of  the  Stem,  and  by  the  case-ending 
of  the  Genitive  Singular. 


Decl.  1 

Characteristic  a                               Gen.  Sing,  ae 

2 

6                                               1 

3 

i  or  a  Consonant                      is 

4 

ii                                                  us 

5 

e                                                   ei 

a.  The  Stem  of  a  noun  may  be  found,  if  a  consonant  stem,  by  omitting 
the  case-ending ;  if  a  vowel  stem,  by  substituting  for  the  case-ending  the 
characteristic  vowel. 


§§  38,  39]      CASE-ENDINGS  OF  THE   FIVE   DECLENSIONS  17 

38.  The  following  are  General  Rules  of  Declension :  — 

a.  The  Vocative  is  always  the  same  as  the  Nominative,  except  in  the 
singular  of  nouns  and  adjectives  in  -us  of  the  second  declension,  which  have 
-e  in  the  vocative.  It  is  not  included  in  the  paradigms,  unless  it  differs 
from  the  nominative. 

h.  In  neuters  the  Nominative  and  Accusative  are  always  alike,  and  in 
the  plural  end  in  -a. 

c.  The  Accusative  singular  of  all  masculines  and  feminines  ends  in  -m ; 
the  Accusative  plural  in  -s. 

dm  In  the  last  three  declensions  (and  in  a  few  cases  in  the  others)  the 
Dative  singular  ends  in  -i. 

e.  The  Dative  and  Ablative  plural  are  always  alike. 

/.  The  Genitive  plural  always  ends  in  -um. 

g»  Final  -1,  -o,  -u  of  inflection  are  always  long  ;  final  -a  is  short,  except  in 
the  Ablative  singular  of  the  first  declension  ;  final  -e  is  long  in  the  first  and 
fifth  declensions,  short  in  the  second  and  third.  Final  -is  and  -us  are  long  in 
plural  cases. 

Case-endings  of  the  Five  Declensions 

39.  The  regular  Case-endings  of  the  several  declensions  are 
the  following:  —1 

Decl.  I  Decl.  II  Decl.  Ill  Decl.  IV        Decl.  V 

Singular 

f.  m.      n.  m.,f.  n.  m.  n.  f. 

f  -US    -um       -s  -us  -u       -es 

NoM.    -a        \ 

[ (modified  stem) 

Gen,  -ae  -i  -is  -us  -ei  (-e) 

Dat.  -ae  -5  -I  -ui  (-ii)        -u       -el  (-e) 

Ace.  -am  -um  -um  -ettt("im)       (likenom.)  -um  -u       -em 

Abl.  -a  -6  -e  (-i)  -u  -e 

Voc.  -a  -e       -um  (likenom.)  -us  -u       -ea 

Plural 

N.V.     -ae  -i       -a  -es  -a,  -la  -us  -ua  -es 

Gen.     -arum  -orum  -um,  -ium  -uum  -erum 

D.Ab.  -is  -is  -ibus  -ibus  (-ubus)  -ebus 

Ace.     -as  -OS     -a  -es  (-is)  -a,  -la  -us  -ua  -es 

1  For  ancient,  rare,  and  Greek  forms  (which  are  here  omitted),  see  under  tiie 

several  declensions. 


18  DECLENSION  OF  NOUNS  [§§40-43 

FIRST  DECLENSION  (a-STEMS) 

40.  The  Stem  of  nouns  of  the  First  Declension  ends  in  a-.  The 
Nominative  ending  is  -a  (the  stem-vowel  shortened),  except  in 
Greek  nouns. 

41.  Latin  nouns  of  the  First  Declension  are  thus  declined :  — 


OASE-ENDINGS 

-a 

-ae 

-ae 

-am 

-a 


-ae 

-arum 

-IS 


a.  The  Latin  has  no  article ;  hence  stella  may  mean  a  star,  the  star,  or 
simply  star. 

Gender  in  the  First  Declension 

42.  Nouns  of  the  first  declension  are  Feminine. 

Exceptions :  Nouns  masculine  from  their  signification :  as,  nauta,  sailor.  So  a 
few  family  or  personal  names:  as,  Murena,  Dolabella,  Scaevolai;  also,  Hadria,  the 
Adriatic. 

Case-Forms  in  the  First  Declension 

43.  a.  The  genitive  singular  anciently  ended  in  -ai  (dissyllabic),  which 
is  occasionally  found  :  as,  aulai.  The  same  ending  sometimes  occurs  in  the- 
dative,  but  only  as  a  diphthong. 

1  Scaevola  is  really  a  feminine  adjective,  used  as  a  noun,  meaning  little  left  hand; 
but,  being  used  as  the  name  of  a  man  (originally  a  nickname),  it  becailie  masculine. 
Original  genders  are  often  thus  changed  by  a  change  in  the  sense  of  a  noun. 


Stella,  F.,  star 

Stem  stella- 

SlNGULAR 

NOM. 

Stella 

a  Star 

Gen. 

stellae 

of  a  star 

Bat. 

stellae 

to  ov  for  a  star 

Ago. 

stellam 

a  star 

Abl. 

Stella 

with,  from,  by,  etc.  a  star 
Plural 

NOM. 

stellae 

stars 

Gen. 

stellarum 

of  stars 

DAT. 

stellTfl 

to  or  for  stars 

Acc. 

Stellas 

stars 

Abl. 

stellis 

with,  from,  hy,  etc.  stars 

§§  43,  44] 


FIRST   DECLENSION   (^-STEMS) 


19 


h.  An  old  genitive  in  -as  is  preserved  in  the  M^ord  familias,  often  used  in 
the  combinations  pater  (mater,  filius,  filia)  familias,  father,  etc.,  of  a  family 
(plur.  patres  familias  or  familiarum). 

c.  The  Locative  form  for  the  singular  ends  in  -ae ;  for  the  plural  in  -is  (cf . 
p.  o4,  footnote):  as,  Romae,  at  Rome ;  Athenis,  at  Athens. 

d.  The  genitive  plural  is  sometimes  found  in  -um  instead  of  -arum,  espe- 
cially in  Greek  patronymics,  as,  Aeneadum,  sons  of  jEneas,  and  in  compounds 
with  -cola  and  -gena,  signifying  dwelling  and  descent :  as,  caelicolum,  celes- 
tials ;  Troiugenum,  sons  of  Troy ;  so  also  in  the  Greek  nouns  amphora  and 
drachma. 

e.  The  dative  and  ablative  plural  of  dea,  goddess,  filia,  daughter,  end  in 
an  older  form  -abus  (deabus,  filiabus)  to  distinguish  them  from  the  corre- 
sponding cases  of  deus,  god,  and  filius,  son  (deis,  filiis).  So  rarely  with  other 
words,  as,  liberta,  freed-woman ;  mula,  she-mule ;  equa,  mare.  But,  except 
when  the  two  sexes  are  mentioned  together  (as  in  formulas,  documents, 
etc.),  the  form  in  -is  is  preferred  in  all  but  dea  and  filia. 

Note  1.  —  The  old  ending  of  the  ablative  singular  (-ad)  is  sometimes  retained  in 
early  Latin:  as,  praidad,  booty  (later,  praeda). 

Note  2.  —  In  the  dative  and  ablative  plural  -eis  for  -is  is  sometimes  found,  and  -iis 
(as  in  taeniis)  is  occasionally  contracted  to  -is  (taenis) ;  so  regularly  in  words  in  -aia  (as, 
BaisfromBaiae). 

Greek  Nouns  of  the  First  Declension 

44.  Many  nouns  of  the  First  Declension  borrowed  from  the 
Greek  are  entirely  Latinized  (as,  aula,  court)  i  but  others  retain 
traces  of  their  Greek  case-forms  in  the  singular. 


Electra,  f. 

synopsisj  F. 

art  of  music,  f. 

NOM. 

Electra  (-a) 

epitome 

musica  (-e) 

Gen. 

Electrae 

epitomes 

miisicae  (-es) 

Dat. 

Electrae 

epitomae 

musicae 

Ace. 

Electram  (-an) 

epitomen 

miisicam  (-en) 

Abl. 

Electra 

epitome 

miisica  (-e) 

Andromache,  f. 

jEneas,  m. 

Persian,  M. 

NoM. 

Andromache  (-a) 

Aeneas 

Perses  (-a) 

Gen. 

Andromaches  (-ae) 

Aeneae 

Persae 

DAT. 

Andromachae 

Aeneae 

Persae 

Ace. 

Andromachen  (-am) 

Aenean  (-am) 

Persen  (-am) 

Abl. 

Andromache  (-a) 

Aenea 

Perse  (-a) 

Voc. 

Andromache  (-a) 

Aenea  (-a) 

Persa 

20  DECLENSION   OE  NOUNS  [§§44-46 


Anchises,  m. 

son  of  ^Eneas,  M. 

comet,  M. 

NOM. 

Anchisgs 

Aeneades  (-a) 

cometes  (-a) 

Gen. 

Anchisae* 

Aeneadae 

cometae 

DAT. 

Anchisae 

Aeneadae 

cometae 

Ace. 

AncliTsen  (-am) 

Aeneaden 

cometgn  (-am) 

Abl. 

Anchise  (-a) 

Aeneade  (-a) 

cometa  (-e) 

Yog. 

Anchise  (-a,  -a) 

Aeneade  (-a) 

cometa 

There  are  (besides  proper  names)  about  thirty-five  of  these  words,  several  being 
names  of  plants  or  arts :  as,  crambe,  cabbage ;  musice,  music.  Most  have  also  regular 
Latin  forms:  as,  cometa;  but  the  nominative  sometimes  has  the  a  long. 

a.  Greek  forms  are  found  only  in  the  singular;  the  plural,  when  it 
occurs,  is  regular :  as,  cometae,  -arum,  etc. 

h.  Many  Greek  nouns  vary  between  the  first,  the  second,  and  the  third 
declensions :  as,  Bootae  (genitive  of  Bootes,  -is),  Thucydidas  (accusative  plu- 
ral of  Thiicydides,  -is).     See  §  52.  a  and  §  81. 

Note.  —  The  Greek  accusative  Scipiadam,  from  Scipiades,  descendant  of  the  Scipios, 
is  found  in  Horace. 

SECOND  DECLENSION  (<?-STEMS) 

45.  The  Stem  of  nouns  of  the  Second  Declension  ends  in  5-: 
as,  virO"  (stem  of  vir,  man)^  servo-  (stem  of  servus  or  servos,  slave), 
bello-  (stem  of  bellum,  war). 

a.  The  Nominative  is  formed  from  the  stem  by  adding  s  in  masculines 
and  feminines,  and  m  in  neuters,  the  vowel  6  being  weakened  to  fi  (see 
§§  6.  a,  46.  N.i). 

b»  In  most  nouns  whose  stem  ends  in  r5-  the  s  is  not  added  in  the  Nomi- 
native, but  0  is  lost,  and  e  intrudes  before  r,^  if  not  already  present :  as, 
ager,  stem  agr5-  ^ ;  cf .  puer,  stem  puero-. 

Exceptions  :  erus,  hesperus,  iuniperus,  moms,  numerus,  taurus,  umerus,  uterus, 
virus,  and  many  Greek  nouns. 

c.  The  stem-vowel  5  has  a  variant  form  e,^  which  is  preserved  in  the 
Latin  vocative  singular  of  nouns  in  -us :  as,  serve,  vocative  of  servus,  slave. 

Note. — In  composition  this  S  appears  as  i.  Thus, — belli-ger,  warlike  (from  bello/e-, 
stem  of  bellum,  war). 

46.  Nouns  of  the  Second  Declension  in  -us  (-os)  and  -um  (-om) 
are  thus  declined :  — 

1  Compare  the  English  chamber  from  French  chambre. 

2  Compare  Greek  dyp6s,  which  shows  the  original  o  of  the  stem. 
«  By  so-called  Ablaut  (see  §  17.  a). 


§§  46,  47] 


SECOND   DECLENSION    (0-STEMS) 


21 


servus,  m,,  slave 

bellum,  N.,  war 

Pompeius,  m.,  Pompey 

Stem  servo- 

Stem  bello- 

Stem  Pompeio- 

SlNGULAR 

CASE-ENDINGS                                       CASE-ENDINGS 

NOM. 

servus  (-os) 

-US  (-os)          bellum 

-um 

Pompgius 

Gen. 

servi 

-i 

belli 

-i 

Pomp§i 

Dat. 

servo 

-6 

bello 

-6 

Pomp§i6 

Ace. 

servum  (-om) 

-um  (-om)       bellum 

-um 

Pompgium 

Abl. 

servo 

-5 

beUo 

-6 

Pompeio 

Voc. 

serve 

-e 

bellum 

-um 

Pompgi  (-ei) 

Plural 

NOM. 

servi 

-1 

bella 

-a 

Pompgi 

Gen. 

servorum 

-orum 

bellorura 

-orum 

Pompeiorum 

Dat. 

servis 

-Is 

bellis 

-is 

Pomp§is 

Ace. 

servos 

-OS 

bella 

-a 

Pompeios 

Abl, 

servis 

-IS 

bellis 

-is 

Pompeis 

Note  1.  —  The  earlier  forms  for  nominative  and  accusative  were  -os,  -om,  and  these 
were  always  retained  after  u  and  v  up  to  the  end  of  the  Republic.  The  terminations 
s  and  m  are  sometimes  omitted  in  inscriptions :  as,  Cornelio  for  Cornelios,  Cornehom. 

Note  2.  —  Stems  in  quo-,  like  equo-,  change  qu  to  c  before  u.  Thus,  —  ecus  (earlier 
equos),  equi,  equo,  ecum  (earlier  equom),  eque.    Modern  editions  disregard  this  principle. 


47.  Nouns  of  the  Second  Declension  in  -er  and  -ir  are  thus  de- 
clined :  — 


U. 


puer,  M.,  boy 

ager,  m,  field 

vir,  M.,  man 

Stem  puero- 

Stem  agro- 

SlNGULAR 

Stem  viro- 

CASE-ENDINGS 

NOM. 

puer 

ager 

vir 

Gen. 

pueri 

agri 

viri 

-i 

Dat. 

puero 

agro 

viro 

-6 

Aee. 

puerum 

agrum 

virum 

-um 

Abl. 

puero 

agro 
Plural 

viro 

-6 

NOM. 

pueri 

agri 

viri 

-i 

Gen. 

puerorum 

agrorum 

virorum 

-onim 

Dat. 

pueris 

agris 

viiis 

-is 

Aee. 

pueros 

agros 

viros 

-6s 

Abl. 

pueris 

agris 

viris 

-is 

Note.  — When  e  belongs  to  the  stem,  as  in  puer,  it  is  retained  throughout;  other- 
wise it  appears  only  in  the  nominative  and  vocative  singular,  as  in  ager. 


22  DECLENSION   OF  NOUNS  [§§48,49 

Gender  in  the  Second  Declension 

48.  Nouns  ending  in  -us  (-os),  -er,  -ir,  are  Masculine ;  those  end- 
ing in  -um  (-on)  are  Neuter. 

Exceptions:  Names  of  countries  and  towns  in  -us  (-os)  are  Feminine:  as, 
Aegyptus,  Corintlius.  Also  many  names  of  plants  and  gems,  with  the  following : 
alvus,  belly ;  carbasus,  linen  (pi.  carbasa,  sails,  n.)  ;  colus,  distaff ;  humus,  ground; 
vannus,  winnowlng-shovel. 

Many  Greek  nouns  retain  their  original  gender :  as,  arctus  (f,  ),  tJie  Polar  Bear ; 
methodus  (f.),  method. 

a.  The  following  in  -us  are  Neuter ;  their  accusative  (as  with  all  neuters) 
is  the  same  as  the  nominative :  pelagus,  sea ;  virus,  poison ;  vulgus  (rarely 
M.),  the  crowd.  They  are  not  found  in  the  plui-al,  except  pelagus,  which  has 
a  rare  nominative  and  accusative  plural  pelage. 

Note.  —  The  nominative  plural  neuter  cete,  sea  monsters,  occurs;  the  nominative 
singular  cetus  occurs  in  Vitruvius.^ 

Case-Forms  in  the  Second  Declension 

49.  a.  The  Locative  form  of  this  declension  ends  for  the  singular  in  -i : 
as,  humi,  on  the  ground ;  Corinthi,  at  Corinth ;  for  the  plural,  in  -is :  as, 
Philippis,  at  Philippi  (cf.  p.  34,  footnote). 

b.  The  genitive  of  nouns  in  -ius  or  -ium  ended,  until  the  Augustan  Age, 
in  a  single  -i :  as,  fill,  of  a  son ;  Pompei,  of  Pompey  (Pompeius) ;  but  the 
accent  of  the  nominative  is  retained:  as,  inge'ni,  of  genius?- 

c.  Proper  names  in  -ius  have  -i  in  the  vocative,  retaining  the  accent  of 
the  nominative :  as,  Vergili.  So  also,  filius,  son  ;  genius,  divine  guardian :  as, 
audi,  mi  fill,  hear^  my  son. 

Adjectives  in  -ius  form  the  vocative  in  -ie,  and  some  of  these  are  occa- 
sionally used  as  nouns  :  as,  Lacedaemonie,  0  Spartan. 

Note.  —  Greek  names  in  -ius  have  the  vocative  -ie:  as,  Lyrcius,  vocative  L3rrcie. 

d.  The  genitive  plural  often  has  -um  or  (after  v)  -om  (cf.  §  6.  a)  instead 
of  -orum,  especially  in  the  poets :  as,  deum,  superum,  divom,  of  the  gods; 
virum,  of  men.  Also  in  compounds  of  vir,  and  in  many  words  of  money, 
measure,  and  weight :  as,  Sevirum,  of  the  Seviri ;  nummum,  of  coins;  iiigerum, 
of  acres. 

e.  The  original  ending  of  the  ablative  singular  (-od)  is  sometimes  found 
in  early  Latin :  as,  Gnaivod  (later,  Gnaeo),  Cneius. 

/.  Proper  names  in  -aius,  -eius,  -dius  (as,  Aurunculeius,  B6i),  are  declined 
like  Pompeius. 

1  The  genitive  in  -ii  occurs  once  in  Virgil,  and  constantly  in  Ovid,  but  was  probably 
unknown  to  Cicero. 


49-52] 


SECOND   DECLENSION   (0-STEMS) 


23 


g,  Deus  (m.),  god,  is  thus  declined:  — 

Singular  Plukai. 

NoM.  deus  del(dii),  di 

Gen.  dei  deonim,  deum 

Dat.  deo  dels  (diis),  dia 

Ace.  deum  deos 

Abl.  deo  dels  (diis),  dis 

Note. — The  vocative  singular  of  deus  does  not  occur  in  classic  Latin,  but  is  said 
to  have  been  dee ;  deus  (like  the  nominative)  occurs  in  the  Vulgate.  For  the  genitive 
plural,  divum  or  divom  (from  divus,  divine)  is  often  used. 

50.  The  following  stems  in  ero-,  in  which  e  belongs  to  the  stem, 

retain  the  e  throughout  and  are  declined  like  puer  (§  47) :  — 

adulter,  adulterer;  gener,  son-in-law;  paer,  hoy ; 

socer,  father-in-law ;  vesper,  evening ;  Liber,  Bacchus. 

Also,  the  adjective  liber,  free,  of  which  liberi,  children,  is  the  plural  (§  111.  a), 
and  compounds  in  -fer  and  -ger  (stem  fero-,  gero-) :  as,  lucifer,  morning  star ; 
armiger,  squire. 

a.  An  old  nominative  socerus  occurs.  So  vocative  puere,  toy,  as  if  from 
f  puerus  (regularly  puer). 

h,  Vir,  man,  has  genitive  viri ;  the  adjective  satur,  sated,  has  saturi ;  ves- 
per, evening,  has  ablative  vespere  (locative  vesperi,  in  the  evening). 

c.  Mulciber,  Vulcan,  has  -beri  and  -bri  in  the  genitive.  The  barbaric 
names  Hiber  and  Celtiber  retain  e  throughout. 

51.  The  following,  not  having  e  in  the  stem,  insert  it  in  the 
nominative  singular  and  are  declined  like  ager  (§  47) 


ager,  field,  stem  agro- ; 
aper,  hoar ; 
arbiter,  judge ; 
auster,  south  wind ; 
cancer,  crah  ; 
caper,  goat; 


coluber,  snake; 
conger,  sea  eel ; 
culter,  knife; 
faber,  smith; 
fiber,  heavier; 
liber,  hook; 


magister,  master; 
minister,  servant; 
oleaster,  wild  olive ; 
onager  (-grus),  wild  ass; 
scomber  (-brus),  mackerel. 


Greek  Nouns  of  the  Second  Declension 

52.  Greek  nouns  of  the  Second  Declension  end  in  -os,  -6s,  mas- 
culine or  feminine,  and  in  -on  neuter. 

They  are  mostly  proper  names  and  are  declined  as  follows  in 
the  Singular,  the  Plural,  when  found,  being  regular :  — 


24  DECLENSION  OF  NOUNS  [§§52-55 


mythos,  m. 

Athos,  M. 

Delos,  F. 

ilion,  N. 

fable 

Athos 
Singular 

Belos 

Ilium 

NOM. 

mythos 

Athos  (-6) 

Delos 

Tlion 

Gen. 

mythi 

Atho  (-1) 

Deli 

llii 

Dat. 

myths 

Atho 

Delo 

Ilio 

Ace. 

mython 

Athon  (-um) 

Delon  (-um) 

Ilion 

Abl. 

mytho 

Atho 

Dels 

Ilio 

Voc. 

mythe 

Athos 

Dele 

Ilion 

a.  Many  names  in  -es  belonging  to  the  third  declension  have  also  a 
genitive  in  -i:  as,  Thiicydides,  Xhucydidi  (compare  §44.  h). 

b.  Several  names  in  -er  have  also  a  nominative  in  -us:  as,  Teucer  or 
Teucrus.     The  name  Panthus  has  the  vocative  Panthu  (§  81.  3). 

c.  The  genitive  plural  of  certain  titles  of  books  takes  the  Greek  ter- 
mination -5n :  as,  Georgicon,  of  the  Georgics. 

d.  The  termination  'Oe  (for  Greek  -oe)  is  sometimes  found  in  the  nomi- 
native plural:  as,  Adelphoe,  the  Adelphi  (a  play  of  Terence). 

e.  Greek  names  in  -eus  (like  Orpheus)  have  forms  of  the  second  and 
third  declensions  (see  §  82). 

THIRD   DECLENSION  (CONSONANT  AND  /-STEMS) 

53.  Nouns  of  the  Third  Declension  end  in  a,  e,  i,  6,  y,  c,  1,  n, 
r,  s,  t,  X. 

54.  Stems  of  the  Third  Declension  are  classed  as  follows :  — 
Mute  stems. 
Liquid  and  Nasal  stems. 

Pure  i-stems. 


I.  Consonant  Stems  \    ' 


[t 


II.  I-Stems  1  ,    ,r.     J  ,   , 

Mixed  i-stems. 


55.  The  Nominative  is  always  derived  from  the  stem. 
The  variety  in  form  in  the  Nominative  is  due  to  simple  modi- 
fications of  the  stem,  of  which  the  most  important  are  — 

1.  Combination  of  final  consonants :  as  of  c  (or  g)  and  s  to  form  x ;  dux, 
ducis,  stem  due-;  rex,  regis,  stem  reg-. 

2.  Omission  of  a  final  consonant :  as  of  a  final  nasal ;  leo,  leonis,  stem 
leon-;  oratiS,  orationis,  stem  oration-. 

3.  Omission  of  a  final  vowel :  as  of  final  i ;  calcar,  calcaris,  stem  calcari-. 

4.  Change  of  vowel  in  the  final  syllable  :  as  of  a  to  e ;  princeps  (for  -caps), 
principis,  stem  princip-  (for  -cap-). 


§§  66,  57]         THIRD   DECLENSION:    CONSONANT   STEMS 


25 


Consonant  Stems 
Mute  Stems 

56.  Masculine  and  Feminine  Nouns  with  mute  stems  form  the 
Nominative  by  adding  s  to  the  stem. 

A  labial  (p)  is  retained  before  s :  as,  princep-s. 

A  lingual  (t,  d)  is  dropped  before  s  :  as,  miles  (stem  milit-),  custos  (stem 
custod-). 

A  palatal  (c,  g)  unites  with  s  to  form  x :  as,  dux  (for  f duc-s),  rex  (for 
freg-s). 

a.  In  dissyllabic  stems  the  final  syllable  often  shows  e  in  the  nomina- 
tive and  i  in  the  stem :  as,  princeps,  stem  princip-  (for  -cap-). 

57.  Nouns  of  this  class  are  declined  as  follows :  — 


princeps,  c,  chief 

radix,  F.,  root 

miles,  M.,  soldier 

Stem  princip- 

Stem  radic- 

SlNGULAR 

Stem  milit- 

/I  A  Qv    intfTMiw/^a 

NOM. 

princeps 

radix 

miles 

-s 

Gen. 

prmcipis 

radicis 

militis 

-is 

Dat. 

principi 

radici 

militi 

-i 

Ace. 

prmcipem 

radicem 

militem 

-em 

Abl. 

principe 

radice 
Plural 

milite 

-e 

NOM. 

prmcipes 

radices 

milites 

-es 

Gen. 

principnm 

radicum 

militum 

-um 

Dat. 

principibus 

radicibus 

militibus 

-ibus 

Ace. 

principes 

radices 

milites 

-es 

Abl. 

principibus 

radicibus 

militibus 

-ibus 

custos,  c,  guard 

dux,  c,  leader 

rex,  M.,  king 

Stem  cust5d- 

Stem  duc- 

Stem  reg- 

SlNGULAR 

OASE-ENDINGS 

NOM. 

ciistos 

dux 

rex 

-s 

Gen. 

custodis 

duels 

regis 

-is 

Dat. 

ciistodi 

duel 

regi 

-I 

Ace. 

cdstodeni 

ducem 

regem 

-em 

Abl. 

ciistode 

duce 

rege 

-e 

26 


DECLENSION   OF  NOUNS 


[§§  67-60 


Plural 

NOM. 

custodgs 

ducgs 

rgges 

■«s 

Gen. 

custodum 

ducum 

regum 

-um 

DAT. 

custodibus 

ducibus 

regibus 

-ibus 

Ace. 

custodes 

duces 

reges 

-es 

Abl. 

custodibus 

ducibus 

regibus 

-ibus 

a.  In  like  manner  are  declined  — 
aries,  -etis  (m.),  ram;  comes,  -itis  (c),  companion;  lapis,  -idis  (m.),  stone; 
iudex,  -icis  (m..),  judge;  cornix,  -ids  (r.),  raven,  and  many  other  nouns. 

58.  Most  mute  stems  are  Masculine  or  Feminine.  Those  that 
are  neuter  have  for  the  Nominative  the  simple  stem.     But,  — 

a.  Lingual  Stems  (t,  d)  ending  in  two  consonants  drop  the  final  mute  : 
as,  cor  (stem  cord-),  lac  (stem  lact-).  So  also  stems  in  at-  from  the  Greek : 
as,  poema  (stem  poemat-). 

b.  The  stem  capit-  shows  u  in  the  nominative  (caput  for  fcapot). 

59.  Nouns  of  this  class  are  declined  as  follows :  — 


cor,  N.,  heart 

caput,  N.,  head 

poema,  -s.,  poem 

Stem  cord- 

Stem  capit- 

SlNGULAR 

Stem  poemat- 

CASE-ENDINGS 

NOM. 

cor 

caput 

poema 

Gen. 

cordis 

capitis 

poematis 

-is 

DAT. 

cordi 

capiti 

poemati 

-i 

Ace, 

cor 

caput 

poema 

Abl. 

corde 

capite 

Plural 

poemate 

« 

NoM. 

corda 

capita 

poemata 

-a 

Gen. 

capitum 

poematum 

-um 

DAT. 

cordibus 

capitibus 

poematibus 

-ibus 

Aec. 

corda 

capita 

poemata 

-a 

Abl. 

cordibus 

capitibus 

poematibus 

-ibus 

60.  The  following  irregularities  require  notice  :  — 

a.  Greek  neuters  with  nominative  singular  in  -a  (as  poema)  frequently 
end  in  -is  in  the  dative  and  ablative  plural,  and  rarely  in  -orum  in  the  geni- 
tive plural;  as,  poematis  (for  poematibus),  poematorum  (for  poematum). 

b.  A  number  of  monosyllabic  nouns  with  mute  stems  want  the  geni- 
tive plural  (like  cor).     See  §  103.  ^.  2. 


§§61,62]         THIRD   DECLENSION:    CONSONANT   STEMS 


27 


Liquid  and  Nasal  Stems  (/,  «,  r) 

61.  In  Masculine  and  Feminine  nouns  with  liquid  and  nasal 
stems  the  Nominative  is  the  same  as  the  stem. 

Exceptions  are  the  following :  — 

1.  Stems  in  on-  drop  n  in  the  nominative :  as  in  legio,  stem  legion-. 

2.  Stems  in  din-  and  gin-  drop  n  and  keep  an  original  5  in  the  nominative  :  as 
in  Virgo,  stem  virgin-.  ^ 

3.  Stems  in  in-  (not  din-  or  gin-)  retain  n  and  have  e  instead  of  i  in  the  nom- 
inative :  as  in  comicen,  stem  comicin-.i 

4.  Stems  in  tr-  have  -ter  in  the  nominative  :  as,  pater,  stem  patr-.^ 

62.  Nouns  of  this  class  are  declined  as  follows :  — 


consul,  M. ,  consul  leo,  m.  ,  lion      virgS,  f.  ,  maiden  pater,  m.  ,  father 
Stem  consul-         Stem  leon-  Stem  virgin-  Stem  patr- 


Singular 

NOM. 

consul 

leo 

virgo 

Gen. 

consulis 

leonis 

virginis 

DAT. 

consul! 

leoni 

virgin! 

Ace. 

consulem 

leon  em 

virginem 

Abl. 

consule 

leone  . 

virgin  e 
Plural 

NoM. 

consules 

leones 

virgines 

Gen. 

consulum 

leonum 

virginum 

DAT. 

consulibus 

leonibus 

virginibus 

Ace. 

consules 

leones 

virgines 

Abl. 

consulibus 

leonibus 

virginibus 

CASE-ENDINGS 

pater              

patris             -is 

patri 

-i 

patrem 

-em 

patre 

-e 

patres 

patrum 

patribus 

patres 

patribus 

-es 

-um 

-ibus 

-es 

-ibus 

Note  1.  —  Stems  in  11-,  rr-  (n.)  lose  one  of  their  liquids  in  the  nominative:  as,  far, 
farris;  mel,  mellis. 

Note  2.  —  A  few  masculine  and  feminine  stems  have  a  nominative  in  -s  as  well  as 
in  -r :  as,  honos  or  honor,  arbos  or  arbor. 

Note  3. — Canis,  dofj,  and  iuvenis,  youth,  have  -is  in  the  nominative. 


1  These  differences  depend  in  part  upon  special  phonetic  laws,  in  accordance  with 
which  vowels  in  weakly  accented  or  unaccented  syllables  are  variously  modified,  and 
in  part  upon  the  influence  of  analogy. 

2  These,  no  doubt,  had  orieinally  ter-  in  the  stem,  hut  this  had  become  weakened 
to  tr-  in  some  of  the  cases  even  in  the  parent  speech.  In  Latin  only  the  nominative  and 
vocative  singular  show  the  e.  But  cf .  Maspitris  and  Maspiteris  (Ma[r]s-piter) ,  quoted  by 
Priscian  as  old  forms. 


28 


DECLENSION   OF  NOUNS 


63-65 


63.  In  Neuter  nouns  with  liquid  or  nasal  stems  the  Nomina- 
tive is  the  same  as  the  stem. 

Exceptions :   1.   Stems  in  in-  have  e  instead  of  i  in  the  nominative :  as  in 
nomen,  stem  nomin-. 

2.  Most  stems  in  er-  and  or-  have  -us  in  the  nominative :  as,  genus,  stem  gener-.i 

64.  Nouns  of  this  class  are  declined  as  follows :  — 

nomen,  n.,  name    genus,  n.,  race    corpus,  n.,  body    aequor,  x.,  sea 
Stem  nomin-  Stem  gener-         Stem  corpor-  Stem  aequor- 

SlNGULAR 


NOM. 

nomen 

genus 

corpus 

aequor 

Gen. 

nominis 

generis 

corporis 

aequoris 

Dat. 

nomini 

generi 

corpori 

aequori 

Ace. 

nomen 

genus 

corpus 

aequor 

Abl. 

nomine 

genere 

Plural 

corpore 

aequore 

Nom. 

nomina 

genera 

corpora 

aequora 

Gen. 

nominum 

generura 

corporum 

aequorura 

Dat. 

norainibus 

geneiibus 

corporibuB 

aequoiibus 

Ace, 

nSmina 

genera 

corpora 

aequora 

Abl. 

nominibua 

generibus 

corporibus 

aequoiibus 

So  also  are  dechned  opus,  -eris,  work;  pignus,  -eris  or  -oris,  pledge,  etc. 

Note.  — The  following  real  or  apparent  liquid  and  nasal  stems  have  the  genitive 
plural  in  -ium,  and  are  to  be  classed  with  the  i-stems:  imber, linter,  uter,  venter;  glis, 
mas,  mus,  [fren] ;   also  vires  (plural  of  vis:   see  §79). 

1-Stems 
65.  Nouns  of  this  class  include  — 

1.  Pure  i-Stems : 

a.  Masculine  and  Feminine  parisyllabic  ^  nouns  in  -is  and  four  in  -er. 
6.  Neuters  in  -e,  -al,  and  -ar. 

2.  Mixed  i-Stems,  declined  in  the  singular  like  consonant  stems, 
in  the  plural  like  i-stems. 


1  These  were  originally  s-stems  (cf .  §  15.  4) . 

2  I.e.  having  the  same  number  of  syllables  in  the  nominative  and  genitive  singulai-. 


§§  CG-08] 


THIRD   DECLENSION:    PURE  I-STEMS 


29 


Pure  ^Sterns 

66.  Masculine  and  Feminine  parisyllabic  nouns  in  -is  form  the 
Nominative  singular  by  adding  s  to  the  stem. 

Four  stems  iu  bri-  and  tri-  do  not  add  s  to  form  the  nominative,  but  drop  i 
and  insert  e  before  r.     These  are  imber,  linter,  uter,  venter. 

67.  Nouns  of  this  class  are  declined  as  follows :  • — 


sitis,  F.,  thirst 

turris,  f.,  tower 

ignis,  M.,jire 

imber,  m.,  rain 

Stem  siti- 

Stem  turri- 

Stem  igni- 

Stem  imbri- 

SlNGULAR 

NOM. 

sitis 

turris 

ignis 

imber 

Gen. 

sitis 

turris 

ignis 

imbris 

Dat. 

siti 

turri 

ignl 

imbri 

Ace. 

sitim 

turrim  (-em) 

ignem 

imbrem 

Abl. 

sitI 

turri  (-e) 

igni  (-e) 

imbri  (-e) 

Plural 

NOM. 

turres 

ignes 

imbres 

Gen. 

turrium 

ignium 

imbrium 

Dat. 

turribus 

ignibus 

imbribus 

Ace. 

turris  (-es) 

ignis  (-es) 

imbris  (-es) 

Abl. 

turribus 

ignibus 

imbribus 

68.  In  Neuters  the  Nominative  is  the  same  as  the  stem,  with 
final  i  changed  to  e:  as,  mare,  stem  mari-.  But  most  nouns  ^  in 
which  the  i  of  the  stem  is  preceded  by  al  or  ar  lose  the  final  vowel 
and  shorten  the  preceding  a :   as,  animal,  stem  animali-.^ 

a,  Neuters  in  -e,  -al,  and  -ar  have  -i  in  the  ablative  singular,  -ium  in  the 
genitive  plural,  and  -ia  in  the  nominative  and  accusative  plural :  as,  animal, 
animali,  -ia,  -ium. 


1  Such  are  animal,  bacchanal^  bidental,  capital,  cervical,  cubital,  lupercal,  minutal, 
puteal,  quadrantal,  toral,  tribunal,  vectigal;  calcar,  cochlear,  exemplar,  lacunar,  laquear, 
lucar,  luminar,  lupanar,  palear,  pulvinar,  torcular,  Cf.  the  plurals  dentalia,  frontalia, 
genualia,  sponsalia ;  altaria,  plantaria,  specularia,  talaria ;  also  many  names  of  festivals, 
as,  Saturnalia. 

2  Exceptions  are  augurale,  collare,  focale,  navale,  penetrale,  ramale,  scQtale,  tibiale; 
dlveare,  capillare,  cochleare. 


so 


DECLENSION   OF  NOUNS 


[§§  69-71 


69.  Nouns  of  this  class  are  declined  as  follows :  — 


sedile,N.,  seai 

animal,  n.  ,  animal 

calcar,  m.^spur 

Stem  sedili- 

Stem  animali- 

SlNGULAR 

Stem  calcari- 

OASE-ENDINGS 

NOM. 

sedile 

animal 

calcar 

-e  or  — 

Gen. 

sedilis 

animalis 

calcaris 

-is 

DAT. 

sedili 

animali 

calcari 

-i 

Ace. 

sedile 

animal 

calcar 

-e  or  — 

Abl. 

sedili 

animali 

Plural 

calcan 

-i 

NoM. 

sedilia 

animalia 

calcaria 

-ia 

Gen. 

sedilinm 

animalium 

calcarium 

-ium 

DAT. 

sedllibus 

animalibus 

calcaribus 

-ibus 

Ace. 

sedilia 

animalia 

calcaria 

-ia 

Abl. 

sedllibus 

animalibus 

calcaribus 

-ibus 

Mixed  /-Stems 

70.  Mixed  i-stems  are  either  original  i-stems  that  have  lost  their 
i-forms  in  the  singular,  or  consonant  stems  that  have  assumed  i- 
forms  in  the  plural. 

Note. — It  is  sometimes  impossible  to  distinguish  between  these  two  classes. 

71.  Mixed  i-stems  have  -em  in  the  accusative  and  -e  in  the  abla- 
tive singular,  -ium  in  the  genitive  ^  and  -is  or  -es  in  the  accusative 
plural.     They  include  the  following:  — 

1.  Nouns  in  -es,  gen.  -is.^ 

2.  Monosyllables  in  -s  or  -x  preceded  by  a  consonant :  as,  ars,  pons,  arx. 

3.  Polysyllables  in  -ns  or  -rs  :  as,  aliens,  cohors. 

4.  Nouns  in  -tas,  genitive  -tatis  (genitive  plural  usually  -um)  ^ :  as,  civitas. 

5.  Penates,  optimates,  and  nouns  denoting  birth  or  abode  (patrials)  in  -as, 
-is,  plural  -ates,  -ites :  as,  Arpinas,  plural  Arpinates ;  Quiris,  plural  Quirites. 

6.  The  following  monosyllables  in  -s  or  -x  preceded  by  a  vowel :  d5s, 
fraus,  glis,  lis,  mas,  miis,  nix,  nox,  strix,  vis. 

1  There  is  much  variety  in  the  practice  of  the  ancients,  soQie  of  these  words  having 
-ium,  some  -um,  and  some  both. . 

2  These  are  acinaces,  aedes,  alces,  caedes,  cautes,  clades,  compages,  contages,  fames, 
feles,  fides  (plural),  indoles,  labes,  lues,  meles,  moles,  niibes,  palumbes,  proles,  propages, 
pubes,  sedes,  saepes,  sordes,  strages,  strues,  suboles,  tabes,  torques,  tudes,  vates.  vehes, 
vepres,  verres,  vulpes ;  aedes  has  also  nominative  aedis. 


§§72-75]  THIRD   DECLENSION:     MIXED   J-STEMS 

72.  Nouns  of  this  class  are  thus  declined :  — 


31 


nuhes,F.,  cloud  urhs, f.,  city    nox,F.,  night    c\iens,Tii.,  client       aetas,  f.,  a^e 
Stem  nub(i)-      Stem  arb(i)-    Stem  noct(i)-      Stem  client(i)-        Stem  aetat(i)- 


Singular 

NOM. 

nubes 

urbs 

nox 

cliens 

aetas 

Gen. 

nubis 

urbis 

noctis 

clientis 

aetatis 

Dat. 

nubi 

urbi 

nocti 

client! 

aetati 

Ace. 

nubem 

urbem 

noctem 

clientem 

aetatem 

Abl. 

nube 

urbe 

nocte 
Plural 

cliente 

aetate 

NOM. 

nubes 

urbes 

noctes 

clientes 

aetates 

Gen. 

nubium 

urbium 

noctium 

clientium  ^ 

aetatum  ^ 

DAT. 

nubibus 

urbibus 

noctibus 

clientibus 

aetatibus 

Ace. 

nubis(-es) 

urbis(-es) 

noctis  (-es) 

clientis  (-es) 

aetatis  (-es) 

Abl. 

nubibus 

urbibus 

noctibus 

clientibus 

aetatibus 

Summary  of  /-Stems 

73.  The  i-declension  was  confused  even  to  the  Romans  themselves,  nor  was  it  stable 
at  all  periods  of  the  language,  early  Latin  having  i-forms  which  afterwards  disap- 
peared. There  was  a  tendency  in  nouns  to  lose  the  i-forms,  in  adjectives  to  gain  them. 
The  nominative  plural  (-is)  3  was  most  thoroughly  lost,  next  the  accusative  singular 
(-im),  next  the  ablative  (-i) ;  while  the  genitive  and  accusative  plural  (-ium,  -is)  were 
retained  in  almost  all. 

74.  I-stems  show  the  i  of  the  stem  in  the  following  forms :  — 

a.  They  have  the  genitive  plural  in  -ium  (but  some  monosyllables  lack 
it  entirely).     For  a  few  exceptions,  see  §  78. 

b.  All  neuters  have  the  nominative  and  accusative  plural  in  -ia. 

c.  The  accusative  plural  (m.  or  f.)  is  regularly  -is. 

(l»  The  accusative  singular  (m.  or  f.)  of  a  few  ends  in  -im  (§  75). 
e.  The  ablative  singular  of  aU  neuters,  and  of  many  masculines  and 
feminines,  ends  in  -i  (see  §  76). 

75.  The  regular  case-ending  of  the  Accusative  singular  of  i- 
stems  (M.  or  F.)  would  be  -im :  as,  sitis,  sitim  (cf .  stella,  -am ;  servus, 
-um);  but  in  most  nouns  this  is  changed  to  -em  (following  the 
consonant  declension). 

1  Rarely  clientum.  2  Also  aetatium.    Cf.  §  71.  4. 

3  An  old,  though  not  the  original,  ending  (see  p.  32,  footnote  2>. 


32  DECLENSION   OF  NOUNS  [§§75-78 

a.  The  accusative  in  -im  is  found  exclusively  — 

1.  In  Greek  nouns  and  in  names  of  rivers. 

2.  In  buris,  cucumis,  ravis,  sitis,  tussis,  vis. 

3.  In  adverbs  in  -tim  (being  accusative  of  nouns  in  -tis),  as,  partim  ;  and  in 
amussim. 

h.  The  accusative  in  -im  is  found  sometimes  in  febris,  puppis,  restis, 
turris,  seciiris,  sementis,  and  rarely  in  many  other  words. 

76.  The  regular  form  of  the  Ablative  singular  of  i-stems  would 
be  -i :  as,  sitis,  siti ;  but  in  most  nouns  this  is  changed  to  -e. 

a.  The  ablative  in  -i  is  found  exclusively  — 

1.  In  nouns  having  the  accusative  in  -im  (§  75) ;  also  secfiris. 

2.  In  the  following  adjectives  used  as  nouns :  aequalis,  annalis,  aqualis,  con- 
sularis,  gentilis,  molaris,  primipllaris,  tribulis. 

3.  In  neuters  in  -e,  -al,  -at .  except  baccar,  iubar,  rete,  and  sometimes  mare. 

h.  The  ablative  in  -i  is  found  sometimes  — 

1.  In  avis,  clavis,  febris,  finis,  ignis,^  imber,  lux,  navis,  ovis,  pelvis,  puppis, 
sementis,  strigilis,  turris,  and  occasionally  in  other  words. 

2.  In  the  following  adjectives  used  as  nouns ;  affinis,  bipennis,  canalis,  famili- 
aris,  natalis,  rivalis,  sapiens,  tridens,  triremis,  vocalis. 

Note  1.  —  The  ablative  of  fames  is  always  fame  (§  105.  e).  The  defective  mane  has 
sometimes  mani  (§  103.  6.  n.)  as  ablative. 

Note  2.  —  Most  names  of  towns  in  -e  (as,  Praeneste,  Tergeste)  and  Soracte,  a  moun- 
tain, have  the  ablative  in  -e.    Caere  has  Caerete. 

Note  3.  —  Canis  and  iuvenis  have  cane,  iuvene. 

77.  The  regular  Nominative  plural  of  i-stems  is  -es,^  but  -is  is 
occasionally  found.  The  regular  Accusative  plural  -is  is  common, 
but  not  exclusively  used  in  any  word.  An  old  form  for  both 
cases  is  -eis  (diphthong). 

78.  The  following  have  -um  (not  -ium)  in  the  genitive  plural: 

1.  Always,  —  canis,  iuvenis,^  ambages,  mare  (once  only,  otherwise  want- 
ing), volucris ;  regularly,  sedes,  vates. 

2.  Sometimes,  —  apis,  caedes,  clades,  mensis,  strues,  suboles. 

3.  Very  rarely, — patrials  in  -as,  -atis;  -is,  -itis ;  as,  Arpinas,  Arpinatum; 
Samnis,  Samnitum. 

1  Always  in  the  formula  aqua  et  Igni  interdici  (§  401). 

2  The  Indo-European  ending  of  the  nominative  plural,  -5s  (preserved  in  Greek  in 
consonant  stems,  as  6pTv^,  Bprvy-es),  contracts  with  a  stem-vowel  and  gives  -es  in  the 
Latin  i-declension  (cf.  the  Greek  plural  ^ets).  This  -es  was  extended  to  consonant 
gtems  in  Latin,  •  Canis  and  iuv«Jis  are  really  n-steras. 


79] 


TfflRD   DECLENSION:    IRREGULAR   NOUNS 


33 


Irregular  Nouns  of  the  Third  Declension 

79.   In  many  nouns  the  stem  is  irregularly  modified  in  the  nomi- 
native or  other  cases.    Some  peculiar  forms  are  thus  declined :  — 


bos,  c. 

senex,  m. 

caro,  F. 

OS,  N. 

VIS,  F. 

ox,  cow 

old  man 

Sing 

flesh 

ULAR 

bone 

force 

NOM. 

bos 

senex 

caro 

OS 

vis 

Gen. 

b6\is 

senis 

carnis 

ossis 

vis  (rare) 

Dat. 

bovi 

seni 

carni 

ossi 

vi  (rare) 

Ace. 

bovem 

senem 

carnen] 

L 

OS 

vim 

Abl. 

bove 

sene 

carne 

osse 

vi 

cattle 

Plural 

strength 

NOM. 

boves 

senes 

carries 

ossa 

virgs 

Gen. 

bourn 

senum 

cariiium 

ossium 

virium 

Dat. 

bobus  (bubus) 

senibus 

carnibus 

ossibus 

viribus 

Ace. 

bovgs 

sengs 

carnes 

ossa 

viris  (-gs) 

Abl. 

bobus  (bubus) 

senibus 

carnibus 

ossibus 

vii'ibus 

sus,  c. 

luppiter, 

M. 

nix,  F. 

iter,  N. 

swine 

Jupiter 

snow 

march 

Singular 

NOM, 

sus 

luppiter ' 

I 

nix 

iter 

Gen. 

suis 

lovis 

nivis 

itineris 

Dat. 

sui 

lovi 

nivi 

itineri 

Ace. 

suem 

lovem 

nivem 

iter 

Abl. 

sue 

love 

nive 

itinere 

Plural 

NOM 

sugs 

nives 

itinera 

Gen. 

suum 

nivium 

itinerum 

Dat, 

subus 

(suibus) 

nivibus 

itineribua 

Ace. 

sues 

nives 

\ 

itinera 

Abl, 

subus 

(suibus) 

nivibus 

itineribus 

1  Also  lupiter. 

34  DECLENSION   OF  NOUNS  [§§  ?y-81 

a.  Two  vowel-stems  in  u-,  grii-  and  su-,  which  follow  the  third  declension, 
add  s  in  the  nominative,  and  are  inflected  like  mute  stems :  griis  has  also 
a  nominative  gruis ;  siis  has  both  suibus  and  subus  in  the  dative  and  ablative 
plural,  griis  has  only  gruibus. 

h.  In  the  stem  bov-  (bou-)  the  diphthong  ou  becomes  6  in  the  nominative 
(bos,  bSvis). 

In  nav-  (nau-)  an  1  is  added  (navis,  -is),  and  it  is  declined  like  turris  (§  67). 

In  ISv-  (=  Zevs)  the  diphthong  (ou)  becomes  u  in  lii-piter  (for  -pater), 
genitive  ISvis,  etc. ;  but  the  form  luppiter  is  preferred. 

c.  In  iter,  itineris  (n.),  iecur,  iecinoris  (iecoris)  (n.),  supellex,  supellectilis 
(f.),  the  nominative  has  been  formed  from  a  shorter  stem;  in  senex,  senis, 
from  a  longer ;  so  that  these  words  show  a  combination  of  forms  from  two 
distinct  stems. 

d.  In  nix,  nivis  the  nominative  retains  a  g  from  the  original  stem,  the  g 
uniting  with  s,  the  nominative  ending,  to  form  x.  In  the  other  cases  the 
stem  assumes  the  form  niv-  and  it  adds  i  in  the  genitive  pluraL 

e.  Vas  (n.),  vasis,  keeps  s  throughout ;  plural  vasa,  vasorum.  A  dative 
plural  vasibus  also  occurs.     There  is  a  rare  singular  vasum. 

The  Locative  Case 

80.  The  Locative  form  for  nouns  of  the  third  declension  ends 
in  the  singular  in  -i  or  -e,  in  the  plural  in  -ibus  i  as,  riiri,  in  the 
country;  Carthagini  or  Carthagine,  at  Carthage;  Trallibus,  at  Tralles} 

Greek  Nouns  of  the  Third  Declension 

81.  Many  nouns  originally  Greek  —  mostly  proper  names  — 
retain  Greek  forms  of  inflection.     So  especially  — 

1.  Genitive  singular  in  -os,  as,  tigridoSc 

2.  Accusative  singular  in  -a,  as,  aethera. 

3.  Vocative  singular  like  the  stem,  as,  Pericle,  Orpheu,  Atla. 

4.  Nominative  plural  in  -es,  as,  heroes. 

5.  Accusative  plural  in  -as,  as,  herdas. 

1  The  Indo-European  locative  singular  ended  in  -i,  which  became  -5  in  Latin.  Thus 
the  Latin  ablative  in  -e  is,  historically  considered,  a  locative.  The  Latin  ablative  in 
-i  (from  -id)  was  an  analogical  formation  (cf .  -a  from  -ad,  -o  from  -od),  properly  belong- 
ing to  i-stemso  With  names  of  towns  and  a  few  other  words,  a  locative  function  was 
ascribed  to  forms  in  -i  (as,  Carthagini),  partly  on  the  analogy  of  the  real  locative  of 
o-stems  (as,  Corinthi,  §  49.  a)  ;  but  forms  in  -e  also  survived  in  this  use.  The  plural 
-bus  is  properly  dative  or  ablative,  but  in  forms  like  Trallibus  it  has  a  locative  func- 
tionc  Cf .  Philippis  (§  49,  a),  in  which  the  ending  -is  is,  historically  considered,  eithei 
locative,  or  instrumental,  or  both,  and  Athenis  (§  43.  c),  in  which  the  ending  is  formed 
on  the  analogy  of  o-stems. 


S§  »2,  83] 


THIRD   DECLENSION:    GREEK  NOUNS 


36 


82. 


Some  of  these  forms  are  seen  in  the  following  examples :  — 


NOM. 

Gen. 

DAT. 

Ace. 
Abl. 


herds,  m.,  hero  iampas,  f.,  torch   basis,  f.,  base 
Stem  hero-       Stem  lampad-        Stem  basi- 

SlNGULAR 

Iampas 

lampados 

lampadi 

lampada 

lampade 


tigris,  c,  tiger  nais,  f.,  naiad 
Stem  {  ^}^^^'     Stem  naid- 


Nom. 
Gen. 
D.,A.i 
Ace. 


Nom. 
Gen. 
Dat. 
Ace. 
Abl. 
Voc. 

Nom. 
Gen. 
Dat. 

Ace. 

Abl. 

Voc. 


heros 

herois 

heroi 

heroa 

heroe 


basis 
baseos 
basi 
basin 


r  tigrid- 
l  tigri- 


tigris  nais 

tigris  (-idos)  naidos 

tigri  naidi 

tigrin(-ida)  naida 

tigri(-ide)  naide 


Plural 

herogs  lampadgs         bases  tigres  naidgs 

heroum         larapadum        basiiim(-e6n)  tigrium  naidum 

heroibus       lampadibus     basibus  tigribus  naidibus 

heroSs  lampad&s         basis  (-eis)         tigris  (-idSs)  naidSs 


Dido 

Didoiiis(Didus) 

Didoni(Dld6) 

Didonem(-6) 

Didone(-6) 

Dido 

Orpheus 

Orphei(-e6s) 

Orphei(-e6) 

Orphea(-um) 

Orpheo 
Orpheu 


Proper  Names 
Simois 
Simoeiitis 
Simoenti 
Simoenta 
Simoente 
Simois 

Pericles 

Periclis(-i) 

Pericli(-i) 

Periclem(-ea,  -en) 

Pericle 
Pericles  (-e) 


Capys 

Capyos 

Capyl 

Capyn 

Capye 

Capy 

Paris 

Paridis 

Paridi 

fParidem, 
Parini(-in) 
Paride,  Pari 
Pari 


Note.  —  The  regular  Latin  forms  may  be  used  for  most  of  the  above. 

83.   Other  peculiarities  are  the  following :  — 

a,  Delphinus,  -i  (m.),  has  also  the  form  delphin,  -mis ;  Salamis,  -is  (f.), 
has  ace.  Salamina.' 

h.  Most  stems  in  id-  (nom.  -is)  often  have  also  the  forms  of  i-stems :  as, 
tigris,  gen.  -idis  (-idos)  or  -is ;  ace.  -idem  (-ida)  or  -im  (-in) ;  abl.  -ide  or  -i. 
But  many,  including  most  feminine  proper  names,  have  ace.  -idem  (-ida), 
abL  -ide,  —  not  -im  or  -i.     (These  stems  are  irregular  also  in  Greek.) 


1  Dative,  hSroisin  (onee  only). 


36  DECLENSION   OF  NOUNS  [§§83-86 

c.  Stems  in  on-  sometimes  retain  -n  in  the  nominative :  as,  Agamem- 
non (or  Agamemno),  genitive  -8nis,  accusative  -6na. 

d.  Stems  in  ont-  form  the  nominative  in  -on:  as,  horizon,  Xenophon; 
but  a  few  are  occasionally  Latinized  into  on-  (nom.  -o) :  a.s,  Draco,  -onis ; 
Antipho,  -onis. 

e.  Like  Simois  are  declined  stems  in  ant-,  ent-,  and  a  few  in  unt-  (nomi- 
native in  -as,  -is,  -iis) :  as.  Atlas,  -antis  ;  Trapezus,  -iintis. 

/.  Some  words  fluctuate  between  different  declensions :  as  Orpheus  be- 
tween the  second  and  the  third. 

g,  -on  is  found  in  the  genitive  plural  in  a  few  Greek  titles  of  books :  as, 
Metamorphoseon,  of  the  Metamorphoses  (Ovid's  well-known  poem);  Georgicon, 
of  the  Georgics  (a  poem  of  Virgil). 

Gender  in  the  Third  Declension 

84.  The  Gender  of  nouns  of  this  declension  must  be  learned 
by  practice  and  from  the  Lexicon.  Many  are  masculine  or  femi- 
nine by  nature  or  in  accordance  with  the  general  rules  for  gen- 
der (p.  15).  The  most  important  rules  for  the  others,  with  their 
principal  exceptions,  are  the  following :  —  * 

85.  Masculine  are  nouns  in  -or,  -os,  -er,  -gs  (gen.  -itis),  -ex  (gen. 
-ids);  as,  color,  flos,  imber,  gurges  (gurgitis),  vertex  (verticis). 

Exceptions  are  the  following:  — 
a.  Feminine  are  arbor ;  cos,  dos ;  linter. 

h.  Neuter  are  ador,  aequor,  cor,  marmor ;  6s  (oris) ;  also  os  (ossis) ; 
cadaver,  iter,  tiiber,  uber,  ver;  and  names  of  plants  and  trees  in  -er:  as, 
acer,  papaver. 

86.  Feminine  are  nouns  in-o,-as,-es,  -is, -us,  -x,  and  in  -s  preceded 
by  a  consonant :  as,  legio,  civitas,  nubes,  avis,  virtus,  arx,  urbs.  The 
nouns  in  -6  are  mostly  those  in  -do  and  -go,  and  abstract  and  collec- 
tive nouns  in  -io. 

Exceptions  are  the  following :  — 

a.  Masculine  are  leo,  leonis;  ligo,  onis  ;  sermo,  -onis;  also  cardo,  harpagd, 
margo,  5rd5,  turbo  ;  and  concrete  nouns  in  -io :  as,  pugio,  uni5,  papilio ;  ^ 
acinaces,  aries,  celes,  lebes,  paries,  pes ; 

1  Some  nouns  of  doubtful  or  variable  gender  are  omitted, 

2  Many  nouns  in  -6  (gen.  -onis)  are  masculine  by  signification:  as,  gero,  carrier; 
restio,  ropemaker ;  and  family  names  (originally  nicknames) :  as,  Cicero,  Kaso.  See 
§5  236.  c,  255. 


FOURTH  DECLENSION 


37 


Nouns  in  -nis  and  -guis  ;  as,  ignis,  sanguis  ;  also  axis,  caulis,  coUis,  cucumis, 
ensis,  fascis,  foUis,  fustis,  lapis,  mensis,  orbis,  piscis,  postis,  pulvis,  vomis ; 
mus; 

calix,  fornix,  grex,  phoenix,  and  nouns  in  -ex  (gen.  -icis)  (§  85) ; 
dens,  f5ns,  mons,  pons. 

Note,  —  Some  nouns  in  -is  and  -ns  which  are  masculine  were  originally  adjectives 
or  participles  agreeing  with  a  masculine  noun:  as,  Aprilis  (sc.  mensis),  m.,  April; 
oriens  (so.  sol),  m.,  the  east;  annalis  (sc.  liber),  m.,  the  year-book. 

b*  Neuter  are  vas  (vasis) ;  cms,  iiis,  piis,  rus,  tiis. 

87.  Neuter  are  nouns  in  -a,  -e,  -1,  -n,  -ar,  -ur,  -iis :  as,  poema,  mare, 
animal,  nomen,  calcar,  robur,  corpus ;  also  lac  and  caput. 

Exceptions  are  the  following :  — 

a»  Masculine  are  sal,  s51,  pecten,  vultur,  lepus. 
b.  Feminine  is  pecus  (gen.  -udis). 

FOURTH  DECLENSION 

88.  The  Stem  of  nouns  of  the  Fourth  Declension  ends  in  u-. 
This  is  usually  weakened  to  i  before  -bus.  Masculine  and  Femi- 
nine nouns  form  the  nominative  by  adding  s ;  Neuters  have  for 
nominative  the  simple  stem,  but  with  u  (long). 

89.  Nouns  of  the  Fourth  Declension  are  declined  as  follows : 


manus,  f.,  hand 

lacus,  M.,  lake 

genu,  N.,  knee 

Stem  manu- 

Stem  lacu- 

Stem  genu- 

Singular 

4 

DASE-ENDIN63 

. 

CASE-ENDINGS 

NOM. 

manus 

lacus 

-US 

genu 

»U 

Gen. 

manus 

lacus 

-US 

genus 

-US 

Dat. 

manui(-u) 

lacuT(-fl) 

-ui(.u)        • 

genu 

-u 

Ace. 

manum 

lacum 

-um 

genu 

-u 

Abl. 

manu 

lacu 

-u 
Plural 

genu 

-u 

NOM. 

manfls 

lacus 

-us 

genua 

-ua 

Gen. 

manuTim 

lacuum 

-uum 

genuuKi 

-uum 

Dat. 

manibus 

lacubus 

-ibus(-ubus) 

genibus 

-ibus 

Ace. 

manus 

lacus 

-us 

genua 

-ua 

Abl. 

manibus 

lacubus 

-ibus(-ubus) 

genibus 

-ibu9 

38  DECLENSION   OF  NOUNS  [§§  90-93 

Gender  in  the  Fourth  Declension 

90.  Most  nouns  of  the  Fourth  Declension  in  -us  are  Masculine. 

Exceptions :  The  following  are  Feminine :  acus,  anus,  colus,  domus,  idus  (plural), 
manus,  nurus,  porticus,  quinquatrus  (plural),  socrus,  tribus,  with  a  few  names  of 
plants  and  trees.     Also,  rarely,  penus,  specus. 

91.  The  only  Neuters  of  the  Fourth  Declension  are  comu,  genu, 
pecu  (§  105./),  veru.^ 

Case-Forms  in  the  Fourth  Declension 

92.  The  following  peculiarities  in  case-forms  of  the  Fourth 
Declension  require  notice :  — 

a.  A  genitive  singular  in  -i  (as  of  the  second  declension)  sometimes 
occurs  in  nouns  in  -tus :  as,  senatus,  genitive  senati  (regularly  senatus). 

b.  In  the  genitive  plural  -uum  is  sometimes  pronounced  .as  one  sylla- 
ble, and  may  then  be  written  -um :  as,  currum  (Aen.  vi.  653)  for  curruum. 

c.  The  dative  and  ablative  plural  in  -iibus  are  retained  in  partus  and 
tribus;  so  regularly  in  artus  and  lacus,  and  occasionally  in  other  words; 
portus  and  specus  have  both  -ubus  and  -ibus. 

d.  Most  names  of  plants  and  trees,  and  colus,  distaff]  have  also  forms  of 
the  second  declension :  as,  f icus,  ^/ig,  genitive  ficus  or  fici. 

e.  An  old  genitive  singular  in  -uis  or  -uos  and  an  old  genitive  plural  in 
-uom  occur  rarely  :  as,  senatuis,  senatuos ;  fluctuom. 

/.  The  ablative  singular  ended  anciently  in  -iid  (cf.  §  43.  n.  1):  as, 
magistratiid. 

93.  Domus  (f.),  house^  has  two  stems  ending  in  u-  and  o-.  Hence 
it  shows  forms  of  both  the  fourth  and  second  declensions : 


Singular 

Plural 

NOM. 

domus 

domus 

Gen. 

domus  (domi,  loc.) 

domuum  (domorum) 

DAT. 

domui  (domo) 

domibus 

Ace. 

domum 

domos  (domus) 

Abl. 

domo  (domu) 

domibus 

Note  1.  — The  Locative  is  domi  (rarely  domui),  at  home. 

Note  2.  —  The  Genitive  domi  occurs  in  Plautus ;  domorum  is  late  or  poetic. 

1  A  few  other  neuters  of  this  declension  are  mentioned  by  the  ancient  grammarians 
as  occurring  in  certain  cases. 


§§  94-96] 


FIFTH  DECLENSION   (^-STEMS) 


39 


94.  Most  nouns  of  the  Fourth  Declension  are  formed  from 

verb-stems,  or  roots,  by  means  of  the  suffix  -tus  (-bUs)  (§  238.  h) : 

cantus,  song,  can,  cano,  sing;  casus  (for  fcad-tus),  chance,  cad,  csido,  fall; 
exsulatus,  exile,  from  exsulo,  to  be  an  exile  (exsul), 

a.  Many  are  formed  either  from  verb-stems  not  in  use,  or  by  analogy: 
consulatus  (as  if  from  fconsulo,  -are),  senatus,  incestus. 

b.  The  accusative  and  the  dative  or  ablative  of  nouns  in  -tus  (-sus)  form 
the  Supines  of  verbs  (§  159.  &):  as,  spectatum,  petitum;  dictu,  visu. 

c»  Of  many  verbal  derivatives  only  the  ablative  is  used  as  a  noun :  as, 
iussu  (meo),  by  {my')  command;  so  iniussu  (populi),  without  (the people's)  order. 
Of  some  only  the  dative  is  used :  as,  divisui. 

FIFTH  DECLENSION  (^-STEMS) 

95.  The  Stem  of  nouns  of  the  Fifth  Declension  ends  in  e-,  which 
appears  in  all  the  cases.  The  Nominative  is  formed  from  the  stem 
by  adding  s. 

96.  Nouns  of  the  Fifth  Declension  are  declined  as  follows :  — 


res,  r.,  thing 

dies,  M.,  day 

fides,  r. ,  faith 

Stem  re- 

Stem  die- 

SlNGULAR 

Stem  fide- 

CASE-ENDING  1 

NOM. 

res 

dies 

fides. 

-es 

Gen. 

r^i 

diei  (die) 

fidgl 

-ei(-e) 

Dat. 

rei 

diei  (die) 

fidei 

-ei  (-e) 

Ace. 

rem 

diem 

fidem 

-em 

Abl. 

re 

die 
Plural 

fide 

-e 

NOM. 

res 

dies 

-es 

Gen. 

rerum 

dierum 

-erum 

DAT. 

rebus 

diebus 

-ebus 

Ace. 

res 

dies 

-es 

Abl. 

rebus 

diebus 

-ebus 

]VfOTE.  — The  e  of  the  stem  is  shortened  in  the  genitive  and  dative  singular  of  fides, 
spes,  res,  but  in  these  it  is  found  long  in  early  Latin.  In  the  accusative  singular  e 
is  always  short. 


40  DECLENSION   OF  NOUNS  [§§97-99 

Gender  in  the  Fifth  Declension 

97.  All  nouns  of  the  Fifth  Declension  are  Feminine,  except 
dies  (usually  M.),  day^  and  meridies  (M.),  noon. 

a.  Dies  is  sometimes  feminine  in  the  singular,  especially  in  phrases  indi- 
cating a  fixed  ti  me,  and  regularly  feminine  when  used  of  time  in  general : 
as,  constituta  die,  on  a  set  day;  longa  dies,  a  long  time. 

Case-Forms  in  the  Fifth  Declension 

98.  The  following  peculiarities  require  notice :  — 

a.  Of  nouns  of  the  fifth  declension,  only  dies  and  res  are  declined  through- 
out. Most  want  the  plural,  which  is,  however,  found  in  the  nominative  or 
accusative  in  acies,  effigies,  eluvies,  facies,  glacies,  series,  species,  spes.^ 

h.  The  Locative  form  of  this  declension  ends  in  -e.  It  is  found  only  in 
certain  adverbs  and  expressions  of  time :  — 

hodie,  to-day;  die  quarto  (old,  quarti),  the  fourth  day  ; 

perendie,  day  after  to-morrow ;         pridie,  the  day  before. 

c.  The  fifth  declension  is  closely  related  to  the  first,  and  several  nouns 
have  forms  of  both :  as,  materia,  -ies  ;  saevitia,  -ies.  The  genitive  and  dative 
in  -ei  are  rarely  found  in  these  words. 

d.  Some  nouns  vary  between  the  fifth  and  the  third  declension  :  as, 
requies,  saties  (also  satias,  genitive  -atis),  plebes  (also  plebs,  genitive  plebis), 
fames,  genitive  famis,  ablative  fame. 

Note.  —  In  the  genitive  and  dative  -ei  (-§!)  was  sometimes  contracted  into  -€i: 
as,  tribunus  pleb^,  tribune  of  the  people  (plebes).  Genitives  in  -i  and  -e  also  occur: 
as,  dii  (Aen.  1.  636),  plebi-scitum,  acie  (B.  G.  ii.  23).  A  few  examples  of  the  old  geni- 
tive in  -es  are  found  (of.  -as  in  the  first  declension,  §  43.  6) .  The  dative  has  rarely  -e, 
and  a  form  in  -i  is  cited. 

DEFECTIVE  NOUNS 
Nouns  wanting  in  the  Plural 

99.  Some  nouns  are  ordinarily  found  in  the  Singular  number 
only  {singuldria  taiitum).     These  are  — 

1.  Most  proper  names:  as,  Caesar,  Ccesar;  Gallia,  Gaul. 

2.  Names  of  things  not  counted,  but  reckoned  in  mass  :  as,  aurum,  gold: 
aer,  air;  triticum,  tvheat. 

3.  Abstract  nouns:  as,  ambitio,  ambition;  fortitude,  courage;  calor,  heat, 

1  The  forms  facitnim,  specierum,  spcciebus,  sperum,  spebus,  are  cited  by  grammarians, 
also  speres,  speribus,  and  some  of  these  occur  in  hite  authors. 


§§  iOO-102]  DEFECTIVE   :N0UNS  .  ,         41 

100.  Many  of  these  nouns,  however,  are  used  in  the  plural  in 
some  other  sense. 

a.  The  plural  of  a  proper  name  may  be  applied  to  two  or  more  persons 
or  places,  or  even  things,  and  so  become  strictly  common :  — 

duodecim  Caesares,  the  twelve  Ccesars. 
Galliae,  the  two  Gauls  (Cis-  and  Iransalpine). 
Castores,  Castor  and  Pollux  ;  loves,  images  of  Jupiter. 

b.  The  plural  of  names  of  things  reckoned  in  mass  may  denote  particular 
objects:  as,  aera,  bronze  utensils,  nives,  snoioflakes;  or  different  kinds  of  a  thing : 
as,  aeres,  airs  (good  and  bad). 

c.  The  plural  of  abstract  nouns  denotes  occasions  or  instances  of  the  quality, 
or  the  like :  — 

quaedam  escellentiae,  some  cases  of  superiority  ;  otia,  periods  of  rest ;  calores, 
frigora,  times  of  heat  and  cold. 

Nouns  wanting  in  the  Singular 

101.  Some  nouns  are  commonly  or  exclusively  found  in  the 
Plural  {plUrdlia  tantum).     Such  are  — 

1.  Many  names  of  towns  :  as,  Athenae  (^^Aens),  Thurii,  Philippi,  Veil. 

2.  Names  of  festivals  and  games :  as,  Olympia,  the  Olympic  Games;  Baccha- 
nalia, feast  of  Bacchus ;  Quinquatrus,  festival  of  Minerva  ;  ludi  Romani,  the 
Roman  Games. 

3.  Names  of  classes:  as,  optimates,  i^e  upper  classes;  maiores,  ancestors; 
liberi,  children;  penates,  household  gods;  Quirites,  citizens  (oi  Rome). 

4.  Words  plural  by  signification;  as,  arma,  weapons;  artns, joints ;  divi- 
tiae,  riches;  scalae,  stairs;  yalvae,  folding-doors ;  fores,  double-doors ;  angustiae, 
a  narrow  pass  (narrows) ;  moenia,  city  walls. 

Note  1.  —  Some  words,  plural  by  signification  in  Latin,  are  translated  by  English 
nouns  iu  the  singular  number :  as,  delicia.e,  delight,  darling;  i3iUCQs,  throat;  Mes,  lyre 
(also  singular  in  poetry) ;  insidiae,  ambush;  cervices,  neck;  visceTa., flesh. 

Note  2.  —  The  poets  often  use  the  plural  number  for  the  singular,  sometimes  for 
metrical  reasons,  sometimes  from  a  mere  fashion :  as,  ora  (for  os),  the  face ;  sceptra  (for 
sceptrum),  sceptre;  silentia  (for  silentium) ,  sUence. 

102.  Some  nouns  of  the  above  classes  (§  101. 1-4),  have  a  corre- 
sponding singular,  as  noun  or  adjective,  often  in  a  special  sense  : 

1.  As  noun,  to  denote  a  single  object:  as,  Bacchanal,  a  spot  sacred  to 
Bacchus;  optimas,  an  aristocrat. 

2.  As  adjective :  as,  Cato  Maior,  Cato  the  Elder. 

3.  In  a  sense  rare,  or  found  only  in  early  Latin:  as,  scala,  a  ladder; 
valva,  a  door;  artus,  a  Joint. 


42  DECLENSION  OF  NOUNS        .  [§103 

Nouns  Defective  in  Certain  Cases 
103.  Many  nouns  are  defective  in  case-forms :  ^  — 

a.  Indeclinable  nouns,  used  only  as  nominative  and  accusative  singular, 
fas,  nefas,  instar,  nihil,  opus  (need),  secus. 

Note  1.  — The  indeclinable  adjective  necesse  is  used  as  a  nominative  or  accusative. 
Note  2.  — The  genitive  nihili  and  the  ablative  nihilo  (from  nihilum,  nothing)  occur. 

b.  Nouns  found  in  one  case  only  (monoptotes) :  — 

1.  In  the  nominative  singular:  glos  (f.). 

2.  In  the  genitive  singular  :  dicis,  nauci  (n.  ). 

3.  In  the  dative  singular :  divisui  (m.)  (cf.  §  94.  c). 

4.  In  the  accusative  singular :  amussim  (m.)  ;  venum  (dative  veno  in  Tacitus). 

5.  In  the  ablative  singular:  pondo  (n.)  ;  mane  (n.)  ;  astu  (m.),  by  craft;  iussu, 
iniussij,  natii,  and  many  other  verbal  nouns  in  -us  (m.)  (§  94.  c). 

Note.  —  Mane  is  also  used  as  an  indeclinable  accusative,  and  an  old  form  mam  is 
used  as  ablative.  Pondo  with  a  numeral  is  often  apparently  equivalent  to  pounds.  A 
nominative  singular  astus  and  a  plural  astus  occur  rarely  in  later  writers. 

6.  In  the  accusative  plural :  infitias. 

c.  Nouns  found  in  two  cases  only  (diptotes):  — 

1.  In  the  nominative  and  ablative  singular  :  fors,  forte  (f.). 

2.  In  the  genitive  and  ablative  singular  :  spontis  (rare),  sponte  (f.). 

3.  In  the  accusative  singular  and  plural :  dicam,  dicas  (f.)-. 

4.  In  the  accusative  and  ablative  plural:  foras,  foris  (f.)  (cf.  fores),  used  as 
adverbs. 

'  d»  Nouns  found  in  three  cases  only  (triptotes) :  — 

1.  In  the  nominative,  accusative,  and  ablative  singular ;  impetus,  -um,  -u  (m.  )2 ; 
lues,  -em,  -e  (f.). 

2.  In  the  nominative,  accusative,  and  dative  or  ablative  plural :  grates,  -ibus  (f). 

3.  In  the  nominative,  genitive,  and  dative  or  ablative  plural :  iugera,  -um,  -ibus 
(n.)  ;  but  iugerum,  etc.,  in  the  singular  (cf.  §  105.  b). 

e.  Nouns  found  in  four  cases  only  (tetraptotes) :  — 

In  the  genitive,  dative,  accusative,  ablative  singular:  dicionis,  -T,  -em,  -e  (f.). 

/.  Nouns  declined  regularly  in  the  plural,  but  defective  in  the  singidar  :  — 

1.  Nouns  found  in  the  singular,  in  genitive,  dative,  accusative,  ablative:  frijgis, 
•i,  -em,  -e  (f.)  ;  opis,  -i  (once  only),  -em,  -e  (f.  ;  nominative  Ops  as  a  divinity). 

2.  Nouns  found  in  the  dative,  accusative,  ablative:  preci,  -em,  -e  (f.). 

3.  Nouns  found  in  the  accusative  and  ablative  :  cassem,  -e  (f.)  ;  sordem,  -e  (f.). 

4.  Nouns  found  in  the  ablative  only :  ambage  (r.) ;  fauce  (f.)  ;  obice  (c). 

g.  Nouns  regular  in  the  singular,  defective  in  the  plural :  — 

1  Some  early  or  late  forms  and  other  rarities  are  omitted. 

2  The  dative  singular  impetui  and  the  ablative  plural  impetibus  occur  once  each. 


§§  103-105]  VARIABLE   NOUNS  43 

1.  The  following  neuters  have  in  the  plural  the  nominative  and  accusative 
only :  fel  (fella),  far  (farra),  hordeum  (hordea),  ius,  broth  (iura),  mel  (mella),  murmur 
(murmura),  pus  (pura),  rus  (rura),  tus  or  thus  (tura). 

Note.  —  The  neuter  ius,  right,  has  only  iura  in  classical  writers,  but  a  very  rare  geni- 
tive plural  iurum  occurs  in  old  Latin. 

2.  calx,  cor,  cos,  crux,  fax,  faex,  lanx,  lux,  nex,  6s  (6ris),i  os  (ossis),^  pax,  pix, 
ros,  sal,  sol,  vas  (vadis),  want  the  genitive  plural. 

3.  Most  nouns  of  the  fifth  declension  want  the  whole  or  part  of  the  plural 
(see  §  98.  a). 

h,  Kouns  defective  in  both  singular  and  plural :  — 

1.  Noun  found  in  the  genitive,  accusative,  ablative  singular;  nominative, 
accusative,  dative,  ablative  plural :  vicis,  -em,  -e ;  -es,  -ibus. 

2.  Noun  found  in  the  genitive,  dative,  accusative,  and  ablative  singular; 
genitive  plural  wanting:  dapis,  -i,  -em,  -e;  -es,  -ibus.^ 

VARIABLE  KOUNS 

104.  Many  nouns  vary  either  in  Declension  or  in  Gender. 

105.  Nouns  that  vary  in  Declension  are  called  heter oolites.^ 

a.  Colus  (f.),  distaff;  domus  (f.),  house  (see  §  93),  and  many  names 
of  plants  in  -us,  vary  between  the  Second  and  Fourth  Declensions. 

b.  Some  nouns  vary  between  the  Second  and  Third :  as,  iiigerum,  -i,  -o, 
ablative  -o  or  -e,  plural  -a,  -um,  -ibus ;  Mulciber,  genitive  -beri  and  -beris ; 
sequester,  genitive  -tri  and  -tris ;  vas,  vasis,  and  (old)  vasum,  -i  (§  79.  e). 

c.  Some  vary  between  the  Second,  Third,  and  Fourth  :  as,  penus,  penum, 
genitive  penl  and  penoris,  ablative  penu. 

d.  Many  nouns  vary  between  the  First  and  Fifth  (see  §  98.  c). 

e.  Some  vary  between  the  Third  and  Fifth.  Thus,  —  requies  has  geni- 
tive -etis,  dative  wanting,  accusative  -etem  or  -em,  ablative  -e  (once  -ete)  ; 
fames,  regularly  of  the  third  declension,  has  ablative  fame  (§  76.  n.  1), 
and  pubes  (m.)  has  once  dative  pube  (in  Plautus). 

/.  Pecus  varies  between  the  Third  and  Foui-th,  having  pecoris,  etc.,  but 
also  nominative  pecii,  ablative  pecii ;  plural  pecua,  genitive  pecuum. 

gr.  Many  vary  between  different  stems  of  the  same  declension  :  as,  femur 
(n.),  genitive  -oris,  also  -inis  (as  from  ffemen);  iecur  (n.),  genitive  iecinoris, 
iocinoris,  iecoris ;  miinus  (n.),  plural  miinera  and  munia. 

1  The  ablative  plural  oribus  is  rare,  the  classical  idiom  being  in  ore  omnium,  in  every- 
body's mouth,  etc.,  not  in  cribus  omnium. 

2  The  genitive  plural  ossium  is  late ;  ossuura  (from  ossua,  plural  of  a  neuter  u-stem) 
is  early  and  late. 

3  An  old  nominative  daps  is  cited. 

4  That  is,  "iiouns  of  different  inflections"  (erepos,  another,  and  kXiVw,  to  inflect). 


44 


DECLENSION   OF  NOUNS 


[§§  106,  107 


106.  Nouns  that  vary  in  Gender  are  said  to  be  heterogeneous.'^ 

a*  The  following  have  a  masculine  form  in  -us  and  a  neuter  in  -um : 
balteus,  caseus,  clipeus,  collum,  cingulum,  pileus,  tergum,  vallum,  with  many 
others  of  rare  occurrence. 

h.  The  following  have  in  the  Plural  a  different  gender  from  that  of  the 
Singular :  — 

balneae  (f.),  baths  (an  establishment). 

cael5s  (m.  ace,  Lucr.). 

carbasa  (n.)  (-orum),  sails. 

deliciae  (f.),  pet. 

epulae  {v.)^  feast. 

freni  (m.)  or  frena  (n.),  a  bridle. 

ioca  (n.),  ioci  {m.),  jests. 

loca  (n.),  loci  (m.,  usually  topics, passages  in  books). 

rastri  (m.),  rastra  (n.),  rakes. 


balneum  (n.),  bath; 
caelum  (n.),  heaven; 
carbasus  (f.),  a  sail; 
delicium  (n.),  pleasure. 
epulum  (n.),  feast ; 
frenum  (n.),  a  bit; 
iocus  (m.),  a  jest; 
locus  (m.),  place; 
rastrum  (n.),  a  rake; 


Note,  —  Some  of  tbese  nouns  are  heteroclites  as  well  as  heterogeneous. 


107.  Many  nouns  are  found  in 

aedes,  -is  (f.),  temple; 

aqua  (f.),  water ; 

auxilium  (n.),  help; 

bonum  (n.),  a  good; 

career  (m.),  dungeon; 

castrum  {s.),  fort; 

comitium  (n.),  2^lcLce  of  assembly ; 

copia  (f.),  plenty ; 

fides  (f.),  harp-string; 

finis  (m.),  end; 

fortuna  (f.),  fortune ; 

gratia  (f.),  favor  (rarely,  thanks); 

hortus  (m,),  a  garden; 

impedimentum  (n.)  hindrance; 

littera  (f.),  letter  (of  alphabet) ; 

locus  (m.),  place  [plural  loca  (n.)]  ; 

ludus  (m.),  sport; 

mos  (m.),  habit,  custom; 

natalis  (m.),  birthday ; 

opera  (f.),  work; 

[ops,]  opis  (F.),  help  (§  103./.  1); 

pars  (f.),  part; 

rostrum  (n.),  beak  of  a  ship; 

sal  (m.  or  n.),  salt; 

tabella  (f.),  tablet; 


the  Plural  in  a  peculiar  sense:  — 

aedes,  -ium,  house.  * 

aquae,  mineral  springs,  a  watering-place. 

auxilia,  auxiliaries. 

bona,  goods,  property. 

carceres,  barriers  (of  race-course). 

castra,  camp. 

comitia,  an  election  (town-meeting). 

copiae,  stores,  troops. 

fides,  lyre. 

fines,  bounds,  territories. 

fortunae,  possessions. 

gratiae,  thanks  (also,  the  Graces). 

horti,  pleasure-grounds. 

impedimenta,  baggage. 

litterae,  epistle,  literature. 

loci,2  topics,  places  in  books. 

ludi,  public  games. 

mores,  character. 

natales,  descent,  origin. 

operae,  day-laborers  ("hands"). 

opes,  resources,  wealth. 

partes,  part  (on  the  stage),  party. 

rostra,  speaker'' s  platform . 

sales,  witticisms. 

tabellae,  documents,  records. 


1  That  is,  "of  different  genders"  (?repos,  another,  and  yhos^  gender). 

2  In  early  writers  the  re;rular  plural. 


§  108]  NAMES   OF  PERSONS  45 

NAMES   OF  PERSONS 

108.  A  Roman  had  regularly  three  names:  —  (1)  the  praenomen, 
or  personal  name  ;   (2)  the  nomen,  or  name  of  the  gens  or  house  ; 
(3)  the  cognomen,  or  family  name :  — 
Thus  in  Marcus  TuUius  Cicero  we  have  — 
Marcus,  the  praendmen,  hke  our  Christian  or  given  name  ; 
Tullius,  the  nomen,  properly  an  adjective  denoting  of  the  Tullian  gens  (or 

house)  whose  original  head  was  a  real  or  supposed  Tullus ; 
Cicero,  the  cognomen,  or  family  name,  often  in  origin  a  nickname,  — in  this 
case  from  cicer,  a  vetch,  or  small  pea. 

Note.  —  When  two  persons  of  the  same  family  are  mentioned  together,  the  cogno- 
men is  usually  put  in  the  plural :  as,  Piiblius  et  Servius  Sullae. 

a,  A  fourth  or  fifth  name  was  sometimes  given  as  a  mark  of  honor  or 
distinction,  or  to  show  adoption  from  another  gens. 

Thus  the  complete  name  of  Scipio  the  Younger  was  Publius  Cornelius  Scipio 
Africanus  Aemilianus :  Africanus,  from  his  exploits  in  Africa ;  Aemilianus,  as 
adopted  from  the  ^milian  gens.^ 

Note.  —  The  Romans  of  the  classical  period  had  no  separate  name  for  these  addi- 
tions, but  later  grammarians  invented  the  word  agnomen  to  express  them. 

h.  Women  had  commonly  in  classical  times  no  personal  names,  but  were 
known  only  by  the  nomen  of  their  gens. 

Thus,  the  wife  of  Cicero  was  Terentia,  and  his  daughter  Tullia.  A  second 
daughter  would  have  been  called  Tullia  secunda  or  minor,  a  third  daughter,  Tullia 
tertia,  and  so  on. 

c.  The  commonest  prsenomens  are  thus  abbreviated  :  — 
A.  Aulus.  L.  Lucius.  Q.  Quintus. 

App.  (Ap.)  Appius.  M.  Marcus.  Set.  Servius. 

C.  (G.)  Gains  {Caius)  (cf.  §  1.  a).    M'.  Manius.  Sex.  (S.)  Sextus. 
Cn.  (Gn.)  Gnaeus  (Cneius).             Mam.  Mamercus.  Sp.  Spurius. 

D.  Decimus.  N.  (Num.)  Numerius      T.  Titus. 

K.  Kaeso  (Caeso).  P.  Publius.  Ti.  (Tib.)  Tiberius. 

Note  1.  —  In  the  abbreviations  C.  and  Cn.,  the  initial  character  has  the  value  of  G 
(§l.a). 

1  In  stating  officially  the  full  name  of  a  Roman  it  was  customary  to  include  the 
praenomina  of  the  father,  grandfather,  and  great-grandfather,  together  with  the  name 
of  the  tribe  to  which  the  individual  belonged.  Thus  in  an  inscription  we  find  M.  TVL- 
LIVS  M.  F.  M.  N.  M.  PR.  COR.  CICERO,  i.e.  Marcus  Tullius  Marclfilius  Marc!  nepos  Marc!  pro- 
nepos  Cornelia  tribii  Cicero.  The  names  of  grandfather  and  great-grandfather  as  well  as 
that  of  the  tribe  are  usually  omitted  in  literature.  The  name  of  a  wife  or  daughter  is 
usually  accompanied  by  that  of  the  husband  or  father  in  the  genitive:  as,  Postumia 
Servi  Sulpici!  (Suet.  lul.  50),  Postumia,  wife  of  Servius  Sulpicius;  Caecilia  Metelli 
(Div.  i.  104),  Caecilia,  daughter  of  Metellus. 


46 


DECLENSION  OF  ADJECTIVES 


109,  110 


ADJECTIVES 

109.  Adjectives  and  Participles  are  in  general  formed  and  de- 
clined like  Nouns,  differing  from  them  only  in  their  use. 

1.  In  accordance  -with  their  use,  they  distinguish  gender  by  different 
forms  in  the  same  word,  and  agree  with  their  nouns  in  gender,  number^  and 
case.     Thus, — 

bonus  puer,  the  good  boy. 
bona  puella,  the  good  girl. 
bonum  donum,  the  good  gift. 

2.  In  their  inflection  they  are  either  (1)  of  the  First  and  Second  Declen- 
sions, or  (2)  of  the  Third  Declension. 


FIRST  AND   SECOND   DECLENSIONS  {d-  AND  <?-STEMS) 

110.  Adjectives  of  the  First  and  Second  Declensions  (a-  and 
o-stems)  are  declined  in  the  Masculine  like  servus,  puer,  or  ager; 
in  the  Feminine  like  stella ;  and  in  the  Neuter  like  bellum. 

The  regular  type  of  an  adjective  of  the  First  and  Second  Declen- 
sions is  bonus,  -a,  -um,  which  is  thus  declined :  — 

bonus,  bona,  bonum,  good 


MASCULINE 

FEMININE 

NEUTER 

Stem  bono- 

Stem  bona- 

SlNGULAR 

Stem  bono- 

NOM. 

bonus 

bona 

bonum 

Gen. 

boni 

bonae 

boni 

DAT. 

bono 

bonae 

bono 

Ace. 

bonum 

bonam 

bonum 

Abl. 

bono 

bona 

bono 

Voc. 

bone 

bona 
Plural 

bonum 

NOM. 

boni 

bonae 

bona 

Gen. 

bonorum 

bonarum 

bonorum 

Dat. 

bonis 

bonis 

bonis 

Ace. 

bonos 

bonas 

bona 

Abl. 

bonis 

bonis 

bonis 

^§  no,  111] 


FIRST  AND   SECOND   DECLENSIONS 


47 


Note.  —  Stems  in  quo-  have  nominative  -cus  (-quos),  -qua,  -cum  (-quom),  accusative 
^um  (-quom),  -quam,  -cum  (-quom),  to  avoid  quu-  (see  §§  6.  h  and  4G.  N.  2).     Thus,— 
NoM.    propincus  (-quos)  propinqua  propincum  (-quom) 

Gen.     propiuqui  propinquae  propinqui,  etc. 

But  most  modern  editions  disregard  this  principle. 

a.  The  Genitive  Singular  masculine  of  adjectives  in  -ius  ends  in  -ii,  and 
the  Vocative  in  -ie ;  not  in  -i,  as  in  nouns  (cf .  §  49.  h,  c) ;  as,  Lacedaemonius, 
-ii,  -ie. 

Note.  —  The  possessive  meus,  my,  has  the  vocative  masculine  mi  (cf.  §  145). 

111.  Stems  ending  in  ro-  preceded  by  e  form  the  Nominative 
Masculine  like  puer  (§  47)  and  are  declined  as  follows:  — 

miser,  misera,  miserum,  wretched 


MASCULINE 

FEMININE 

NEUTER 

Stem  misero- 

Stem  misera- 

SlNGULAR 

Stem  misero- 

NOM. 

miser 

misera 

miserum 

Gen. 

miseri 

miserae 

miseri 

DAT. 

misero 

miserae 

miserS 

Ace. 

miserum 

miseram 

miserum 

Abl. 

misero 

misera 
Plural 

misero 

NOM. 

miseri 

miserae 

misera 

Gen. 

miseroriim 

miserarum 

miserorum 

DAT. 

miserls 

miseris 

miseris 

Ace. 

miseros 

miseras 

misera 

Abl. 

miseris 

miseris 

miseris 

Cf.  Like  miser  are  declined  asper,  gibber,  lacer,  liber,  prosper  (also  pros- 
penis),  satur  (-ura,  -urum),  tener,  with  compounds  of  -fer  and  -ger :  as,  saeti- 
ger,  -era,  -erum,  bristle-bearing ;  also,  usually,  dexter.  In  these  the  e  belongs  to 
the  stem  ;  but  in  dextra  it  is  often  omitted  :  as,  dextra  manus,  the  right  hand. 

Note.  —  Stems  in  ero-  (as  procerus),  with  morigerus,  properus,  have  the  regular  nomi- 
native masculine  in  -us. 

b.  The  following  lack  a  nominative  singular  masculine  in  classic  use : 
cetera,  infera,  postera,  supera.  They  are  rarely  found  in  the  singular  except 
in  certain  phrases :  as,  poster©  die,  the  next  day. 

Note.  —  An  ablative  feminine  in  -o  is  found  in  a  few  Greek  adjectives:  as,  lectica 
octophoro  fVerr.  v.  27). 


48 


DECLENSION  OF  ADJECTIVES 


112,  113 


112.  Stems  in  ro-  preceded  by  a  consonant  form  the  Nominative 
Masculine  like  ager  (§  47)  and  are  declined  as  follows :  — 

niger,  nigra,  nigrum:  black 


MASCULINE 

FEMININE 

NEUTER 

Stem  nigro- 

Sin 

Stem  nigra- 

GULAR 

Stem  nigro- 

NOM. 

niger 

nigra 

nigrum 

Gen. 

nigri 

nigrae 

nigii 

DAT. 

nigro 

nigrae 

nigi'6 

Ace. 

nignim 

nigram 

nigrum 

Abl. 

nigro 

Pi 

nigra 

LTRAL 

nigro 

NOM. 

nigri 

nigrae 

nigra 

Gen. 

nigrorum 

nigi'arum 

nigrorum 

DAT. 

nigris 

nigris 

nigi-is 

Ace. 

nigros 

nigras 

nigra 

Abl. 

nigris 

nigris 

nigris 

a.  Like  niger  are  declined  aeger,  ater,  creber,  faber,  glaber,  integer,  liidicer, 
macer,  piger,  pulcher,  ruber,  sacer,  scaber,  sinister,  taeter,  vafer ;  also  the  pos- 
sessives  noster,  vester  (§  145). 

113.  The  following  nine  adjectives  with  their  compounds  have 

the  Genitive  Singular  in  -ius  and  the  Dative  in  -i  in  all  genders : 

alius  (n.  aliud),  other.  totus,  whole.  alter,  -terius,  the  other. 

nuUus,  no,  none.  ullus,  any.  neuter,  -trius,  neither. 

solus,  alone.  unus,  one.  uter,  -trius,  which  (of  two). 

Of  these  the  singular  is  thus  declined :  — 


M. 

F. 

N. 

M. 

p. 

N. 

NOM. 

unus 

iina 

iinum 

uter 

utra 

utrum 

Gen. 

iinius 

unius 

iinius 

utrius 

utrius 

utrius 

Dat. 

uni 

iini 

uni 

utri 

utri 

utri 

Ace. 

iinum 

uiiam 

iinum 

utrum 

utram 

utrum 

Abl. 

uno 

iina 

iino 

utro 

utra 

utro 

NOM. 

^  alius 

alia 

aliud 

alter 

altera 

alterum 

Gen. 

^  alius 

alius 

alius" 

alterius 

alterius 

alterius 

Dat. 

alii 

alii 

alii 

alteri 

alteri 

alteri 

Ace. 

alium 

aliam 

aliud 

alterum 

alteram 

alterum 

Abl. 

alio 

alia 

alio 

altero 

altera 

altero 

§§113-116]     ADJECTIVES   OF  THE  THIRD   DECLENSION 


49 


a.  The  plural  of  these  words  is  regular,  like  that  of  bonus  (§  110). 

b.  The  genitive  in  -lus,  dative  in  -i,  and  neuter  in  -d  are  pronominal  in 
origin  (cf.  illius,  illi,  illud,  and  §  146). 

c.  The  i  of  the  genitive  ending  -ius,  though  originally  long,  may  be  made 
short  in  verse ;  so  often  in  alterius  and  regularly  in  utriusque. 

d.  Instead  of  alius,  alterius  is  commonly  used,  or  in  the  possessive  sense 
the  adjective  alienus,  belonging  to  another,  another's. 

e.  In  compounds  —  as  alteruter  —  sometimes  both  parts  are  declined, 
sometimes  only  the  latter.     Thus,  alteri  utri  or  alterutri,  to  one  of  the  two. 

Note.  —  The  regular  genitive  and  dative  forms  (as  in  bonus)  are  sometimes  found 
in  some  of  these  words:  as,  genitive  and  dative  feminine,  aliae;  dative  masculine, 
alio.    Rare  forms  are  alls  and  alid  (for  alius,  aliud). 


THIRD  DECLENSION  (CONSONANT  AND  /-STEMS) 

114.  Adjectives  of  the  Third  Declension  are  thus  classified:  — 

1.  Adjectives  of  Three  Terminations  in  the  nominative  singular,  —  one 
for  each  gender :  as,  acer,  acris,  acre. 

2.  Adjectives  of  Two  Terminations,  —  masculine  and  feminine  the  same : 
as,  levis  (m.,  f.),  leve  (n.). 

3.  Adjectives  of  One  Termination,  —  the  same  for  all  three  genders :  as, 
atrox. 

a.  Adjectives  of  two  and  thre6  terminations  are  true  i-stems  and  hence  retain 
in  the  ablative  singular  -i,  in  the  neuter  plural  -ia,  in  the  genitive  plural  -ium,  and 
in  the  accusative  plural  regularly  -is  (see  §§73  and  74). i 

Adjectives  of  Three  and  of  Two  Terminations 

115.  Adjectives  of  Three  Terminations  are  thus  declined :  — 

acer,  acris,  acre,  keen,  Stem  acri- 
SiNGULAR  Plural 


M. 

F. 

N. 

NOM. 

acer 

acris 

acre 

Gen. 

acris 

acris 

acris 

DAT. 

acri 

acri 

acri 

Ace. 

acrem 

acrem 

acre 

Abl. 

acri 

acri 

acri 

M.  F.  N. 

acres  acres  acria 

acrium  acrium  acrium 

acribus  acribus  acribus 

acris  (-es)  acris  (-es)  acria 

acribus  acribus  acribus 


1  But  the  forms  of  some  are  doubtful. 


50  DECLENSION   OF  ADJECTIVES  [§§  115-117 

a.  Like  acer  are  declined  the  following  stems  in  ri- :  — 
alacer,  campester,  celeber,  equester,  paluster,  pedester,  puter,  saluber,  Silvester, 
terrester,  volucer.     So  also  names  of  months  in  -ber:  as,  October  (cf, 
§66). 

Note  1.  — This  formation  is  comparatively  late,  and  hence,  in  the  poets  and  in  early- 
Latin,  either  the  masculine  or  the  feminine  form  of  these  adjectives  was  sometimes 
used  for  both  genders :  as,  coetus  alacris  (Enn.).  In  others,  as  faenebris,  funebris,  illiis- 
tris,  lugubris,  mediocris,  muliebris,  there  is  no  separate  masculine  form  at  all,  and  these 
are  decUned  like  levis  (§  116). 

Note  2.  —  Celer,  celeris,  celere,  sioift,  has  the  genitive  plural  celerum,  used  only  as  a 
noun,  denoting  a  military  rank.    The  proper  name  Celer  has  the  ablative  in  -e. 

116.  Adjectives  of  Two  Terminations  are  thus  declined:-^ 


levis,  leve, 

light, 

Stem  levi- 

Sing 

ULAR 

Plural 

M.,F. 

N. 

M.,  F. 

N. 

NOM. 

levis 

leve 

leves 

levia 

GeNj 

levis 

levis 

levium 

levium 

Dat. 

levl 

levi 

levibus 

levibus 

Ace. 

levem 

leve 

levis  (-es) 

levia 

Abl. 

leTl 

lev! 

levibus 

levibus 

Note.—  Adjectives  of  two  and  three  terminations  sometimes  have  an  ablative  in  -e 
in  poetry,  rarely  in  prose. 

Adjectives  of  One  Termination 

117.  The  remaining  adjectives  of  the  third  declension  are  Con- 
sonant stems ;  but  most  of  them,  except  Comparatives,  have  the 
following  forms  of  i-stems ;  —  ^ 

-i  in  the  ablative  singular  (but  often  -e) ; 

-ia  in  the  nominative  and  accusative  plural  neuter ; 

-ium  in  the  genitive  plural ; 

-is  (as  well  as  -es)  in  the  accusative  plural  masculine  and  feminine. 

In  the  other  cases  they  follow  the  rule  for  Consonant  stems. 

a.  These  adjectives,  except  stems  in  1-  or  r-,  form  the  nominative  singu- 
lar from  the  stem  by  adding  s :  as,  atr5x  (stem  atroc-  +  s),  egens  (stem 
egent-  +  s).« 

h.  Here  belong  the  present  participles  in  -ns(stemnt-)^:  as,amans,  monens 
They  are  declined  like  egens  (but  cf.  §  121). 

1  For  details  see  §  121.  2  stems  in  nt-  omit  t  before  the  nominative  -s. 


i 


§  118,  119J    ADJECTIVES   OF  THE   THIRD   DECLENSION  51 

118.  Adjectives  of  one  termination  are  declined  as  follows  :  — 


atrox,  fierce,  Stem  atroc- 


egens,  needy,  Stem  egent- 


Singular 

M.,  F. 

N. 

M.,  F. 

N. 

NOM. 

atrox 

atrox 

egena 

egens 

Gen. 

atrocis 

atrocis 

egentis 

egentis 

Dat. 

atroci 

atroci 

egenti 

egenti 

Ace. 

atrocem 

atrox 

egentem 

egens 

Abl. 

atroci  (-e) 

atroci  (-e) 

Plural 

egenti  (-e) 

egenti  (-e) 

NOM. 

atroces 

atiucia 

egentes 

egentia 

Gen. 

atrocium 

atrocium 

egentium 

egentium 

Dat. 

atrocibus 

atrocibus 

egentibus 

egentibus 

Ace. 

atrocis  (-es) 

atrocia 

egentis  (-es) 

egentia 

Abl. 

atrocibus 

atrocibus 

egentibus 

egentibus 

119.   Other  examples  are  the  following :  — 


N03I. 

Gen. 
Dat. 
Ace. 
Abl. 


concors,  harmonious 
Stem  concord- 


M.,  F. 

concors 

concordis 

concord! 

concordem 

concordi 


N. 


concors 

concordis 

concordi 

concors 

concordi 


praeceps,  headlong 
Stem  praecipit- 


SlNGULAR 


praeceps 

praecipitis 

praecipiti 

praecipitem 

praecipiti 


N. 

praeceps 

praecipitis 

praecipiti 

praeceps 

praecipiti 


Plural 


NoM. 
Gen. 
Dat. 
Ace. 
Abl. 


Concordes 
concordium 
concordibus 
concordis  (-es) 
concordibus 


Concordia 

concordium 

concordibus 

Concordia 

concordibus 


praecipites  praecipitia 

[praecipitium]  ^ 
praecipitibus         praecipitibus 
praecipitis  (-es)    praecipitia 
praecipitibus         praecipitibus 


i  Gi  v^en  by  grammarians,  but  not  fomid. 


52 


DECLENSION   OF  ADJECTIVES 


[§119 


lens,  going 
Stem  eunt- 


par,  equal 
Stem  par- 


dives,  rich 
Stem  divit- 


M.,  F. 

NoM.  ieus 

Gen.  euntis 

Dat.  eunti 

Ace.  euntem 


N. 

iens 
euntis 
eunti 
iens 


vSlNGULAR 
M.,  F.  N. 


Abl.    eunte  (-1)      eunte  (-1) 


par 

paris 

pari 

parem 

pari 


par 

paris 

pari 

par 

pari 


M.,  F. 

dives 

divitis 

diviti 

divitexn 

divite 


N. 

dives 

divitia 

diviti 

dives 

divite 


NoM.  euntes  euntia 

Gex.  euntium        euntium 

Dat.  euntibus       euntibus 

Ace.  euntis  (-es)  euntia 

Abl.  euntibus       euntibus 


Plural 

pares  paria 

parium       parium. 
paribus       paribus 
paris  (-es)  paria 
paribus      paribus 


divites  [ditia] 

divituru         divitum 
divitibus       divitibua 
divitis  (-es)  [ditia] 
divitibus      divitibus 


uber,  fertile 

vetus, 

old 

Stem  uber- 

Stem  veter- 

SlNGUL/.R 

M.,  F. 

N. 

M.,F. 

N. 

NOM. 

iiber 

liber 

vetus 

vetus 

Gen. 

iiberis 

uberis 

veteris 

veteris 

Dat. 

iiberi 

uberi 

veteri 

veteri 

Ace. 

iiberem 

iiber 

veterem 

vetus 

Abl. 

iiberi  ^ 

iiberi  1 

Plural 

vetere  (-1) 

vetere  (-P 

NOM. 

uberes 

libera 

veteres 

Vetera 

Gen. 

iiberum 

iiberum 

veterum 

veterum 

Dat. 

iiberibus 

Iiberibus 

veteribus 

veteribus 

Ace. 

iiberes 

libera 

veteres 

Vetera 

Abl. 

iiberibus 

iiberibus 

veteribus 

veteribus 

Note.  —  Of  these  vetus  is  originally  an  s-stem.    In  most  s-stems  the  r  has  intruded 
itself  into  the  nominative  also,  as  bi-corpor  (for  jbi-corpos),  degener  (for  fde-genes). 


1  An  ablative  in  -e  is  very  rare. 


§§  120,  121] 


DECLENSION  OF   COMPARATIVES 


53 


Declension  of  Comparatives 
120.  Comparatives -are  declined  as  follows  :  — 


melior, 

better 

plus, 

more 

Stem  melidr- 

for  melios- 

SlNGULAR 

Stem  plur- 

■  for  plus- 

M.,  F. 

N. 

M.,  F. 

N. 

NOM. 

melior 

melius 

plus 

Gen. 

melioris 

melioris 

pliiris 

DAT. 

meliori 

meliori 

Ace. 

meliorem 

melius 

pliis 

Abl. 

meliore  (-i) 

meliore  (-i) 
Plural 

plure 

NOM. 

meliores 

meliora 

plures 

plura 

Gen. 

meliorum 

meliornm 

plurium 

plurium 

DAT. 

melioribus 

melioribus 

pliiribus 

pluribus 

Ace. 

meliores  (-is) 

meliora 

plures  (-Is) 

plura 

Abl. 

melioribus 

melioribus 

pluribus 

pluribus 

a.  All  comparatives  except  pliis  are  declined  like  melior. 

h.  The  stem  of  comparatives  properly  ended  in  os-;  but  this  became  or 
in  the  nominative  masculine  and  feminine,  and  or-  in  all  other  cases  except 
the  nominative  and  accusative  singular  neuter,  where  s  is  retained  and  6  is 
changed  to  u  (cf.  honQr,  -oris;  corpus,  -5ris).  Thus  comparatives  appear  to 
have  two  terminations. 

c.  The  neuter  singular  pliis  is  used  only  as  a  noun.  The  genitive  (rarely 
the  ablative)  is  used  only  as  an  expression  of  value  (cf.  §  417).  The  dative 
is  not  found  in  classic  use.  The  compound  complures,  several,  has  sometimes 
neuter  plural  compluria. 

Case-Forms  of  Consonant  Stems 

121.  In  adjectives  of  Consonant  stems  — 

a»  The  Ablative  Singular  commonly  ends  in  -i,  but  sometimes  -e. 

1.  Adjectives  used  as  nouns  (as  superstes,  survivor)  have  -e. 

2.  Participles  in  -ns  used  as  such  (especially  in  the  ablative  absolute, 
§419),  or  as  nouns,  regularly  have  -e;  but  participles  used  as  adjectives 
have  regularly  -i :  — 

domino  imperante,  at  the  master'' s  command;  ab  amante,  hij  a  lover ;  ab  amanti 
muliere,  by  a  loving  woman. 


54  DECLENSION  OF  ADJECTIVES  [§§  121,  122 

3.  The  following  have  regularly  -i  :  —  amens,  anceps,  concors  (and  other 
compounds  of  cor),  consors  (but  as  a  substantive,  -e),  degener,  hebes,  ingens, 
inops,  memor  (and  compounds),  par  (in  prose),  perpes,  praeceps,  praepes,  teres. 

4.  The  following  have  regularly-e :  —  caeles,  compos,  [fdeses],  dives,  hospes, 
particeps,  pauper,  princeps,  sospes,  superstes.  So  also  patrials  (see  §71.  5)  and 
stems  in  at-,  it-,  nt-,  rt-,  when  used  as  nouns,  and  sometimes  when  used  as 
adjectives. 

h.  The  Genitive  Plural  ends  commonly  in  -ium,  but  has  -urn  in  the 
following :  i  — 

1.  Always  in  compos,  dives,  inops,  particeps,  praepes,  princeps,  supplex,  and 
compounds  of  nouns  which  have  -um :  as,  quadru-pes,  bi-color. 

2.  Sometimes,  in  poetry,  in  participles  in  -ns !  as,  silentum  concilium,  a  coun- 
cil of  the  silent  shades  (Aen.  vi.  432). 

c»  The  Accusative  Plural  regularly  ends  in  -is,  but  comparatives  com- 
monly have  -es. 

d,  Vetus  (gen.  -eris)  and  piibes  (gen.  -eris)  regularly  have  -e  in  the  abla- 
tive singular,  -a  in  the  nominative  and  accusative  plural,  and  -um  in  the 
genitive  plural.     For  uber,  see  §  119. 

€•  A  few  adjectives  of  one  termination,  used  as  nouns,  have  a  feminine 
form  in  -a ;  as,  clienta,  hospita,  with  the  appellative  Iiin5  Sospita. 

Irregularities  and  Special  Uses  of  Adjectives 
122.  The  following  special  points  require  notice :  — 

a.  Several  adjectives  vary  in  declension :  as,  gracilis  (-us),  hilaris  (-us), 
inermis  (-us),  bicolor  (-orus). 

6,  A  few  adjectives  are  indeclinable :  as,  damnas,  friigi  (really  a  dative 
of  service,  see  §  382.  1.  n.  2),  nequam  (originally  an  adverb),  necesse,  and  the 
pronominal  forms  tot,  quot,  aliquot,  totidem.  Potis  is  often  used  as  an  inde- 
clinable adjective,  but  sometimes  has  pote  in  the  neuter. 

c.  Several  adjectives  are  defective  :  as,  exspes  (only  nom.),  exlex  (cxlegem) 
(only  nom.  and  ace.  sing.),  pemox  (pernocte)  (only  nom.  and  abl.  sing.); 
and  primoris,  semineci,  etc.,  which  lack  the  nominative  singular. 

d.  Many  adjectives,  from  their  signification,  can  be  used  only  in  the 
masculine  and  feminine.     These  may  be  called  adjectives  of  common  gender. 

Such  are  adulescens,  youthful;  [tdeses],  -idis,  slothful;  inops,  -opis,  poor; 
sospes,  -itis,  safe.  Sinnlarly,  senex,  old  man,  and  iuvenis,  young  man,  are  some- 
times called  masculine  adjectives. 

For  Adjectives  used  as  Nouns,  see  §§288,  289;  for  Nouns  used  as  Adjectives,  see 
§321.  c;  for  Adjectives  used  as  Adverbs,  see  §214;  for  Adverbs  used  as  Adjectives, 
see  §321.d. 

1  Forms  in  -um  sometimes  occur  in  a  few  others- 


§§  123-127]  COMPARISON   OF  ADJECTIVES  55 

COMPARISON   OF  ADJECTIVES 

123.  In  Latin,  as  in  English,  there  are  three  degrees  of  com- 
parison :  the  Positive^  the  Comparative^  and  the  Superlative. 

124.  The  Comparative  is  regularly  formed  by  adding -ior  (neu- 
ter -ius),i  the  Superlative  by  adding  -issimus  (-a,-um),  to  the  stem  of 
the  Positive,  which  loses  its  final  vowel :  — 

carus,  dear  (stem  caro-) ;        carior,  dearer;  carissimus,  dearest. 

levis,  light  (stem  levi-) ;  levior,  lighter  ;  levissimus,  lighted. 

felix,  Mpp?/ (stem  felic-) ;      felicior,    happier;       iellcissimus,  happiest. 
hebes,  dull  (stem  hebet-) ;       hebetior,  duller ;         hebetissimus,  dullest. 
Note.  —  A  form  of  diminutive  is  made  upon  the  stem  of  some  comparatives :  as, 
grandius-culus,  a  little  larger  (see  §  243) . 

a.  Participles  when  used  as  adjectives  are  regularly  compared :  — 
patiens,  patient;  patientior,  patientissimus. 
apertus,  open;  apertior,  apertissimus. 

125.  Adjectives  in  -er  form  the  Superlative  by  adding  -rimus  to 

the  nominative.     The  comparative  is  regular:- — 

acer,  keen;  acrior,  acerrimus. 

miser,  wretched;  miserior,  miserrimus. 

a.  So  vetus  (gen.  veteris)  has  superlative  veterrimus,  from  the  old  form 
veter ;  and  maturus,  besides  its  regular  superlative  (matiirissimus),  has  a  rare 
form  maturrimus. 

For  the  comparative  of  vetus,  vetustior  (from  vetustus)  is  used. 

126.  Six  adjectives  in  -lis  form  the  Superlative  by  adding  -limus 
to  the  stem  clipped  of  its  final  i-.  These  are  facilis,  difficilis,  simi- 
lis,  dissimilis,  gracilis,  humilis. 

facilis  (stem  facili-),  easy ;  facilior,  facillimus, 

127.  Compounds  in  -dicus  (saving)  and  -volus  (ivilling)  take  in 

their  comparison  the  forms  of  the  corresponding  participles  dicens 

and  volens,  which  were  anciently  used  as  adjectives :  — 

maledicus,  slanderous;  maledicentior,  maledlcentissimus. 
malevolus,  spiteful;  malevolentior,  malevolentissimus. 

1  The  comparative  suffix  (earlier  -ios)  is  akin  to  the  Greek  -iwv,  or  the  Sanskrit  -iyans. 
That  of  the  superlative  (-issimus)  is  a  double  form  of  uncertain  origin.  It  appears  to 
contain  the  is-  of  the  old  suffix  -is-to-s  (seen  in  TyS-ttrro-s  and  English  siveetest)  aud  also 
the  old  -mo-s  (seen  in  pri-rnus,  mini-mus,  etc.) .  The  endiugs  -limus  and  -rimus  are  formed 
by  assimilation  (§  15.  6)  from  -simus.  The  comparative  and  superlative  are  really  new 
stems,  and  are  not  strictly  to  be  regarded  as  forms  of  iniiectiou. 


COMPARISON   OF  ADJECTIVES 


[§§  127-130 


a»  So,  by  analogy,  compounds  in  -ficus  :  — 
magnificus,  grand;  niagnificentior,  raagnificentissimus. 

128.  Some  adjectives  are  compared  by  means  of  the  adverbs 
magis,  more^  and  maxime,  most. 

So  especially  adjectives  in  -us  preceded  by  e  or  i :  — 
idoneus,  fit ;  magis  idSneus,  maxime  idoneus. 

Note.  —  But  plus  has  piissimus  in  the  superlative,  —  a  form  condemned  by  Cicero, 
but  common  in  inscriptions;  equally  common,  however,  is  the  irregular  pientissimus. 

Irregular  Comparison 

129.  Several  adjectives  have  in  their  comparison  irregular 
forms :  — 

bonus,  good; 

malus,  had; 

magnus,  great; 

parvus,  small; 

multus,  much; 

multl,  many ; 

nequam  (indecL,  §  122.  6), 
worthless  ; 

frugi  (indecl.,  §  122.  b),  use- 
ful, worthy; 

dextev,  on  the  right,  haridy ;     dexterior;  dextiinus. 

Note.  —  These  irregularities  arise  from  the  use  of  different  stems  (cf .  §  127) .  Tlius 
frugalior  and  frugalissimus  are  formed  from  the  stem  frugal!-,  but  are  used  as  the  com- 
parative and  superlative  of  the  indeclinable  frugi. 

Defective  Comparison 

130.  Some  Comparatives  and  Superlatives  appear  without  a 

Positive :  — 

Ccior,  swifter;  Ocissimus,  swiftest. 

potior,  preferable ;  ^  potissimus,  most  important,. 

a.  The  following  are  formed  from  stems  not  used  as  adjectives:^ — 

1  The  old  positive  polls  occurs  in  the  sense  of  able,  possible. 

2  The  forms  in  -tra  and  -terus  were  originally  comparative  (cf.  alter),  so  that  the 
comparatives  in  -terior  are  double  comparatives.  Inferus  and  superus  are  comparatives 
of  a  still  more  primitive  form  (cf.  tlie  English  comparative  in  -er). 

The  superlatives  in  -timus  (-tumus)  are  relics  of  old  forms  of  comparison ;  those  in 
-mus  like  imus,  summus,  primus,  are  still  more  primitive.  Forms  like  extrgmus  are 
superlatives  of  a  comparative.  In  fact,  comparison  has  always  been  treated  with  an 
accumulation  of  endings,  as  children  sxy  further  er  a,nd  fur  t?ter  est. 


melior,  better; 
peior,  worse; 
mMor,  greater; 
minor,  less; 
plus(N.)  (§  120),  more; 
plfires,  more; 
nequior ; 

frugalior ; 


optimus,  best. 
pessimua,  worst. 
maximus,  greatest. 
minimus,  least. 
pltirimus,  7nost. 
pltirimi,  most. 
nequissimus. 

frugalissimus 


§§  130,  131]  DEFECTIVE  COMPAKISON  67 

cis,  citra  (adv.,  on  this  side):  citerior,  hither;  citimus,  hithermost. 

de  (prep,,  down):  deterior,  worse;  deterrimus,  wo7'st. 

in,  intra  (prep.,  in,  within):  interior,  inner ;  iutimus,  inmost 

prae,  pro  (prep.,  6e/ore);  prior, /ormer;  primus, ^rsi. 

prope  (adv.,  near):  propior,  nearer;  proximus,  next. 

ultra  (adv.,  6e?/ond):  ulterior, /ari/ier ;  MltivoMB,  fatihest. 

b.  Of  the  following  the  positive  forms  are  rare,  except  when  used  as 
nouns  (generally  in  the  plural)  :  — • 

exterus,  outward;  exterior,  outer ;     extremus  (extimus),  ow^moiii. 

inferus,  below  (see  §  111.  b) ;  inferior,  lower ;     infimus  (imus),  lowest. 
Tposterus,  following ;  posterior,  latter;  postremus  (postumus),  Zasi. 

superus,  a?>ove;  superior,  Ai^r^er;  supremus  or  summus,  Mgr/iesi. 

But  the  plurals,  exteri,  foreigners;  inferi,  the  gods  below ;  poster!,  posterity ; 
superi,  the  heavenly  gods,  are  common. 

NoTB.  —  The  superlative  postumus  has  the  special  sense  of  last-born,  and  was  a  well- 
known  surname. 

131.  Several  adjectives  lack  the  Comparative  or  tlie  Superla- 
tive :  — 

a.  The  Comparative  is  rare  or  wanting  in  the  following:  — 
bellus,                                                    inclutus  (or  inclitus),  novus, 
caesius,                                                  invictus,  plus, 
falsus,                                                    invitus,  sacer, 
fidus  (with  its  compounds),               meritus,  vafer. 

b.  The  Superlative  is  wanting  in  many  adjectives  in  -ilis  or  -bilis  (as, 
agilis,  probabilis),  and  in  the  following :  — 

actuosus  '      exilis  procllvis  surdus 

agrestis  ingens  propinquus  tacitumus 

alacer  ieiunus  satur  tempestivus 

arcanus  longinquus  segnis  teres 

caecus  obliquus  serus  vicinus 

diutumus  opimus  supinus 

c.  From  iuvenis,  youth,  senex,  old  man  (cf.  §  122.  d),  are  formed  the  com- 
paratives iiinior,  younger,  senior,  older.  For  these,  however,  minor  natu  and 
maior  natii  are  sometimes  used  (natii  being  often  omitted). 

The  superlative  is  regularly  expressed  by  minimus  and  maximus,  with 
or  without  natu. 

Note.  — In  these  phrases  natu  is  ablative  of  specification  (see  §  418). 

il.  Many  adjectives  (as  aureus,  golden)  are  from  their  meaning  incapable 
of  comparison. 

Note.  —  But  each  language  has  its  own  usage  in  this  respect.  Thus,  niger,  glossy 
black,  and  candidus,  shining  white,  are  compared  ;  but  not  ater  or  albus,  meaning  abso- 
lute dead  black  or  white  (except  that  Plautus  once  has  atrior). 


68  NUMERALS  [§§  132,  133 

NUMERALS 

132.  The  Latin  Numerals  may  be  classified  as  follows :  — 

I.  Numeral  Adjectives  : 

1.  Cardinal  Numbers,  answering  the  question  how  many?  as,  unus,  one; 
duo,  two,  etc. 

2.  Ordinal  Numbers,^  adjectives  derived  (in  most  cases)  from  the  Cardi- 
nals, and  answering  the  question  which  in  order"?  as,  primus, ^rs« ;  secun- 
dus,  second,  etc. 

3.  Distributive  Numerals,  answering  the  question  how  many  at  a  time  ? 
as,  singuli,  one  at  a  time ;  bini,  two  hy  two,  etc. 

II.  Numeral  Adverbs,  answering  the  question  how  often  ?  as,  semel, 
once;  bis,  twice,  etc. 

Cardinals  and  Ordinals 

133.  These  two  series  are  as  follows :  — 


CARDINAL 

ORDINAL 

] 

ROMAN 

NUMERALS 

1. 

unus,  una,  tinum,  one 

primus,  -a,  -um,  ^rs^ 

I 

2. 

duo,  duae,  duo,  two 

secundus  (alter),  second 

II 

3. 

tres,  tria,  three 

tertius,  third 

III 

4. 

quattuor 

quartus 

nil  or  IV 

5. 

quinque 

quintus 

V 

6. 

sex 

sextus 

VI 

7. 

septem 

Septimus 

VII 

8. 

octo 

octavus 

VIII 

9. 

novem 

nonus 

vim  or  IX 

10. 

decern 

decimus 

X 

11. 

undecim 

undecimus 

XI 

12. 

duodecim 

duodecimus 

XII 

13. 

tredecim  (decem  (et)  tres) 

tertius  decimus  (decimus 

(et) 

tertius 

;)           XIII 

14. 

quattuordecim 

quartus  decimus 

xiiii  or  XIV 

15. 

quindecim 

quintus  decimus 

XV 

10. 

sedecim 

sextus  decimus 

XVI 

17. 

septendecira 

Septimus  decimus 

XVII 

18. 

duodeviginti  (octodecim) 

duodevicensimus  (octavus  decimus) 

XVIII 

1  The  Ordinals  (except  secundus,  tertius,  octavus,  n5nus)  are  formed  by  means  of  suf- 
fixes related  to  tho.se  used  in  the  superlative  and  in  part  identical  with  them.  Thus, 
decimus  (compare  the  form  infimus)  m;iy  he  regarded  as  the  last  of  a  series  of  ten  ;  pri- 
mus is  a  superlative  of  a  stem  akin  to  pro ;  the  forms  in  -tus  (quartus,  quintus,  sextus)  may 
be  compared  -with  the  corresponding:  Greek  forms  in  ~tos,  and  with  superlatives  in 
-i<r-To-s,  while  the  others  have  the  superlative  ending  -timus  (changed  to  -simus) .  Of  the 
exceptions,  secundus  is  a  participle  of  sequor ;  alter  is  a  comparative  form  (compare 
-Tcpos  in  Greek),  and  nonus  is  contracted  from  jnovenos.  The  cardinal  multiples  of  ten 
ure  compounds  of  -gint-  'ten'  (a  fragment  of  a  derivative  from  decem). 


133,  134] 


CARDINALS   AND   ORDINALS 


59 


CARDINAL 

ORDINAL 

ROMAN    NUMERALS 

19. 

undeviginti  (novendecim)  undevicensimus(noiius  decimus)  xviiii  or xix 

20. 

viginti 

vicensimus  (vigensimus) 

XX 

21. 

viginti  imus 

vicensimus  primus 

XXI 

{or  tinus  et  viginti,  etc. 

.)  (tinus  et  vicensimus. 

etc.) 

30. 

triginta 

tricensimus 

XXX 

40. 

quadraginta 

quadragensimus 

xxxx  or  XL 

50. 

qulnquaginta 

quinquagensimus 

si,  or  L 

60. 

sexaginla 

sexagensimus 

LX 

70. 

septuaginta 

septuagensimus 

LXX 

80. 

octoginta 

octogensimus 

LXXX 

90. 

nonaginta 

nonagensimus 

Lxxxx  or  xc 

100. 

centum 

centensimus 

c 

101. 

centum  (et)  unus,  etc. 

centensimus  primus, 

etc. 

CI 

200. 

ducenti,  -ae,  -a 

ducentensimus 

cc 

300. 

trecentl 

trecentensimus 

ccc 

400. 

quadringenti 

quadringentensi  nms 

cccc 

500. 

qulngenti 

quingentensimus 

D 

600. 

sescenti 

sescentensimus 

DC 

700. 

septingenti 

septingentensimus 

DCC 

800. 

octingenti 

octingentensimus 

DCCC 

900. 

nongenti 

nongentensimus 

DCCCC 

1000. 

mille 

millensimus 

CO  (cio)  or  M 

5000. 

quinque  milia  (mlllia) 

quinquiens  millensimus 

100 

10,000. 

decern  milia  (millia) 

deciens  millensimus 

CCIOO 

00,000. 

centum  milia  (millia) 

centiens  millensimus 

CCCIOOO 

Note  \.  —  The  forms  in  -ensimus  are  often  vt^ritten  without  the  n :  as,  vicesimus,  etc. 

Note  2. — The  forms  octodecim,  novendecim  are  rare,  duodeviginti  (two from  twenty), 
undeviginti  (one  from  twenty),  being  used  instead.  So  28,  29;  38,  39;  etc.  may  be 
expressed  either  by  the  subtraction  of  two  and  one  or  by  the  addition  of  eight  and 
nine  respectively. 

Declension  of  Cardinals  and  Ordinals 

134.  Of  the  Cardinals  only  unus,  duo,  tres,  the  hundreds  above 
one  hundred,  and  mille  when  used  as  a  noun,  are  declinable. 

a.  For  the  declension  of  unus,  see  §  113.  It  often  has  the  meaning  of 
same  or  only.  The  plural  is  used  in  this  sense ;  but  also,  as  a  simple  nu- 
meral, to  agree  with  a  plural  noun  of  a  singular  meaning :  as,  una  castra, 
one  camp  (cf.  §  137.  6).  The  plural  occurs  also  in  the  phrase  uni  et  alteri,  one 
party  and  the  other  (the  ones  and  the  others). 

h»  Duo,^  two,  and  trgs,  three,  are  thus  declined :  — 


1  The  form  in  -o  is  a  remnant  of  the  dual  number,  which  was  lost  in  Latin,  but  is 
found  in  cognate  languages.    So  in  ambo,  both,  which  preserves  -o  (cf .  bvoj  and  §  629.  6). 


60 


1 

NUMERALS 

[§§ 

,  134,  la 

M. 

F. 

N. 

M.,F. 

N. 

NOM. 

duo 

duae 

duo 

tres 

tria 

Gen. 

duonim 

duarum 

duonim 

trium 

trium 

DAT. 

duobus 

duabus 

duobus 

tribus 

tribua 

Ace. 

duos  (duo) 

duas 

duo 

tres  (triB) 

tria 

Abl. 

duobus 

duabus 

duobus 

tribus 

tribus 

Note.  —  Ambo,  both,  is  declined  like  duo. 

c.  The  hundreds,  up  to  1000,  are  adjectives  of  the  First  and  Second 
Declensions,  and  are  regularly  declined  like  the  plural  of  bonus. 

d,  Mille,  a  thousand,  is  in  the  singular  an  indeclinable  adjective :  — 
mille  modis,  in  a  thousand  ways. 

cum  mille  hominibus,  with  a  thousand  men. 

mille  trahens  varios  colores  (Aen.  iv.  701),  drawing  out  a  thousand  various 
colors. 
In  the  plural  it  is  used  as  a  neuter  noun,  and  is  declined  like  the  plural 
of  sedile  (§  69):  milia,  milium,  milibus,  etc. 

Note.  —  The  singular  mille  is  sometimes  found  as  a  noun  in  the  nominative  and 
accusative :  as,  mille  hominum  misit,  he  sent  a  thousand  (of)  men ;  in  the  other  cases 
rarely,  except  in  connection  with  the  same  case  of  milia :  as,  cum  octo  milibus  peditum, 
nulle  equitum,  with  eight  thousand  foot  and  a  thousand  horse. 

€,  The  ordinals  are  adjectives  of  the  First  and  Second  Declensions,  and 
are  regularly  declined  like  bonus. 

135.  Cardinals  and  Ordinals  have  the  following  uses :  — 

a.  In  numbers  below  100,  if  units  precede  tens,  at  is  generally  inserted : 
duo  et  viginti ;  otherwise  et  is  omitted :  viginti  duo. 

b.  In  numbers  above  100  the  highest  denomination  generally  stands 
first,  the  next  second,  etc.,  as  in  English.  Et  is  either  omitted  entirely,  or 
stands  between  the  two  highest  denominations :  —  mille  (et)  septingentl 
sexaginta  quattuor,  1764. 

Note.  —  Observe  the  following  combinations  of  numerals  with  substantives:  — 
unus  et  viginti  milites,  or  viginti  milites  (et)  unus,  21  soldiers. 
duo  milia  quingenti  milites,  or  duo  milia  militum  et  quingenti,  2500  soldiers. 
milites  mille  ducenti  tnginta  iinus,  1231  soldiers. 

c.  After  milia  the  name  of  the  objects  enumerated  is  in  the  genitive : 
duo  milia  hominum,  two  thousand  men.^ 

cum  tribus  milibus  militum,  with  three  thousand  soldiers. 
milia  passuum  tria,  three  thousand  paces  (three  miles). 

d.  For  million,  billion,  trillion,  etc..  the  Romans  had  no  special  words, 
but  these  numbers  were  expressed  by  multiplication  (cf.  §  138.  a). 

1  Or,  in  poetry,  bis  mille  homines,  iwice  a  thousand  men. 


§§  135-137] 


DISTRIBUTIVES 


Gl 


e.  Fractions  are  expressed,  as  in  English,  by  cardinals  in  the  numerator 
and  ordinals  in  the  denominator.  The  feminine  gender  is  used  to  agree 
with  pars  expressed  or  understood  :  —  two-sevenths,  duae  septimae  (sc.  partes)  ; 
three-eighths,  tres  octavae  (sc.  partes). 

One-half  is  dimidia  pars  or  dimidium. 

Note  1.  —  When  the  numerator  is  one,  it  is  omitted  and  pars  is  expressed:  one- 
third,  tertia  pars ;  one- fourth,  quarta  pars. 

Note  2.  —  When  the  denominator  is  but  one  greater  than  the  numerator,  the  numer- 
ator only  is  given :  tioo-thirds,  duae  partes ;  three-fourths,  tres  partes,  etc. 

Note  3.  —  Fractions  are  also  expressed  by  special  words  derived  from  as,  a  pound : 
as,  triens,  a  third;  bes,  two-thirds.    See  §  637. 


Distributives 


136. 

bonus. 


Distributive  Numerals  are  declined  like  the  plural  of 


Note.  —  These  answer  to 
many  at  a  time? 

1.  singuli,  one  by  one 

2.  bini,  two  by  tivo 

3.  term,  trini 

4.  quaterni 

5.  quini 

6.  seni 

7.  septeni 

8.  octoni 

9.  noveni 

10.  deni 

11.  undeni 

12.  duodeni 

13.  terni  deni,  etc. 


the  interrogative  quoteni,  how  many  of  each?  or  how 

18.  octoni  deni  or  duo-  100.  centeni 

deviceni  200,  duceni 

19.  noveni  deni  or  iin-  300.  treceni 

deviceni  400.  quadringeni 

20.  viceni  500.  quingeni 

21.  Aiceni  singuli,  etc.  600.  sescem 
30.  triceni  700.  septingeni 
40.  quadrageni  800.  octingeni 
50.  qulnquageni  900.  nongeni 
60.  sexageni  1000.  milleni 
70.  septuageni  2000.  bina  milia 
80.  octogeni  10,000.  dena  milia 
90.  nonageni  100,000.  centena  milia 


137.  Distributives  are  used  as  follows :  — 

a.  In  the  sense  of  so  many  apiece  or  on  each  side :  as,  singula  singulis,  one 
apiece  (one  each  to  each  one) ;  agri  septena  iiigera  plebi  divisa  sunt,  i.e.  seven 
jugera  to  each  citizen  (seven  jugera  each),  etc. 

h»  Instead  of  cardinals,  to  express  simple  number,  when  a  noun  plural  in 
form  but  usually  singular  in  meaning  is  used  in  a  plural  sense :  as,  bina 
castra,  two  camps  (duo  castra  would  mean  two  forts').  With  such  nouns  trini, 
not  terni,  is  used  for  three :  as,  trina  (not  terna)  castra,  three  camps ;  terna 
castra  means  camps  in  threes. 

c.  In  multiplication :  as,  bis  bina,  twice  two ;  ter  septenis  diebus,  in  thrice 
seven  days. 

d.  By  the  poets  instead  of  cardinal  numbers,  particularly  where  pairs  or 
sets  are  spoken  of:  as,  bina  hastilia,  two  shafts  (two  in  a  set). 


62 


NUMERALS 


[§§  138,  139 


Numeral  Adverbs 

138.  The    Numeral   Adverbs    answer   the    question    quotiens 
(quoties),  how  many  times?  how  often? 


1.  semel,  once 

2.  bis,  twice 

3.  ter,  thrice 

4.  quater 

5.  quinquiens  (-es)i 

6.  sexiens 

7.  septiens 
8.'  octiens 
9.  noviens 

10.  deciens 

11.  undeciens 


12.  duodeciens 

13.  terdeciens 

14.  quaterdeciens 

15.  quindeciens 

16.  sedeciens 

17.  septiesdeciens 

18.  duodeviciens 

19.  tindeviciens 

20.  viciens 

21.  semel  viciens,  ^  etc. 
30.  triciens 


40.  quadragiens 
50.  quinquagiens 
60.  sexagiens 
70.  septuagiens 
80.  octogiens 
90.  nonagiens 
100.  centiens 
200.  ducentiens 
300.  trecentiens 
1000.   miliens 
10,000.  deciens  miliens 


a,  Numeral  Adverbs  are  used  with  mille  to  express  the  higher  numbers : 

ter  et  triciens  (centena  milia)  sestertium,  3^300^000  sesterces  (three  and  thirty 

times  a  hundred  thousand  sesterces). 
vicies  ac  septies  milies   (centena  milia)   sestertium,   2^700^000^000  sesterces 

(twenty-seven  thousand  times  a  hundred  thousand). 

Note.  —  These  large  numbers  are  used  almost  exclusively  in  reckoning  money, 
and  centena  milia  is  regularly  omitted  (see  §634). 

Other  Numerals 
139.  The  following  adjectives  are  called  Multiplicatives :  — 

simplex,  single  ;  duplex,  double,  twofold  ;  triplex,  triple,  threefold  ;  quadruplex, 
quinquiplex,  septemplex,  decemplex,  centuplex,  sesquiplex  (1^),  multiplex 
{manifold). 

a.  Proportionals  are  :  duplus,  triplus,  quadruplus,  octuplus,  etc.,  twice  as 
great,  thrice  as  great,  etc. 

b.  Temporals  :  bimus,  trimus,  of  two  or  three  years'  age ;  biennis,  triennis, 
lasting  tioo  or  three  years ;  bimestris,  trimestris,  of  two  or  three  months  ;  biduum, 
a  period  of  two  days;  biennium,  a  period  of  two  years. 

c.  Partitives  :  binarius,  ternarius,  of  two  or  three  parts. 

d.  Other  derivatives  are:  unio,  unity;  binio,  the  tico  (of  dice);  primanus, 
of  the  first  legion;  primarius,  of  the  first  rank;  denarius,  a  sum  of  iO  asses; 
binus  (distributive),  double,  etc. 


1  Forms  in  -ns  are  often  written  without  the  n. 

2  Also  written  viciens  et  semel  or  viciens  semel,  etc. 


140-143]  PERSONAL  PRONOUNS  63 


PKONOUNS 

140.  Pronouns  are  used  as  Nouns  or  as  Adjectives.     They  are 
divided  into  the  following  seven  classes :  — 

1.  Personal  Pronouns  :  as,  ego,  /. 

2.  Reflexive  Pronouns :  as,  se,  himself. 

3.  Possessive  Pronouns  :  as,  meus,  my. 

4.  Demonstrative  Pronouns:  as,  hie,  this;  ille,  that. 

5.  Relative  Pronouns :  as,  qui,  who. 

6.  Interrogative  Pronouns  :  as,  quis,  who  ? 

7.  Indefinite  Pronouns :  as,  aliquis,  some  one. 

141.  Pronouns  have  special  forms  of  declension. 

Note,  —  These  special  forms  are,  in  general,  survivals  of  a  very  ancient  form  of 
declension  differing  from  that  of  nouns. 

Personal  Pronouns 

142.  The  Personal  pronouns  of  the  first  person  are  ego,  J,  nSs, 

we;  of  the  second  person.,  t%  thou  or  ^ou,  vos,  ^e  or  i/ou.  The 
personal  pronouns  of  the  third  person  —  he^  she,  it,  tJiey  —  are 
wanting  in  Latin,  a  demonstrative  being  sometimes  used  instead. 

143.  Ego  and  tu  are  declined  as  follows  :  — 

First  Person 
Singular  Plural 

NoM.  ego,  /  n5s,  we 

Gen.  mei,  of  me  nostrum,  nostri,  of  us 

Dat.  mihi  (mi),  to  me  n5bis,  to  us 

Ace.  me,  me  nos,  us 

Abl.  me,  by  me  nobis,  hy  us 

Second  Person 

NoM.  tu,  thou  or  you  vos,  ye  or  you 

Gen.  tui,  of  thee  or  you  vestrum,  vestri ;  vostnim  (-tri) 

Dat.  tibi  vobis 

Ace.  te  vos 

Abl.  te  vobis 

a.  The  plural  nos  is  often  used  for  the  singular  ego ;  the  plural  vos  is 
never  so  used  for  the  singular  tu. 


64  PRONOUNS  [§§  143,  144 

Note.  —  Old  forms  are  genitive  mis,  tis;  accusative  and  ablative  med,  ted  (cf 
§43.  N.  1). 

6.  The  forms  nostrum,  vestrum,  etc.,  are  used  partitively  :  — 
unusquisque  nostrum,  each  one  of  us. 
vestrum  omnium,  of  all  of  you. 

Note.  —  The  forms  of  the  genitive  of  the  personal  pronouns  are  really  the  genitives 
of  the  possessives :  mei,  tui,  sul,  nostri,  vestri,  genitive  singular  neuter :  nostrum,  ves- 
trum, genitive  plural  masculine  or  neuter.  So  in  early  and  later  Latin  we  find  una 
vestrarum,  one  of  you  (women) . 

c.  The  genitives  mei,  tui,  sui,  nostri,  vestri,  are  chiefly  used  objectively 
(§347):- 

memor  sis  nostri,  be  mindful  of  us  (me). 
me  tui  pudet,  I  am  ashamed  of  you. 

(I,  Emphatic  forms  of  tii  are  tute  and  tiitemet  (tiitimet).  The  other 
cases  of  the  personal  pronouns,  excepting  the  genitive  plural,  are  made 
emphatic  by  adding  -met :  as,  egomet,  vosmet. 

Note.  — Early  emphatic  forms  are  mepte  and  tepte. 

e.  Reduplicated  forms  are  found  in  the  accusative  and  ablative  singu- 
lar :  as,  meme,  tete. 

/.  The  preposition  cum,  with,  is  joined  enclitically  with  the  ablative  :  as, 
tecum  loquitur,  he  talks  with  you. 

Reflexive  Pronouns 

144.  Reflexive  Pronouns  are  used  in  the  Oblique  Cases  to  refer 
to  the  subject  of  the  sentence  or  clause  in  which  they  stand  (see 
§  299):  as,  se  amat,  he  loves  himself. 

a.  In  thejirst  and  second  persons  the  oblique  cases  of  the  Personal  pro- 
nouns are  used  as  Reflexives:  as,  me  video,  /  see  myself;  te  laudas,  you 
praise  yourself;  nobis  persuademus,  we  persuade  ourselves. 

h.  The  Reflexive  pronoun  of  the  third  person  has  a  special  form  used 
only  in  this  sense,  the  same  for  both  singular  and  plural.  It  is  thus 
declined:  — 

Gen.     sui,  of  himself  herself  itself  themselves 
Dat.     sibi,  to  himself  herself  itself  themselves 
Ace.     se  (sese),  himself  herself  itself  themselves 
Abl.     se  (sese),  [%]  himself  herself  itself  themselves 

Note  1.  —  Emphatic  and  reduplicated  forms  of  se  are  made  as  in  the  personals  (see 
§  143.  d,  e).    The  preposition  cum  is  added  enclitically:  as,  secum,  icith  himself ^  etc. 
Note  2.  —  An  old  form  sed  occurs  in  the  accusative  and  ablative. 


145,  14!^] 


DEMONSTRATIVE  PRONOUNS 


65 


Possessive  Pronouns 
145.  The  Possessive  pronouns  are :  — 

First     Person.       meus,  my  noster,  our 

Second  Person.       tuus,  thy,  your  vester,  your 

Third     Person.       suus,  his,  her,  its  suus,  their 

These  are  really  adjectives  of  the  First  and  Second  Declensions,  and  are 
so  declined  (see  §§  110-112).  But  meus  has  regularly  mi  (rarely  meus)  in 
the  vocative  singular  masculine. 

Note.  -Suus  is  used  only  as  a  reflexive,  referring  to  the  subject.  For  a  possessive 
pronoun  of  the  third  person  not  referring  to  the  subject,  the  genitive  of  a  demonstrative 
must  he  used.  Thus,  patrem  suum  occidit,  Jie  killed  his  {own)  father;  but  pattern  eius 
occidit,  lie  killed  Ms  (somebody  else's)  father. 

a.  Emphatic  forms  in  -pte  are  found  in  the  ablative  singular :  suopte. 

b,  A  rare  possessive  cuius  (quoius),  -a,  -um,  whose,  is  formed  from  the 
genitive  singular  of  the  relative  or  interrogative  pronoun  (qui,  quis).  It 
may  be  either  interrogative  or  relative  in  force  according  to  its  derivation, 
but  is  usually  the  former. 

e.  The  reciprocals  one  another  and  each  other  are  expressed  by  inter  se  or 
alter  .  .  .  alterum  :  — 

alter  alterius  ova  frangit,  they  break  each  other'' s  eggs  (one  .  .  .  of  the  other), 
inter  se  amant,  they  love  one  another  (they  love  among  themselves). 


Demonstrative  Pronouns 

146.  The  Demonstrative  Pronouns  are  used  to  point  out  or 

designate  a  person  or  thing  for  special  attention,  either  with  nouns 

as  Adjectives  or  alone  as  Pronouns.     They  are:  —  hie,  this;  is, 

ille,  iste,  that;  with  the  Intensive  ipse,  self,  and  idem,  same;  ^  and 

are  thus  declined :  — 

hie,  this 

Plural 


Singular 

M. 

F. 

N. 

NOM. 

hie 

haec 

hoc 

Gen. 

huius 

huius 

huius 

DAT. 

huic 

huic 

huic 

Ace. 

hunc 

hane 

hoc 

Abl. 

hoc 

hac 

hoc 

M. 

F. 

N. 

hi 

hae 

haec 

horum 

harum 

horum 

his 

his 

his 

hos 

has 

haec 

his 

his 

his 

1  These  demonstratives  are  combinations  of  o-  and  i-  stems,  which  are  not  clearly 
distinguishable. 


66 


PRONOUNS 


[§146 


Note  1.  —  Hie  is  a  compound  of  the  stem  ho-  with  the  demonstrative  enclitic  -ce. 
In  most  of  the  cases  final  e  is  dropped,  in  some  the  whole  termination.  But  in  these 
latter  it  is  sometimes  retained  for  emphasis :  as,  huius-ce,  his-ce.  In  early  Latin  -c  alone 
is  retained  in  some  of  these  (horunc).  The  vowel  in  hie,  hoc,  was  originally  short,  and 
perhaps  this  quantity  was  always  retained.  lUe  and  iste  are  sometimes  found  with 
the  same  enclitic :  illic,  illaec,  illuc ;  also  illoe.     See  a,  p.  67. 

Note  2.  —  For  the  dative  and  ablative  plural  of  hie  the  old  form  hibus  is  sometimes 
found ;  haec  occurs  (rarely)  for  hae. 

is,  that 


Singular 

Plural 

M. 

F. 

N. 

M. 

F. 

N. 

NOM. 

is 

ea 

id 

ei,  ii  (i) 

eae 

ea 

Gen. 

eius 

eius 

eius 

ednim 

earum 

eorum 

DAT. 

ei 

ei 

ei 

eis,  iis  (is) 

eis,  iis  (is) 

eis,  iis  (is) 

Ace. 

eum 

earn 

id 

eos 

eas 

ea 

Abl. 

eo 

ea 

eo 

eis,  iis  (is) 

eis,  iis  (is) 

eis,  iis  (is) 

Note  3.  —  Obsolete  forms  are  eae  (dat.  fern.),  and  eabus  or  ibus  (dat.  plur.).    For 
dative  ei  are  found  also  ei  and  ei  (monosyllabic) ;  ei,  eTts,  etc.,  also  occur  in  the  plural. 

ille,  that 


Singular 

Plural 

M. 

F. 

N. 

M. 

F. 

N. 

NoM. 

ille 

ilia 

illud 

illi 

illae 

ilia 

Gen. 

illius 

illius 

illius 

illorum 

illarum 

illorum 

Dat. 

illi 

illi 

illi 

illis 

illis 

iUis 

Ace. 

ilium 

illam 

illud 

ill5s 

illas 

ilia 

Abl. 

ill5 

ilia 

illo 

illis 

illis 

illis 

Iste,  ista,  istud,  that  (yonder),  is  declined  like  ille. 

Note  4.  —  Ille  replaces  an  earlier  oUus  (oUe),  of  which  several  forms  occur. 

Note  5. — Iste  is  sometimes  found  in  early  writers  in  the  form  ste  etc.  The  first 
syllable  of  ille  and  ipse  is  very  often  used  as  short  in  early  poetry. 

Note  G. — The  forms  illi,  isti  (gen.),  and  illae,  istae  (dat.),  are  sometimes  found; 
also  the  nominative  plural  istaece,  illaece  (for  istae,  illae).    See  a,  p.  67. 


ipse,  self 


Singular 

M. 

F. 

n. 

NOM. 

ipse 

ipsa 

ipsum 

Gen. 

ipsius 

ipsius 

ipsius 

Dat. 

ipsi 

ipsi 

ipsi 

Ace. 

ipsum 

ipsam 

ipsum 

Abl. 

ipso 

ipsa 

ipso 

Plural 


M. 


N. 


ipsi  ipsae  ipsa 

ipsorum  ipsarum  ipsorum 

ipsis  ipsis  ipsis 

ipsos  ipsas  ipsa 

ipsis  ipsis  ipsis 


146] 


DEMONSTRATIVE   PRONOUNS 


67 


Note  7.  —  Ipse  is  compounded  of  is  and  -pse  (a  pronominal  particle  of  uncertain 
origin:  cf.  §145.  a),  meaning  self.  Tlie  former  part  was  originally  declined,  as  in 
reapse  (for  re  eapse) ,  in  fact.  An  old  form  ipsus  occurs,  with  superlative  ipsissimus, 
oion  self,  used  for  comic  effect. 

Note  8.  —  The  intensive  -pse  is  found  in  the  forms  eapse  (nominative),  eumpse, 
eampse,  eopse,  eapse  (ablative). 


idem,  the  i 

same 

Singular 

Plural 

M. 

F. 

N. 

M..                  F.                     N. 

NOM. 

idem 

eadem 

idem 

idem  (ei-)   eaedem       eadem 

Gen. 

eiusdem 

eiusdem 

eiusdem 

e5nindem    earundem  edrundem 

DAT. 

eidem 

eidem 

eidem 

eisdem  or  isdem 

Ace. 

eundem 

eandem 

idem 

eosdem     ^  easdem       eadem 

Abl. 

eodem 

eadem 

eodem 

eisdem  or  isdem 

Note  9.  —  Idem  is  the  demonstrative  is  with  the  indeclinable  suffix  -dem.  The  mas- 
culine idem  is  for  fisdem ;  the  neuter  idem,  however,  is  not  for  fiddem,  but  is  a  relic  of 
an  older  formation.  A  final  m  of  is  is  changed  to  n  before  d :  as,  eundem  for  eumdem, 
etc.    The  plural  forms  idem,  isdem,  are  often  written  iidem,  iisdem. 

a,  lUe  and  iste  appear  in  combination  with  the  demonstrative  particle  -c, 
shortened  from  -ce,  in  the  following  forms :  — 

Singular 


NoM.         illic      illaec         illuc(illoc) 
Ace.  illunc   illanc        illuc  (illoc) 

Abl.        illoc     iliac         illdc 


istic  istaec  istuc  (istoc) 
istunc  istanc  istuc  (istoc) 
ist5c      istac        istdc 


Plural 


N.,  Ace. 


illaec 


istaec 


Note  1.  — The  appended -ce  is  also  found  with  pronouns  in  numerous  combinations : 
as,  huiusce,  hunce,  horunce,  harunce,  hosce,  hisce  (cf.  §  146.  n.  1),  illiusce,  isce ;  also  with  the 
interrogative  -ne,  in  hocine,  hoscine,  istucine,  illicine,  etc. 

Note  2.  —  By  composition  with  ecce  or  em,  behold!  are  formed  eccum  (for  ecce 
eum),  eccam,  eccos,  eccas;  eccillum  (for  ecce  ilium);  ellum  (for  em  ilium),  ellam,  ellos, 
ellas ;  eccistam.    These  forms  are  dramatic  and  colloquial. 

b.  The  combinations  huiusmodi  (htiiuscemodi),  eiusmodi,  etc.,  are  used  as 
indeclinable  adjectives,  equivalent  to  talis,  stich:  as,  res  eiusmodi,  such  a 
thing  (a  thing  of  that  sort :  cf.  §  345.  a). 

For  uses  of  the  Demonstrative  Pronouns,  see  §§  296  ff. 


68 


PRONOUNS 


}§  147-149 


Relative  Pronouns 
147.  The  Relative  Pronoun  qui,  who^which^  is  thus  declined 


Singular 

Plural 

M. 

F. 

N. 

M. 

F. 

N. 

NOM. 

qui 

quae 

quod 

qui 

quae 

quae 

Gen. 

cuius 

cuius 

cuius 

quorum 

quarum 

quorum 

Dat. 

cui 

cui 

cui 

quibus 

quibus 

quibus 

Ace. 

quern 

quam 

quod 

quos 

quas 

quae 

Abl. 

quo 

qua 

quo 

quibus 

quibus 

quibus 

Interrogative  and  Indefinite  Pronouns 

148.   The  Substantive  Interrogative  Pronoun  quis,  who?  quid, 
what?  is  declined  in  the  Singular  as  follows :  — 


M.,F. 

N. 

NOM. 

quis 

quid 

Gen. 

ciiius 

cuius 

Dat. 

cui 

cui 

Ace. 

quern 

quid 

Abl. 

quo 

quo 

The  Plural  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  Relative,  qui,  quae,  quae. 

a.  The  singular  quis  is  either  masculine  or  of  indeterminate  gender, 
but  in  old  writers  it  is  sometimes  distinctly  feminine. 

h.  The  Adjective  Interrogative  Pronoun,  qui,  quae,  quod,  ivhat  kind  off 
what  ?  which  f  is  declined  throughout  like  the  Relative  :  — 
Substantive  Adjective 

quis  vocat,  who  calls  ?  qui  homo  vocat,  what  man  calls  ? 

quid  vides,  what  do  you  see  ?         quod  templum  vides,  what  temj^le  do  you  see  f 

Note. — But  qui  is  often  used  without  any  apparent  adjective  force;  and  quis  is 
■very  common  as  an  adjective,  especially  with  words  denoting  a  person :  as,  qui  nomi- 
nat  me  ?  who  calls  my  name  ?  quis  dies  fuit  ?  ichat  day  loas  it  ?  quis  homo  ?  vjhat  man  ? 
but  often  qui  homo?  what  kind  of  man?  nescio  qui  sis,  /  know  not  who  you  are. 

c.  Quisnam,  pray,  who  f  is  an  emphatic  interrogative.  It  has  both  sub- 
stantive and  adjective  forms  like  quis,  qui. 

149.  The  Indefinite  Pronouns  quis,  ant/  one,  and  qui,  ani/,  are 
declined  like  the  corresponding  Interrogatives,  but  qua  is  com- 
monly used  for  quae  except  in  the  nominative  plural  feminine :  — 


§§  149-161J  COMPOUNDS   OF    QUIS  AND   QUI  69 

Substantive  :  quis,  any  one  ;  quid,  anything. 

Adjective  :  qui,  qua  (quae),  quod,  any. 

a.  The  feminine  forms  qua  and  quae  are  sometimes  used  substantively. 

b.  The  indefinites  quis  and  qui  are  rare  except  after  si,  nisi,  ne,  and  num, 
and  in  compounds  (see  §  310.  a,  b). 

Note.  — After  these  particles  qui  is  often  used  as  a  substantive  and  quis  as  an  adjec- 
tive (cf.  §148.  &.  N.). 

Case-Forms  of  qui  and  guts 

150.  The  Relative,  Interrogative,  and  Indefinite  Pronouns  are 
originally  of  the  same  stem,  and  most  of  the  forms  are  the  same 
(compare  §  147  with  §  148).  The  stem  has  two  forms  in  the  mas- 
culine and  neuter,  quo-,  qui-,  and  one  for  the  feminine,  qua-.  The 
interrogative  sense  is  doubtless  the  original  one. 

a.  Old  forms  for  the  genitive  and  dative  singular  are  quoius,  quoi. 

b.  The  form  qui  is  used  for  the  ablative  of  both  numbers  and  all  genders; 
but  especially  as  an  adverb  (how,  by  which  way,  in  any  way),  and  in  the  combi- 
nation quicum,  tvith  whom,  as  an  interrogative  or  an  indefinite  relative. 

c.  A  nominative  plural  ques  (stem  qui-)  is  found  in  early  Latin.  A  dative 
and  ablative  quis  (stem  quo-)  is  not  infrequent,  even  in  classic  Latin. 

d.  The  preposition  cum  is  joined  enclitically  to  all  forms  of  the  abla- 
tive, as  with  the  personal  pronouns  (§  143./) :  as,  quocum,  quicum,  quibuscum. 

Note.  —  But  occasionally  cum  precedes :  as,  cum  quo  (luv.  iv.  9). 

Compounds  of  quis  and  qm 

151.  The  pronouns  quis  and  qui  appear  in  various  combinations. 

a.  The  adverb  -cumque  (-cunque)  (cf.  quisque)  added  to  the  relative 
makes  an  indefinite  relative,  which  is  declined  like  the  simple  word :  as, 
quicumque,  quaecumque,  quodcumque,  whoever,  lohatever ;  cuiuscumque,  etc. 

Note.  —  This  suffix,  with  the  same  meaning,  may  be  used  with  any  relative:  as, 
qualiscumque,  of  whatever  sort ;  quandocumque  (also  rarely  quandoque),  whenever ;  ubi- 
cumque,  wherever. 

b»  In  quisquis,  whoever,  both  parts  are  declined,  but  the  only  forms  in 
common  use  are  quisquis,  quidquid  (quicquid)  and  quoquo. 

Note  1.  — Rare  forms  are  quemquem  and  quibusquibus ;  an  ablative  quiqui  is  some- 
times found  in  early  Latin ;  the  ablative  feminine  quaqua  is  both  late  and  rare.  Cuicui 
occurs  as  a  genitive  in  the  phrase  cuicui  modi,  of  whatever  kind.  Other  cases  are 
cited,  but  have  no  authority.    In  early  Latin  quisquis  is  occasionally  feminine. 

Note  2.  —Quisquis  is  usually  substantive,  except  in  the  ablative  qu6qu5,  which  is 
more  commonly  an  adjective. 


TO 


PRONOUNS 


[§161 


c.  The  indefinite  pronouns  quidam,  a  certain  (one) ;  quivis,  quilibet,  any 
you  please,  are  used  both  as  substantives  and  as  adjectives.  The  first  part 
is  declined  like  the  relative  qui,  but  the  neuter  has  both  quid-  (substantive) 
and  quod-  (adjective)  :  — 

quidam  quaedam  quiddam  (quoddam) 

quivis  quaevis  quidvis  (quodvis) 

Quidam  changes  m  to  n  before  d  in  the  accusative  singular  (quendam,  m.; 
quandam,  f.)  and  the  genitive  plural  (quorundam,  m.,  n.  ;  quarundam,  f.). 

d.  The  indefinite  pronouns  quispiam,  sofue,  any,  and  quisquam,  atiy  at  all, 
are  used  both  as  substantives  and  as  adjectives.  Quispiam  has  feminine  quae- 
piam  (adjective),  neuter  quidpiam  (substantive)  and  quodpiam  (adjective); 
the  plural  is  very  rare.  Quisquam  is  both  masculine  and  feminine ;  the 
neuter  is  quidquam  (quicquam),  substantive  only ;  there  is  no  plural,  tjllus, 
-a,  -um,  is  commonly  used  as  the  adjective  corresponding  to  quisquam. 

e.  The  indefinite  pronoun  aliquis  (substantive),  some  one,  aliqui  (adjec- 
tive), some,  is  declined  like  quis  and  qui,  but  aliqua  is  used  instead  of  aliquae 
except  in  the  nominative  plural  feminine  :  — 


Singular 

M. 

F. 

N. 

NOM. 

aliquis  (aliqui) 

aliqua 

aliquid  (aliquod) 

Gen. 

aliciiius 

alicuius 

aHciiius 

DAT. 

alicui 

alicui 

alicui 

Ace. 

aliquem 

aliquam 

aliquid  (aliquod) 

Abl. 

aliquo 

aliqua 
Plural 

aliquo 

NOM. 

aliqui 

aliquae 

aliqua 

Gen. 

aliquorum 

aliquarum 

aliquorum 

Dat. 

aliquibus 

aliquibus 

aliquibus 

Ace. 

aliquos 

aliquas 

aliqua 

Abl. 

aliquibus 

aliquibus 

aliquibus 

;.  — Aliqui  is  sometimes  used 

substantively  and  a 

iliquis  as  an  adiect 

/.  The  indefinite  pronoun  acquis  (substantive),  trhether  any  one,  ecqui 
(adjective),  whether  any,  is  declined  like  aliquis,  but  has  either  ecquae  or 
ecqua  in  the  nominative  singular  feminine  of  the  adjective  form. 

Note. — Ecquis  (ecqui)  has  no  genitive  singular,  and  in  the  plural  occurs  in  the 
nominative  and  accusative  only. 

g.  The  enclitic  particle  -que  added  to  the  interrogative  gives  a  universal  : 
as,  quisque,  every  one;  uterque,  each  of  two,  or  both.     Quisque  is  declined 


§§  161,  162] 


CORRELATIVES 


71 


like  the  interrogative  quis,  qui :  —  substantive,  quisque,  quidque ;  adjective, 
quique,  quaeque,  quodque. 

In  the  compound  unusquisque,  every  single  one,  both  parts  are  declined 
(genitive  uniuscuiusque),  and  they  are  sometimes  written  separately  and  even 
separated  by  other  words  :  — 

ne  in  uno  quidem  quoque  (Lael.  92),  not  even  in  a  single  one. 

h.  The  relative  and  interrogative  have  rarely  a  possessive  adjective 
cuius  (-a,  -um),  older  quoius,  whose ;  and  a  patrial  cuias  (cuiat-),  of  what 
country. 

L  Quantus,  how  great,  qualis,  of  what  sort,  are  derivative  adjectives  from 
the  interrogative.  They  are  either  interrogative  or  relative,  corresponding 
respectively  to  the  demonstratives  tantus,  talis  (§  152).  Indefinite  com- 
pounds are  quantuscumque  and  qualiscumque  (see  §  151.  a). 

Correlatives 

152.  Many  Pronouns,  Pronominal  Adjectives,  and  Adverbs 
have  corresponding  demonstrative^  7'elative^  interrogative,  and 
indefinite  forms.  Such  parallel  forms  are  called  Correlatives. 
They  are  shown  in  the  following  table :  — 


Demon. 

Rel. 

Interrog. 

Indef.  Rel. 

Indef. 

is 

qui 

quis? 

quisquis 

aliquis 

that 

who 

who? 

whoever 

some  one 

tantus 

quantus 

quantus  ? 

quantuscumque 

aliquantus 

so  great 

how  (as)  great 

how  great  ? 

however  great 

some 

talis 

qualis 

qualis  ? 

qualiscumque 

such' 

as 

of  what  sort  f 

of  whatever  kind 

ibi 

ubi 

ubi? 

ubiubi 

alicubi 

there 

where 

where  ? 

wherever 

somewhere 

eo 

quo 

quo? 

quoquo 

aliqu5 

thither 

whither 

whither  ? 

whithersoever 

(to)  somewhere 

ea 

qua 

qua? 

quaqua 

aliqua 

that  way 

which  way 

which  way  ? 

whithersoever 

somewhere 

inde 

unde 

unde? 

undecumque 

alicunde 

thence 

whence 

whence  ? 

whencesoever 

from  somewhere 

turn 

cum 

quando  ? 

quandocumque 

aliquando 

then 

when 

when? 

ivhenever 

at  some  time 

tot 

quot 

quot? 

quotquot 

aliquot 

so  many 

as 

how  many  ? 

however  many 

some,  several 

totiens 

quotiens 

quotiens  ? 

quotienscumque 

aliquotiens 

so  often 

as 

how  often  ? 

however  often 

at  several  times 

72  CONJUGATION   OF  THE   VERB  [§§153-166 

VERBS 
CONJUGATION   OF  THE  VERB 

153.  The  inflection  of  the  Verb  is  called  its  Conjugation. 

Voice,  Mood,  Tense,  Person,  Number 

154.  Through  its  conjugation  the  Verb  expresses  Voice,  Mood, 
Tense,  Person,  and  Number. 

a.  The  Voices  are  two  :  Active  and  Passive. 

h.  The  Moods  are  four :  Indicative,  Subjunctive,  Imperative,  and  In- 
finitive.^ 

Note.— The  Indicative,  Subjunctive,  and  Imi^erative  are  called  Finite  Moods  in 
distinction  from  the  Infinitive. 

c.  The  Tenses  are  six,  viz.:  — 

1.  For  continued  action,  Present,  Imperfect,  Future. 

2.  For  completed  action,  Perfect,  Pluperfect,  Future  Perfect. 

The  Indicative  Mood  has  all  six  tenses,  but  the  Subjunctive  has  no 
future  or  future  perfect,  and  the  Imperative  has  only  the  present  and  the 
future.     The  Infinitive  has  the  present,  perfect,  and  future. 

d.  The  Persons  are  three :  First,  Second,  and  Third. 

e.  The  Numbers  are  two  :  Singular  and  Plural. 

Noun  and  Adjective  Forms 

155.  The  following  Noun  and  Adjective  forms  are  also  included 
in  the  inflection  of  the  Latin  Verb :  — 

a»  Four  Participles,^  viz.:  — 
Active:  the  Present  and  Future  Participles. 
►n,      Passive :  the  Perfect  Participle  and  the  Gerundive.^ 

b.  The  Gerund  :  this  is  in  form  a  neuter  noun  of  the  second  declension, 
used  only  in  the  oblique  cases  of  the  singular. 

"    c.  The  Supine :  this  is  in  form  a  verbal  noun  of  the  fourth  declension 
in  the  accusative  (-urn)  and  dative  or  ablative  (-u)*  singular. 

1  The  Infinitive  is  strictly  the  locative  case  of  an  abstract  noun,  expressing  the 
action  of  tlie  verb  (§  4r)l). 

2  The  Participles  ai-e  adjectives  in  inflection  and  meaning,  but  have  the  power  of 
verbs  in  construction  and  in  distinguishing  time. 

8  The  Gerundive  is  also  used  as  an  adjective  of  necessity,  duty,  etc.  (§  158.  d).  In 
late  use  it  became  a  Future  Passive  Participle.  *  Originally  locative. 


§§  156,  157]  voices  and  moods  73 

Signification  of  the  Forms  of  the  Verb 

Voices 

156.  The  Active  and  Passive  Voices  in  Latin  generally  cor- 
respond to  the  active  and  passive  in  English ;  but  — 

a*  The  passive  voice  often  has  a  reflexive  meaning  :  — 

ferr5  accingor,  I  gird  myself  with  my  sword. 
Turnus  vertitur,  Tiirmis  turns  (himself), 
induitur  vestem,  he  puts  on  his  (own)  clothes. 

Note.  — This  use  correspoods  very  nearly  to  the  Greek  Middle  voice,  and  is  doubt- 
less a  survival  of  the  original  meaning  of  the  passive  (p.  76,  footnote  2) . 

b.  Many  verbs  are  passive  in  form,  but  active  or  reflexive  in  meaning. 
These  are  called  Deponents  (§  190):^  as,  hortor,  /  exhort;  sequor,  I  follow. 

c.  Some  verbs  with  active  meaning  have  the  passive  form  in  the  perfect 
tenses ;  these  are  called  Semi-Deponents  :  as,  audeo,  audere,  ausus  sum,  dare. 

Moods 
lB7.  The  Moods  are  used  as  follows :  — 

a«  The  Indicative  Mood  is  used  for  most  direct  assertions  and  interroga- 
tions :  as,  —  valesne  ?     valeo,  are  you  loell  ?     I  am  well. 

h.  The  Subjunctive  Mood  has  many  idiomatic  uses,  as  in  commands,  condi- 
tions, and  various  dependent  clauses.  It  is  often  translated  by  the  English 
Indicative;  frequently  by  means  of  the  auxiliaries  may,  might,  would,  should;^ 
sometimes  by  the  (rare)  Subjunctive ;  sometimes  by  the  Infinitive ;  and 
often  by  the  Imperative,  especially  in  prohibitions.  A  few  characteristic 
examples  of  its  use  are  the  following :  — 

eanuis,  let  us  go ;  ne  abeat,  let  him  not  depart. 

adsum  ut  videam,  I  am  here  to  see  (that  I  may  see). 

tu  ne  quaesieris,  do  not  thou  inquire. 

beatus  sis,  may  you  he  blessed. 

quid  merer,  lohy  should  I  delay  f 

nescio  quid  scribam,  I  knoio  not  what  to  write. 

si  moneam,  audiat,  if  I  should  warn,  he  vjould  hear. 

1  That  is,  verbs  which  have  laid  aside  (deponere)  the  passive  meaning. 

2  The  Latin  uses  the  subjunctive  in  many  cases  where  we  use  the  indicative;  and 
we  use  a  colorless  auxiliary  in  many  cases  where  the  Latin  employs  a  separate  verb 
with  more  definite  meaning.  Thus,  I  may  lorito.  is  often  not  scribam  (subjunctive),  but 
licet  mihi  scribere  ;  I  can  write  is  possum  scribere ;  /  would  write  is  scribam,  scriberem, 
or  scribere  velim  (vellem) ;  I  should  write,  {if,  etc.),  scriberem  (si)  .  .  .,  or  (implying  duty) 
oportet  me  scribere. 


74  CONJUGATION   OF  THE  VERB  [§§  157,  168 

c.  The  Imperative  is  used  for  exhortation,  entreaty,  or  command ;  but  the 
Subjunctive  is  often  used  instead  (§§  439,  450):  — 

liber  esto,  he  shall  he  free. 

ne  ossa  legito,  do  not  gather  the  hones. 

d.  The  Infinitive  is  used  chiefly  as  an  indeclinable  noun,  as  the  subject 
or  complement  of  another  verb  (§§  452, 456.  n.).  In  special  constructions  it 
takes  the  place  of  the  Indicative,  and  may  be  translated  by  that  mood  in 
English  (see  Indirect  Discourse,  §  580  ff.). 

Note.  —  For  the  Syntax  of  the  Moods,  see  §  436  ff . 

Participles 
158.  The  Participles  are  used  as  follows :  — 

a.  The  Present  Participle  (ending  in  -ns)  has  commonly  the  same 
meaning  and  use  as  the  English  participle  in  -ing ;  as,  vocans,  call- 
ing ;  legentes,  reading.     (For  its  inflection,  see  egens,  §  118.) 

h.  The  Puture  Participle  (ending  in  -urns)  is  oftenest  used  to  ex- 
press what  is  likely  or  about  to  happen:  as,  recturus,  about  to  rule; 
auditurus,  about  to  hear. 

Note. — With  the  tenses  of  esse,  to  he,  it  forms  the  First  Periphrastic  Conjugation 
(see  §  195) :  as,  urbs  est  casura,  the  city  is  about  to  fall ;  mansurus  eram,  I  was  going 
to  stay. 

c.  The  Perfect  Participle  (ending  in  -tus,  -sus)  has  two  uses :  — 

1.  It  is  sometimes  equivalent  to  the  English  perfect  passive  participle : 
as,  tectus,  sheltered ;  acceptus,  accepted  ;  ictus,  having  been  struck ;  and  often 
has  simply  an  adjective  meaning :  as,  acceptus,  acceptable. 

2.  It  is  used  with  the  verb  to  be  (esse)  to  form  certain  tenses  of  the  pas- 
sive :  as,  vocatus  est,  he  icas  (has  been)  called. 

Note.  —  There  is  no  Perfect  Active  or  Present  Passive  Participle  in  Latin.  For 
substitutes  see  §§  492,  493. 

d.  The  Gerundive  (ending  in  -ndus),  has  two  uses :  — 

1.  It  is  often  used  as  an  adjective  implying  obligation,  necessity,  or 
propriety  (ought  or  must)  :   as,  audiendus  est,  he  must  be  heard. 

Note.  —  When  thus  used  with  the  tenses  of  the  verb  to  be  (esse)  it  forms  the  Second 
Periphrastic  Conjugation:  deligendus  erat,  he  ought  to  have  been  chosen  (§  196). 

2.  In  the  oblique  cases  the  Gerundive  commonly  has  the  same  meaning 
as  the  Gerund  (cf.  §  159.  a),  though  its  construction  is  different.  (Foi 
examples,  see  §  503  ff.") 


§§  169-162)  TENSES   OF  THE   FINITE  VERR  75 

Gerund  and  Supine 

159.  The  Gerund  and  Supine  are  used  as  follows :  — 

a.  The  Gerund  is  a  verbal  noun,  corresponding  in  meaning  to  the  English 
verbal  noun  in  -ing  (§  502):  as,  loquendi  causa, /or  the  sake  of  speaking. 

Note.  —  The  Gerund  is  found  only  in  the  oblique  cases.  A  corresponding  nomi-  / 
native  is  supplied  by  the  Infinitive :  thus,  scribere  est  utile,  writing  (to  write)  is  use-  \ 
ful ;  but,  ars  scribendi,  the  art  of  writing. 

b.  The  Supine  is  in  form  a  noun  of  the  fourth  declension  (§  94.  &), 
found  only  in  the  accusative  ending  in  -turn,  -sum,  and  the  dative  or  abla^ 
tive  ending  in  -tu,  -su. 

The  Supine  in  -um  is  used  after  verbs  and  the  Supine  in  -u  after  adjec- 
tives (§§509,  510):  — 

venit  spectatum,  he  came  to  see  ;  mirabile  dictu,  wonderful  to  tell. 

Tenses  of  the  Finite  Verb 

160.  The  Tenses  of  the  Indicative  have,  in  general,  the  same 
meaning  as  the  corresponding  tenses  in  English :  — 

a.  Of  continued  action, 

1.  Present  :  scribo,  I  write,  I  am  writing,  I  do  write. 

2.  Imperfect  :  scribebam,  I  wrote,  I  was  writing,  I  did  write. 

3.  Future  :  scnbam,  I  shall  write. 

b.  Of  completed  action, 

4.  Perfect  :  scrips!,  I  have  written,  I  wrote. 
6,  Pluperfect  :  scripseram,  I  had  written. 

6.  Future  Perfect  :  scripserd,  I  shall  have  written. 

161.  The  Perfect  Indicative  has  two  separate  uses,  —  the  Per- 
fect Definite  and  the  Perfect  Historical  (or  Indefinite). 

1 .  The  Perfect  Definite  represents  the  action  of  the  verb  as  completed 
in  present  time,  and  corresponds  to  the  English  perfect  with  have:  as, 
scripsi,  /  have  written. 

2.  The  Perfect  Historical  narrates  a  simple  act  or  state  in  past  time 
without  representing  it  as  in  progress  or  continuing.  It  corresponds  to  the 
English  past  or  preterite  and  the  Greek  aorist:  as,  scripsit,  he  ivrote. 

162.  The  Tenses  of  the  Subjunctive  are  chiefly  used  in  depend- 
ent clauses,  following  the  rule  for  the  Sequence  of  Tenses ;  but 
have  also  special  idiomatic  uses  (see  Syntax). 

For  the  use  of  Tenses  in  the  Imperative,  see  §§  446,  449. 


76 


CONJUGATION    OF  THE   VEKB 


[§163 


Personal  Endings 

163.  Verbs  have  regular  terminations  ^  for  each  of  the  three 
Persons, both  singular  and  plural,  active  and  passive.^    These  are  : 


1.  -m(-o): 

9        -9- 


1.  -mus 

2.  -lis: 

3.  -nt: 


ACTIVE 

am-o,  /  love. 
ama-s,  thou  lovest. 
ama-t,  he  loves. 


ama-mus,  ive  love. 
ama-tis,  you  love. 
ama-nt,  they  love. 


Singular 


Plural 


PASSIVE 


-r  (-or) :        amo-r,  /  a7n  loved. 
-ris  (-re) :      ama-ris,  thou  art  loved. 
-tur :  ama-tur,  he  is  loved. 


-mur  :  ama-mur,  we  are  loved. 

-mini :  ama-mini,  you  are  loved. 

-ntur  :  ama-ntur,  they  are  loved. 


a.  The  Perfect  Indicative  active  has  the  special  terminations' 
Sing. 


1. 

-i : 

amav-i,  I  loved. 

2. 

-is-ti : 

amav-is-ti,  thou  lovedst. 

3. 

-i-t  : 

amav-i-t,  he  loved. 

1. 

-i-mus : 

amav-i-mus,  we  loved. 

2. 

-is-tis  : 

amav-is-tis,  you  loved. 

3. 

-erunt  (-ere) : 

amav-erunt  (-ere),  they  loved. 

Pldr. 


b.  The  Imperative  has  the  following  terminations 
Present  Active 


Singular 
ama,  love  thou. 


-te: 


-t5: 
-to: 


Future  Active 
ama-to,  thou  shalt  love.  -tote : 

ama-to,  he  shall  love.  -nt5 : 


Plural 
ama-te,  love  ye. 


ama-tote,  ye  shall  love. 
ama-nto,  they  shall  love. 


1  Most  of  these  seem  to  be  fragments  of  old  pronouns,  whose  signification  is  thus 
added  to  that  of  the  verb-stem  (of.  §  36).  But  the  ending  -mini  in  the  second  person 
plural  of  the  passive  is  perhaps  a  remnant  of  the  participial  form  found  in  the  Greek 
-fievos,  and  has  supplanted  the  proper  form,  which  does  not  appear  in  Latin.  The  per- 
sonal ending  -nt  is  probably  connected  with  the  participial  nt-  (nominative  -ns). 

2  The  Passive  is  an  old  Middle  Voice,  peculiar  to  the  Italic  and  Celtic  languages, 
and  of  uncertain  origin. 

3  Of  these  terminations  -i  is  not  a  personal  ending,  but  appears  to  represent  an 
Indo-European  tense-sign  -ai  of  the  Perfect  Middle.  In  -is-ti  and  -is-tis,  -ti  and  -tis  are 
personal  endings ;  for  -is-,  see  §  169.  c.  n.  In  -i-t  and  -i-mus,  -t  and  -mus  are  personal 
endings,  and  i  is  of  uncertain  origin.  Both  -erant  and  -ere  are  also  of  doubtful  origin, 
but  the  former  contains  the  personal  ending  -ut. 


§§  163,  104]  THE   THREE   STEMS  77 

Singular  Present  Passive  pi^yal 

2,  -re :        ama-re,  be  thou  loved.  -mini :      ama-mini,  be  ye  loved. 

Future  Passive 

2.  -tor :      ama-tor,  thou  shalt  be  loved.  

3.  -tor :      ama-tor,  he  shall  be  loved.  -ntor :      ama-ntor,  they  shall  be  loved. 

Forms  of  the  Verb 

The  Three  Stems 

164.  The  forms  of  the  verb  may  be  referred  to  three  stems, 
called  (1)  the  Present,  (2)  the  Perfect,  and  (3)  the  Supine  stem- 

1.  On  the  Present  stem  are  formed  — 

The  Present,  Imperfect,  and  Future  Indicative,  Active  and  Passive. 

The  Present  and  Imperfect  Subjunctive,  Active  and  Passive. 

The  Imperative,  Active  and  Passive. 

The  Present  Infinitive,  Active  and  Passive. 

The  Present  Participle,  the  Gerundive,  and  the  Gerund. 

2.  On  the  Perfect  stem  are  formed  — 

The  Perfect,  Pluperfect,  and  Future  Perfect  Indicative  Active. 
The  Perfect  and  Pluperfect  Subjunctive  Active. 
The  Perfect  Infinitive  Active. 

3.  On  the  Supine  stem  are  formed  ^  — 

a.  The  Perfect  Passive  Participle,  which  combines  with  the  forms  of  the 
verb  sum,  be,  to  make  — 

The  Perfect,  Pluperfect,  and  Future  Perfect  Indicative  Passive. 
The  Perfect  and  Pluperfect  Subjunctive  Passive. 
The  Perfect  Infinitive  Passive. 

b.  The  Future  Active  Participle,  which  combines  with  esse  to  make 
the  Future  Active  Infinitive. 

c.  The  Supine  in  -um  and  -ii.  The  Supine  in  -um  combines  with  iri  to 
make  the  Future  Passive  Infinitive  (§  203.  a). 

Note.  —  The  Perfect  Participle  with  fore  also  makes  a  Future  Passive  Infinitive 
(as,  amatus  fore).    For  fore  (futurum  esse)  ut  with  the  subjunctive,  see  §  569.  3.  a. 

1  The  Perfect  Passive  and  Future  Active  Participles  and  the  Supine,  though  strictly 
noun-forms,  each  with  its  own  sutfix,  agree  in  having  the  first  letter  of  the  suffix  (t) 
the  same  and  in  suffering  the  same  phonetic  change  (t  to  s,  see  §  15.  5).  Hence  these 
forms,  along  with  several  sets  of  derivatives  (in  -tor,  -tura,  etc.,  see  §  238.  b.  N.i),  were 
feli  by  the  Romans  as  belonging  to  one  system,  and  are  conveniently  associated  with 
the  Supine  Stem.  Thus,  from  pingo,  we  have  pictum,  pictus,  picturus,  pictor,  pictiira; 
from  rideo,  risum  (for  trid-tum),  risus  (part.),  risus  (uoun),  risurus,  risio,  risor,  risibilis. 


78 


CONJUGATION   OF  THE   VERB 


165,  166 


VERB-ENDINGS 

165.  Every  form  o£  the  finite  verb  is  made  up  of  two  parts : 

1.  The  Stem  (see  §  24).  This  is  either  the  root  or  a  modification  or 
development  of  it. 

2.  The  Ending,  consisting  of  — 

1.  the  Signs  of  Mood  and  Tense  (see  §§  168,  169). 

2.  the  Personal  Ending  (see  §  163). 

Thus  in  the  verb  voca-ba-s,  you  were  calling,  the  root  is  voc,  modified  into  the 
verb-stem  voca-,  which  by  the  addition  of  the  ending  -bas  becomes  the  imperfect 
tense  vocabas ;  and  this  ending  consists  of  the  tense-sign  ba-  and  the  personal 
ending  (-s)  of  the  second  person  singular. 

166.  The  Verb-endings,  as  they  are  formed  by  the  signs  for 
mood  and  tense  combined  with  personal  endings,  are  — 


ACTIVE 

PASSIVE 

INDICATIVE 

SUBJUNCTIVE 

INDICATIVE 

SUBJUNCTIVE 

Present 

Present 

Sing,   1.  -6 

••  M  '2 

'  -m 

-or 

-r 

2.  -s 

lii. 

-s 

-lis  (-re) 

N 

-ris  (-re) 

3. -t 
Plur.  1.  -mus 

-t 
-mus 

-tur 
-mur 

It 

-tur 
-mur 

2.  -tis 

3.  -nt 

1  *  °, 

-tis 
. -nt 

-mini 
-ntur 

1'^ 

-mini 
-ntur 

Imperfect 

Imperfect 

Sing.    1.  -ba-m 

-re-m 

-ba-r 

-re-r 

2.  -ba-s 

-re-s 

-ba-ris  (-re) 

-re-ris  (-re) 

3.  -ba-t 

-re-t 

-ba-tur 

-re-tur 

Plur.  1.  -ba-mus 

-re-mus 

-ba-mur 

-re-mur 

2.  -ba-tis 

-re-tis 

-ba-mini 

-re-mini 

3.  -ba-nt 

-re-nt 

-ba-ntur 

-re-ntur 

INDICATIVE 

INDICATIVE 

Future 

Future 

I,  III 

in,  rv 

i,n 

ni,  IV » 

Sing.   1.  -b-6 

S  si' -2 

'  -a-m 

-bo-r 

-a-T 

2.  -bi-s 

•"  .5  « 

-e-s 

-be-ris  (-re) 

-e-ris  (-re) 

3.  -bi-t 
Plur.  1.  -bi-mus 

mi 

-e-t 
-e-raus 

-bi-tur 
-bi-mur 

e  ■- 

-e-tur 
-e-mur 

2.  -bi-tis 

ills 

-e-tis 

-bi-mini 

»?    a 

-e-mini 

3.  -bu-nt 

-3|l 

-e-nt 

-bu-ntur 

-e-ntur 

1  These  numerals  refer  to  the  four  conjugations  given  later  (see  §  171). 


166] 


VERB-ENDINGS 


79 


Active 

INDICATIVE  SUBJUNCTIVE 

Perfect 

Sing.    1.  -i  -eri-m 

2.  -is-ti  -eri-s 

3.  -i-t  -eri-t 
Plur.  1.  -i-mus  -eri-mus 

2.  -is-tis  -eri-tis 

3.  -eru-nt  (-ere)         -eri-nt 

Pluperfect 


Sing. 


Plur. 


-era-m 

-era-s 

~era-t 

-era-mus 

-era-tis 

-era-nt 


-isse-m 

-isse-s 

-isse-t 

-isse-mus 

-isse-tis 

-isse-nt 


Future  Perfect 
Sing.    1.  -er-6 

2.  -eri-s 

3.  -eri-t 
Plur.  1.  -eri-mus 

2.  -eri-tis 

3.  -eri-nt 


Passive 

INDICATIVE  SUBJUNCTIVE 

Perfect 


-tus(-ta, 
-turn) 

-ti  (-tae, 
-ta) 


-tus(-ta, 
-turn) 

-ti  (-tae, 
-ta) 


sun 

sis 

sit 

simus 

sitis 

sint 


Pluperfect 


eram 

eras 

erat 

eramus 

eratis 

erant 


essem 

esses 

esset 

essemus 

essetis 

essent 


Future  Perfect 


-tus(-ta, 
-turn) 

-ti (-tae, 
-ta) 


ero 

eris 

erit 

erimus 

eritis 

erunt 


IMPERATIVE 

Present  Present 

Sing,  2.  Plur.  2.  -te  Sing.  2.  -re  Plur.  2.  -mini 

Future  Future 

2.  -to  2.  -tote  2.  -tor 

3.  -t5  3.  -nto  3.  -tor  3.  -ntor 

For  convenience  a  table  of  the  Noun  and  Adjective  forms  of 
the  verb  is  here  added. 

INFINITIVE 
Pres.      -re  (Pres.  stem)  i,  ii,  iv.  -ri ;  in.  -i 


Perf.      -isse  (Perf.  stem) 
FuT.        -turus  (-a,  -um)  esse 

-tus  (-ta,  -tum)  esse 
-tum  iri 

PARTICIPLES 
Pres.     -ns,  -ntis                                                  Perf. 
FuT.       -turus,  -a,  -um                                      Ger. 

-tus,  -ta,  -tum 
-ndus,  -nda,  -ndum 

GERUND                         SUPINE 

■ndi,  -ndo,  -ndum,  -ndo          -tum,  -tii 

80  CONJUGATION   OF  THE   VERB  [§§  167,  168 

167.  A  long,  vowel  is  shortened  before  the  personal  endings 
-m  (-r),  -t,  -nt  (-ntur) :  as,  ame-t  (for  older  ame-t),  habe-t  (for  habe-t), 
mone-nt,  mone-ntur. 

168.  The  tenses  of  the  Present  System  are  made  from  the  Pres- 
ent Stem  as  follows  :  —  ^ 

a.  In  the  Present  Indicative  the  personal  endings  are  added  directly  to 
the  present  stem.     Thus,  —  present  stem  ara-:  ara-s,  ara-mus,  ara-tis. 

h»  In  the  Imperfect  Indicative  the  suffix  -bam,  -bas,  etc.  (originally  a  com- 
plete verb)  is  added  to  the  present  stem :  as,  ara-bam,  ara-bas,  ara-bamus. 

Note. — The  form  t^am  was  apparently  an  aorist  of  the  Indo-European  root  bhu 
(cf.  fui,  futurus,  <f)V(jo,  English  be,  been),  and  meant  Iioas.  This  was  added  to  a  com- 
plete word,  originally  a  case  of  a  verbal  noun,  as  in  /  loas  a-seeing;  hence  vide-bam. 
The  form  probably  began  in  the  Second  or  Third  Conjugation  and  was  extended  to  the 
others.    The  a  was  at  first  long,  but  was  shortened  in  certain  forms  (§  167). 

c.  In  the  Future  Indicative  of  the  First  and  Second  Conjugations  a  similar 
suffix,  -bo,  -bis,  etc.,  is  added  to  the  present  stem  :  as,  ara-bo,  ara-bis,  mone-bo. 

Note.  —  The  form  f'oo  was  probably  a  present  tense  of  the  root  bhu,  with  a  future 
meaning,  and  was  affixed  to  a  noun-form  as  described  in  b.  n. 

d»  In  the  Future  Indicative  of  the  Third  and  Fourth  Conjugations  the* 
terminations  -am,  -es,  etc.  (as,  teg-am,  teg-es,  audi-am,  audi-es)  are  really  sub- 
junctive endings  used  in  a  future  sense  (see  e).  The  vowel  was  originally 
long  throughout.     For  shortening,  see  §  167. 

e.  In  the  Present  Subjunctive  the  personal  endings  were  added  to  a 
form  of  the  present  stem  ending  in  e-  or  a-,  which  was  shortened  in  certain 
forms  (§  167).     Thus,  ame-m,  ame-s,  tega-mus,  tega-nt. 

Note  1.  —  The  vowel  e  (seen  in  the  First  Conjugation :  as,  am-e-s)  is  an  inherited 
subjunctive  mood-sign.  It  appears  to  be  the  thematic  vowel  e  (§  174.  1)  lengthened. 
The  a  of  the  other  conjugations  (mone-a-s,  reg-a-s,  audi-a-s)  is  of  uncertain  origin. 

Note  2.  —  In  a  few  irregular  verbs  a  Present  Subjunctive  in  -im,  -Is,  etc.  occurs: 
as,  Sim,  sis,  simus,  velim,  velis,  etc.  This  is  an  old  optative,  i  being  a  form  of  the  Indo- 
European  optative  mood-sign  ye-  (cf.  siem,  sies,  siet,  §170.  b.  n.).  The  vowel  has 
been  shortened  in  the  first  and  third  persons  singular  and  the  third  person  plural. 

/.  In  the  Imperfect  Subjunctive  the  suffix  -rem,  -res,  etc.  is  added  to  the 
present  stem :  as,  ama-rem,  ama-res,  mone-rem,  tege-rem,  audi-rem. 

Note. — The  stem  element  -re-  is  of  uncertain  origin  and  is  not  found  outside  of 
Italic.  The  r  is  doubtless  the  aorist  sign  s  (cf.  es-se-m,  es-se-s)  changed  to  r  between 
two  vowels  (§  15.  4).    The  e  is  probably  the  subjunctive  mood-sign  (see  e). 

J  The  conjugation  of  a  verb  consists  of  separate  formations  from  a  root,  grad- 
ually grouped  together,  systematized,  and  supplemented  by  new  formations  made  on 
old  lines  to  supply  deficiencies.  Some  of  the  forms  were  inherited  from  the  parent 
speech ;  others  were  developed  in  the  course  of  the  history  of  the  Italic  dialects  or  of 
the  Latin  language  itself. 


§§  169,  170]  VERB-ENDINGS  81 

169.  The  tenses  of  the  Perfect  System  in  the  active  voice  are 
made  from  the  Perfect  Stem  as  follows :  — 

a.  In  the  Perfect  Indicative  the  endings  -i,  -isti,  etc.  are  added  directly 
to  the  perfect  stem  :  as,  amav-isti,  tex-istis. 

h.  In  the  Pluperfect  Indicative  the  suffix  -eram,  -eras,  etc.  is  added  to  the 
perfect  stem  :  as,  amav-eram,  monu-eras,  tex-erat. 

Note.  —  This  seems  to  represent  an  older  f-is-am  etc.  formed  on  the  analogy  of 
the  Future  Perfect  in  -ero  (older  f-is-o :  see  c  below)  and  influenced  by  eram  (imperfect 
of  sum)  in  comparison  with  ero  (future  of  sum). 

c.  In  the  Future  Perfect  the  suffix  -ero,  -eris,  etc.  is  added  to  the  perfect 
stem  :  as,  amav-ero,  monu-eris,  tex-erit. 

Note.  —  This  formation  was  originally  a  subjunctive  of  the  s-aorist,  ending  prob- 
ably in  f-is-o.  The  -is-  is  doubtless  the  same  as  that  seen  in  the  second  person  singular  of 
the  perfect  indicative  (vid-is-tl),  in  the  perfect  infinitive  (vid-is-se),  and  in  the  plu- 
perfect subjunctive  (vid  is-sem),  s  being  the  aorist  sign  and  i  probably  an  old  stem 
vowel. 

d.  In  the  Perfect  Subjunctive  the  suffix  -erim,  -eris,  etc.  is  added  to  the 
perfect  stem :  as,  amav-erim,  monu-eris,  tex-erit. 

Note.  —  This  formation  was  originally  an  optative  of  the  s-aorist  (-er-  for  older 
-is-,  as  in  the  future  perfect,  see  c  above).  The  i  after  r  is  the  optative  mood-sign  i 
shortened  (see  §  168.  e.  n.  2).  Forms  in  -is,  -it,  -imus,  -itis,  are  sometimes  found.  The 
shortening  in  -is,  -imus,  -itis,  is  due  to  confusion  with  the  future  perfect. 

e.  In  the  Pluperfect  Subjunctive  the  suffix  -issem,  -isses,  etc.  is  added  tc 
the  perfect  stem :  as,  amav-issem,  monu-isses,  tex-isset. 

Note.  —  Apparently  this  tense  was  formed  on  the  analogy  of  the  pluperfect  indica- 
tive in  t-is-ain  (later  -er-am,  see  6),  and  influenced  by  essem  (earlier  fessem)  in  ita 
relation  to  eram  (earlier  fesam).! 

The  Verb  Sum 

170.  The  verb  sum,  he^  is  both  irregular  and  defective,  having 
no  gerund  or  supine,  and  no  participle  but  the  future. 

Its  conjugation  is  given  at  the  outset,  on  account  of  its  impor- 
tance for  the  inflection  of  other  verbs. 

1  The  signs  of  mood  and  tense  are  often  said  to  be  inserted  between  the  root  (or 
verb-stem)  and  the  personal  ending.  No  such  insertion  is  possible  in  a  language 
developed  like  the  Latin.  All  true  verb- forms  are  the  result,  as  shown  above,  of  covfi- 
position;  that  is,  of  adding  to  the  root  or  the  stem  either  personal  endings  or  fully 
developed  auxiliaries  (themselves  containing  the  personal  terminations) ,  or  of  imita- 
tion of  such  processes.  Thus  videbamus  is  made  by  adding  to  vide-,  originally  a  signifi- 
cant word  or  a  form  conceived  as  such,  a  full  verbal  form  t^amus,  not  by  inserting 
-ba-  between  vide-  and  -mus  (§  168.  6). 


82 


CONJUGATION   OF  THE   VERB 


[§m 


Principal  Parts  :  Present  Indicative  sum,  Present  Infinitive  esse, 
Perfect  Indicative  fui,  Future  Participle  futurus. 


Present  Stem  es- 


Perfect  Stem  fu- 


SupiNE  Stem  fut- 


SlNG. 


Plur. 


Sing. 


Plur. 


Sing. 


Plur. 


Sing. 


Plur. 


INDICATIVE 

Present 

SUBJUNCTIVE 

1.  sum,  /  am 

Him  ^ 

2.  6s,  thou  art  (you  are) 

Sis 

3.  est,  he  (she,  it)  is 

Sit 

1.  sumus,  we  are 

simus 

2.  estis,  you  are 

sitis 

3.  sunt,  they  are 

Imperfect 

sint 

1.  eram,  /  ivas 

essem 

2.  eras,  you  were 

esses 

3.  erat,  he  (she,  it)  was 

esset 

1.  eram  us,  we  were 

essemus 

2.  eratis,  you  were 

essetis 

3.  erant,  they  were 

Future 

assent 

1.  ero,  /  shall  be 

2.  eris,  you  will  be 

3.  erit,  he  will  be 

1.  erimus,  we  shall  be 

2.  eritis,  you  will  be 

3.  erunt,  they  will  be 

Perfect 

1.  fui,  /  was  (have  been) 

fuerim 

2.  fuisti,  you  were 

fueris 

3.  fuit,  he  was 

fuerit 

1.  fiiimus,  we  were 

fuerimu! 

2.  fuistis,  you  were 

fueritis 

3.  fuerunt,  fuere,  they  were 

fuerint 

Pluperfect 


Sing.    1.  fueram,  /  had  been 

2.  fueras,  you  had  been 

3.  fuerat,  he  had  been 


fuissem 

fuisses 

fuisset 


i  Al\  translations  of  the  Subjunctive  are  misleading,  and  hence  none  is  given 
^ 157.  6. 


§  170] 


THE   VERB   SUM 


Plur. 


Sing. 


1.  ineramus,  we  had  been  fuissemua 

2.  fueratis,  you  had  been  fuissetis 

3.  fuerant,  they  had  been  fuissent 

Future  Perfect 

1.  fuero,  I  shall  have  been  Plur.    1.  fuerimus,  we  shall  have  been 

2.  fueris,  you  will  have  been  2.  fueritis,  you  will  have  been 

3.  fuerit,  he  will  have  been  3.  fuerint,  they  will  have  been 


IMPERATIVE 

Present         Sing.  2.  6s,  be  thou  Plur.  2.  este,  be  ye 

Future  2.  esto,  thou  shall  be  2.  estote,  ye  shall  be 

3.  esto,  he  shall  be  3.  sunto,  they  shall  be 


JNFTNITIVE 
Present       esse,  to  be 
Perfect    •  fuisse,  to  have  been 
Future        futurus  esse  or  fore,  to  be  about  to  he 


Future 


PARTICIPLE 

futurus,  -a,  -urn,  about  to  be 


a.  For  essem,  esses,  etc.,  forem,  fores,  f oret,  f orent,  are  often  used ;  so  fore 
for  futurus  esse. 

h.  The  Present  Participle,  which  would  regularly  be  fsons,^  appears  in 
the  adjective  in-sons,  innocent,  and  in  a  modified  form  in  ab-sens,  prae-sens. 
The  simple  form  ens  is  sometimes  found  in  late  or  philosophical  Latin  as  a 
participle  or  abstract  noun,  in  the  forms  ens,  being  ;  entia,  things  which  are. 

Note.  —  Old  forms  are:  —  Indicative:  Future,  escit,  escunt  (strictly  an  inchoa- 
tive present,  see  §  263.  1). 

Subjunctive:  Present,  siem,  sies,  siet,  sient;  fuam,  fuas,  fuat,  fuant;  Perfect,  fuvi- 
mus;  Pluperfect,  fuvisset. 

The  root  of  the  verb  sum  is  es,  which  in  the  imperfect  is  changed  to  er  (see  §  15. 4), 
and  in  many  forms  is  shortened  to  s.     Some  of  its  modifications,  as  found  in  several 
languages  more  or  less  closely  related  to  Latin,  may  be  seen  in  the  following  table,  — 
the  Sanskrit  sydm  corresponding  to  the  Latin  sim  (siem) :  — 
Sanskrit  Greek 

sydm  (optative)    imxi  ^ 
syds  i<ra-i  ^ 

sydt  iffri 

sydma  Iffixiv 

s-tha      sydta  eari 

s-anti     syus  IvtI^ 

The  Perfect  and  Supine  stems,  fu-,  fut-,  are  kindred  with  the  Greek  %<pv,  and  with 
the  English  he. 

1  Compare  Sankrit  sant,  Greek  cSv.  *  Old  form. 


as-mi 
as-i 


Latin 

Lithuanian 

s-um        sim  (siem) 

es-mi 

es               sis  (sies) 

es-i 

es-t            sit  (siet) 

es-ti 

s-umus    simv^ 

es-me 

es-tis         sitis 

es-te 

s-unt        sint  (sient) 

es-ti 

Conjugation 

Infinitive  Endi] 

First 

-are  (amare) 

Second 

-ere  (monere) 

Third 

-ere  (regere) 

Fourth 

-ire  (audire) 

84  CONJUGATION   OF  THE   VERB  [§§171-173 

The  Four  Conjugations 

171.  Verbs  are  classed  in  Four  Regular  Conjugations,  distin- 
guished by  the  stem-vowel  which  appears  before  -re  in  the  Present 
Infinitive  Active :  — 


Stem 

a 
e 
g 

1 


The  Principal  Parts 

172.  The  Principal  Parts  of  a  verb,  showing  the  three  stems 
which  determine  its  conjugation  throughout,  are  — 

1.  The  Present  Indicative  (as,  am5)        1    ,       •       -i     -r*  ^  o^ 

c^    m-L.    T^  ,  T-   n    •. •      X  -      N      t  showing  the  Present  Stem. 

2.  The  Present  Infinitive  (as,  ama-re)      J  ° 

3.  The  Perfect  Indicative  (as,  amav-i),  showing  the  Perfect  Stem. 

4.  The  neuter  of  the  Perfect  Participle  (as,  amat-um),  or,  if  that  form 
is  not  in  use,  the  Future  Active  Participle  (amat-iirus),  showing  the  Supine 
Stem. 

173.  The  regular  forms  of  the  Four  Conjugations  are  seen  in 
the  following :  — 

First  Conjugation  :  — 

Active,  amo,  amare,  £imavi,  amatum,  love. 

Passive,  amor,  amari,  amatus.' 

Present  Stem  ama-,  Perfect  Stem  amav-,  Supine  Stem  amat-. 

Second  Conjugation :  — 

Active,  deleo,  delere,  delevi,  deletum,  blot  out. 

Passive,  deleor,  deleri,  deletus. 

Present  Stem  dele-,  Perfect  Stem  delev-,  Supine  Stem  delet-. 

In  the  Second  conjugation,  however,  the  characteristic  e-  rarely  appears 
in  the  perfect  and  perfect  participle.     The  common  type  is,  therefore  :  — 

Active,  moneo,  monere,  monul,  monitum,  warn. 

Passive,  moneor,  moneri,  monitus. 

Present  Stem  mone-,  Perfect  Stem  monu-,  Supine  Stem  monit-. 


§§  173,  174]  PRESENT   STEM  85 

Third  Conjugation :  — 

Active,  tego,  tegere,  texi,  tectum,  cover. 

Passive,  tegor,  tegi,  tectus. 

Present  Stem  tege-.  Perfect  Stem  tex-,  Supine  Stem  tect-. 

Fourth  Conjugation :  — 

Active,  audio,  audire,  audivi,  auditum,  hear. 

Passive,  audior,  audiri,  auditus. 

Present  Stem  audi-,  Perfect  Stem  audiv-.  Supine  Stem  audit-. 

Uo  In  many  verbs  the  principal  parts  take  forms  belonging  to  two  or 
more  different  conjugations  (cf.  §  189):  — 

1,  2,  domo,  domare,  domui,  domitum,  subdue. 

2,  3,  maneo,  mane  re,  mansi,  mansum,  remain. 

3,  4,  peto,  petere,  petivi,  petitum,  seek. 

4,  3,  vincio,  vincire,  vinxi,  vinctum,  hind. 

Such  verbs  are  referred  to  the  conjugation  to  which  the  Present  stem 
conforms. 

Present  Stem 

174.    The  parent  (Indo-European)  speech  from  which  Latin  comes  had  two  main 

classes  of  verbs :  — 

1.  Thematic  Verbs,  in  which  a  so-called  thematic  vowel  (7o,  in  Latin  i/u)  appeared 
between  the  root  and  the  personal  ending:  as,  leg-i-tis  (for  fleg-e-tes),  leg-u-nt  (for 
+leg-o-nti)  .1  ,  0 

2.  Athematic  Verbs,  in  which  the  personal  endings  were  added  directly  to  the  root: 
as,  es-t,  es-tis  (root  es)^,  dJ-mus  (do,  root  da),  fer-t  (fero,  root  fbr). 

Of  the  Athematic  Verbs  few  survive  in  Latin,  and  these  are  counted  as  irregular, 
except  such  as  have  been  forced  into  one  of  the  four  "  regular"  conjugations.  Even 
the  irregular  verbs  have  admitted  mauy  forms  of  the  thematic  typ^. 

Of  the  Thematic  Verbs  a  large  number  remain.  These  may  be  divided  into  two 
classes :  — 

1.  Verbs  which  preserve  the  thematic  vowel  e  or  o  (in  Latin  i  or  u)  before  the  per- 
sonal endings.  — These  make  up  the  Third  Conjugation.  The  present  stem  is  formed 
in  various  ways  (§  176) ,  but  always  ends  in  a  short  vowel  Vo  (Latin  %) .  Examples  are 
tego  (stem  teg7o-),  sternimus  (stem  stern%-)  for  fster-no-mos,  plectunt  (stem  plectVo-) 
for  tplec-to-nti.  So  nosco  (stem  gnoscYo-)  for  gno-sc-o.  Verbs  like  nosco  became  the 
type  for  a  large  number  of  verbs  in  -sco,  called  inceptives  (§  263.  1). 

2.  Verbs  which  form  the  present  stem  by  means  of  the  suflSx  yVo")  which  already 
contained  the  thematic  vowel  Vo-  —Verbs  of  this  class  in  which'  any  vowel  (except 
u)  came  in  contact  with  the  suffix  y Vo"  suffered  contraction  so  as  to  present  a  long 
vowel  a-,  e-,  i-,  at  the  end  of  the  stem.  In  this  contraction  the  thematic  Vo  disappeared. 
These  became  the  types  of  the  First,  Second,  and  Fourth  conjugations  respectively. 
In  imitation  of  these  long  vowel-stems  numerous  verbs  were  formed  by  the  Romans 
themselves  (after  the  mode  of  formation  had  been  entirely  forgotten)  from  noun-  and 

1  (Jf .  \4y-e-T€,  X^y-o-fxev ;  Doric  X^y-o-un- 

2  Cf.  i(x-Tl,  ia-T4  (see  p.  83,  note). 


86  CONJUGATION   OF  THE   VERB  [§§  174-176 

adjective-stems.  This  came  to  be  the  regular  way  of  forming  new  verbs,  just  as  in 
English  the  borrowed  suffix  -ize  can  be  added  to  nouns  and  adjectives  to  make 
verbs:  as,  macadamize,  modernize. 

Thematic  verbs  of  the  second  class  in  which  a  consonant  or  u  came  into  contact 
with  the  suffix  yVo-  suffered  various  phonetic  changes.  Such  verbs  fall  partly  into 
the  Third  Conjugation,  giving  rise  to  an  irregular  form  of  it,  and  partly  into  the  Fourth, 
and  some  have  forms  of  both.  Examples  are :  —  (c6n)spicio  (-spicere)  for  fspekyo ;  venio 
(venire)  for  t(g)vem-y6 ;  cupio,  cupere,  but  cupivi ;  orior,  oritur,  but  oriri.  Note,  however, 
pluo  (pluere)  for  fplu-yo ;  and  hence,  by  analogy,  acuo  (acuere)  for  facu-yo. 

In  all  these  cases  many  cross-analogies  and  errors  as  well  as  phonetic  changes  have 
been  at  work  to  produce  irregularities.  Hence  has  arisen  the  traditional  system  which 
is  practically  represented  in  §§  175,  176. 

175.  The  Present  Stem  may  be  found  by  dropping  -re  in  the 
Present  Infinitive :  — 

ama-re,  stem  ama-;  mone-re,  stem  mone-;  tege-re,  stem  tege-;  audi-re,  stem 
audi-. 

176.  The  Present  Stem  is  formed  from  the  Root  in  all  regu- 
lar verbs  in  one  of  the  following  ways :  — 

a.  In  the  First,  Second,  and  Fourth  conjugations,  by  adding  a  long 
vowel  (a-,  e-,  i-)  to  the  root,  whose  vowel  is  sometimes  changed :  as,  voca-re 
(voc),  mone-re  (men,  cf.  memini),  sopi-re  (sop).^ 

Note.  —  Verb-stems  of  these  conjugations  are  almost  all  really  formed  from  noun- 
stems  on  the  pattern  of  older  f  oianations  (see  §  174) . 

6.  In  the  Third  Conjugation,  by  adding  a  short  vowel  %^  to  the  root. 
In  Latin  this  %  usually  appears  as  i/u,  but  e  is  preserved  in  some  forms. 
Thus,  tegi-s  (root  teg), ali-tis  (al),  regu-nt  (reg)  ;  but  tege-ris  (tege-re),  ale-ris. 

1.  The  stem-vowel  e/o  (Vu)  may  be  preceded  by  n,  t,  or  sc :  ^  as,  tem-ni-tis, 
tem-nu-nt,  tem-n6-ris  (tem)  ;  plec-ti-s  (plec)  ;  cre-sci-tis  (ore). 

2.  Verbs  in  -io  of  the  Third  Conjugation  (as,  capio,  capere)  show  in  some  forms 
an  i  before  the  final  vowel  of  the  stem:  as,  cap-i-unt  (cap),  fug-i-unt  (fug). 

c.  The  root  may  be  changed  — 

1.  By  the  repetition  of  a  part  of  it  {reduplication) :  as,  gi-gn-e-re  (gen). 

2.  By  the  insertion  of  a  nasal  (m  or  n) :  as,  find-e-re  (fid),  tang-e-re  (tag). 

1  Most  verbs  of  the  First,  Second,  and  Fourth  Conjugations  form  the  present  stem  by 
adding  the  suffix  -yVo"  to  a  noun-stem.  The  a  of  the  First  Conjugation  is  the  stem-ending 
of  the  noun  (as,  planta-re,  from  planta-,  stem  of  planta).  The  e  of  the  Second  and  thei 
of  the  Fourth  Conjugation  are  due  to  contraction  of  the  short  vowel  of  the  noun-stem 
with  the  ending  -yVo"-  Thus  albere  is  from  a.\h°/^-,  stem  of  albus;  finite  is  from  fini-, 
stem  of  finis.    Some  verbs  of  these  classes,  however,  come  from  roots  ending  in  a  vowel. 

2  This  is  the  so-called  "  thematic  vowel." 

3  In  these  verbs  the  stem-ending  added  to  the  root  is  respectively  -nVo">  "tVo"' 
6cV„-. 


§§  176,  177 J  PERFECT   STEM  87 

d»  In  some  verbs  the  present  stem  is  formed  from  a  noun-stem  in  u- ; 
as,  statu-e-re  (statu-s),  aestu-a-re  (aestu-s);  cf.  acuo,  acuere.^ 

Note  1.  —  A  few  isolated  forms  use  the  simple  root  as  a  present  stem:  as,  fer-re, 
fer-t ;  es-se ;  vel-le,  vul-t.    These  are  counted  as  irregular. 

Note  2.  —  In  some  verbs  the  final  consonant  of  the  root  is  doubled  before  the  stem- 
vowel:  a'^,  pell-i-tis  (pel),  mitt-i-tis  (mit). 

e.  Some  verbs  have  roots  ending  in  a  vowel.  In  these  the  present  stem 
is  generally  identical  with  the  root ;  as,  da-mus  (da),  fle-mus  (stem  fle-,  root 
form  unknown). 2  But  others,  as  rui-mus  (ru),  are  formed  with  an  addi- 
tional vowel  according  to  the  analogy  of  the  verbs  described  in  d. 

Note.  —  Some  verbs  of  this  class  reduplicate  the  root:  as,  si-st-e-re  (sta,  cf.  stare). 

Perfect  Stem 
177.  The  Perfect  Stem  is  formed  as  follows :  — 

a.  The  suffix  v  (u)  is  added  to  the  verb-stem ;  as,  voca-v-i,  audi-v-i ;  or 
to  the  root :  as,  son-u-i  (sona-re,  root  son),  mon-u-i  (mone-re,  mon  treated 
as  a  root). 2 

Note.  —  In  a  few  verbs  the  vowel  of  the  root  is  transposed  and  lengthened:  as, 
stra-v-i  (sterno,  star),  spre-v-i  (sperno,  spar). 

&.  The  suffix  s  is  added  to  the  root :  as,  carp-s-i  (carp),  tex-i  (for  teg-s-i, 
teg).^ 

Note.  —  The  modifications  of  the  present  stem  sometimes  appear  in  the  perfect: 
as,  finx-i  (fig,  present  stem  finge-),  sanx-i  (sac,  present  stem  sanci-). 

c.  The  root  is  reduplicated  by  prefixing  the  first  consonant  —  generally 
with  e,  sometimes  with  the  root-vowel :  as,  ce-cid-i  (cad5,  cad),  to-tond-i 
(tondeo,  tond). 

Note.  —  Infid-I  (for  ffe-fid-i,  flnd-o),  scid-i  (for  fsci-scid-i,  scindo),  the  reduplication 
has  been  lost,  leaving  merely  the  root. 

d.  The  root  vowel  is  lengthened,  sometimes  with  vowel  change  :  as,  leg-i 
(leg-o),  em-i  (em-6),  vid-i  (vid-e-o),  fug-i  (fug-i-o),  eg-i  (ag-o). 

e.  Sometimes  the  perfect  stem  has  the  same  formation  that  appears  in 
the  present  tense :  as,  vert-i  (vert-o),  solv-i  (solv-6). 

/.  Sometimes  the  perfect  is  formed  from  a  lost  or  imaginary  stem :  as, 
peti-v-i  (as  if  from  fpeti-5,  fpeti-re,  pet). 

1  These  are  either  old  formations  in  -y Vq-  in  which  the  y  has  disappeared  after  the 
u  (as,  statuo  for  jstatu-yo)  or  later  imitations  of  such  forms. 

2  In  some  of  the  verbs  of  this  class  the  present  srem  was  originally  identical  with 
the  root ;  in  others  the  ending  -y  Vo-  was  added,  but  has  been  absorbed  by  contraction. 

3  The  v-perfect  is  a  form  of  uncertain  origin  peculiar  to  the  Latin. 

^  The  s-perfect  is  in  origin  an  aorist.  Thus,  dix-i  (for  jdics-i)  corresponds  to  the 
Greek  aorist  ^-5ei^-o  (for  te-5ciKo--a). 


88  CONJUGATION   OF  THE    VERB  [§§  178,  179 

Supine  Stem 

178.  The  Supine  Stem  may  be  found  by  dropping -um  from  the 
Supine.     It  is  formed  by  adding  t  (or,  by  a  phonetic  change,  s)  — 

a.  To  the  present  stem  :  as,  ama-t-um,  dele-t-um,  audl-t-um. 
&.  To  the  root,  with  or  without  i:  as,  cap-t-um  (capio,  cap),  moni-t-um 
(moneo,  mon  used  as  root),  cas-um  (for  fcad-t-um,  cad),  lec-t-um  (leg). 

Note  1.  —  By  phonetic  change  dt  and  tt  become  s  (defensum,  versum  for  fde-fend- 
t-um,  fvert-t-um) ;  bt  becomes  pt  (scrip-t-um  for  fscrib-t-um) ;  gt  becomes  ct  (rec-t-um 
for  treg-t-um).i 

Note  2.  —  The  modifications  of  the  present  stem  sometimes  appear  in  the  supine : 
as,  tinc-t-um  (tingo,  tig)  ,  ten-s-um  for  ftend-t-um  (ten-d-o,  ten)  . 

Note  3.  —  The  supine  is  sometimes  from  a  lost  or  imaginary  verb-stem :  as,  peti-t-um 
(as  if  from  fpeti-o,  fpeti-re,  pet)  . 

Note  4.  —  A  few  verbs  form  the  supine  stem  in  s  after  the  analogy  of  verbs  in  d 
and  t:  as,  fal-s-um  (fallo),  pul-s-um  (pello). 

»■ 

Forms  of  Conjugation 

179.  The  forms  of  the  several  conjugations  from  which,  by 
adding  the  verb-endings  in  §  166,  all  the  moods  and  tenses  can 
be  made  are  as  follows :  — 

«.  The  First  Conjugation  includes  all  verbs  which  add  a-  to  the 
roou  to  form  the  present  stem : "-  as,  ama-re ;  with  a  few  whose  root 
ends  iu  a  (ffor,  fa-ri;  flo,  fla-re;  no,  na-re;  sto,  sta-re). 

1.  The  stem-vowel  a-  is  lost  before  -o  :  as,  am5  =  •fama-(y)6 ;  and  in  the 
present  subjunctive  it  is  changed  to  e  :  as,  ame-s,  ame-mus. 

2.  The  perfect  stem  regularly  adds  v,  the  supine  stem  t,  to  the  present 
stem :  as,  ama-v-i,  ama-t-um.     For  exceptions,  see  §  209.  a. 

b.  The  Second  Conjugation 'includes  all  verbs  which  add  e-  to  the 
root  to  form  the  present  stem :  as,  mone-re ;  with  a  few  whose  root 
ends  in  e ;  as,  fle-o,  fle-re ;  ne-6,  ne-re ;  re-or,  re-ri  (cf.  §  176.  e). 

1.  In  the  present  subjunctive  a  is  added  to  the  verb-stem :  as,  mone-a-s, 
mone-a-mus  (cf.  §  168.  e). 

2.  A  few  verbs  form  the  perfect  stem  by  adding  v  (u),  and  the  supine 
stem  by  adding  t,  to  the  present  stem :  as,  dele-v-i,  dele-t-um.  But  most 
form  the  perfect  stem  by  adding  v  (u)  to  the  root,  and  the  supine  stem  by 
adding  t  to  a  weaker  form  of  the  present  stem,  ending  in  i :  as,  mon-u-i, 
moni-t-um.     For  listS;  see  §  210. 

1  For  these  modifications  of  the  supine  stem,  see  §  15.  5,  6, 10. 

2  The  present  stem  is  thus  the  verb-stem.     For  excei^tions,  see  §  209.  a. 


§179]  FORMS   OF   CONJUGATION  89 

c.  The  Third  Conjugation  includes  all  verbs  (not  irregular,  see 
§  197)  which  add  e-  to  the  root  to  form  the  present  stem  :  as,  tege- 
re,  cape-re ;  with  a  few  whose  root  ends  in  e :  as,  se-re-re  for  fse-se-re 
(reduplicated  from  se,  cf.  satuni). 

1.  The  stem-vowel  e  is  regularly  lost  before  -5,  and  becomes  u^  before 
-nt  and  i  before  the  other  endings  of  the  indicative  and  imperative:  as, 
teg-o,  tegi-t,  tegu-nt ;  in  the  imperfect  indicative  it  becomes  e :  as,  tege- 
bam,  tege-bas,  etc. ;  in  the  future,  e :  as,  tege-s  (except  in  the  first  person 
singular,  tega-m,  tega-r)  ;  in  the  present  subjunctive,  a :  as,  tega-s. 

Verbs  in  -io  lose  the  i  before  a  consonant  and  also  before  i,  i,  and  e 
(except  in  the  future,  the  participle,  the  gerund,  and  the  gerundive). 
Thus,  —  capi-at,  capi-unt,  capi-ebat,  capi-es,  capi-et,  capi-ent;  but,  cap-it 
(not  fcapi-it),  cap-eret. 

2.  All  varieties  of  perfect  and  supine  stems  are  found  in  this  conjuga- 
tion. See  lists,  §  211.  The  perfect  is  not  formed  from  the  present  stem, 
but  from  the  root. 

d.  The  Fourth  Conjugation  includes  all  verbs  which  add  i-  to  the 
root  to  form  the  present  stem :  as,  audi-re.^  In  these  the  perfect  and 
supine  stems  regularly  add  v,  t,  to  the  verb-stem :  as,  audi-v-i,  audi- 
t-urn.^ Endings  like  those  of  the  third  conjugation  are  added  in  the 
third  person  plural  of  the  present  (indicative  and  imperative),  in 
the  imperfect  and  future  indicative,  and  in  the  present  subjunctive : 
as,  audi-unt,  audi-ebat,  audi-etis,  audi-at,  the  i  being  regularly  short 
before  a  vowel. 

e.  The  Present  Imperative  Active  (second  person  singular)  is  the 
same  as  the  present  stem  :  as,  ama,  mone,  tege,  audi.  But  verbs  in  -io 
of  the  third  conjugation  omit  i:  as,  cape  (not  fcapie). 

/.  The  tenses  of  completed  action  in  the  Active  voice  are  all  regu- 
larly formed  by  adding  the  tense-endings  (given  in  §  166)  to  the 
perfect  stem  :  as,  amav-i,  amav-eram,  amav-ero,  amav-erim,  amav-issem, 
amav-isse. 

g.  The  tenses  of  completed  action  in  the  Passive  voice  are  formed 
by  adding  to  the  perfect  participle  the  corresponding  tenses  of  con- 
tinued action  of  the  verb  esse :  as,  perfect  amatus  sum ;  pluperfect 
amatus  eram,  etc. 

1  The  gerundive  varies  between  -endus  and  -undus, 

2  A  few  are  formed  from  noun-stems,  as  fini-re  (from  fini-s),  and  a  few  roots  perhaps 
end  in  1 ;  but  these  are  not  distinguishable  in  form. 

3  For  exceptions,  see  §  212.  b. 


90 


CONJUGATION   OF  THE   VERB 


[§180 


Synopsis  of  the  Verb 

180.  The  following  synopsis  shows  the  forms  of  the  verb  ar- 
ranged according  to  the  three  stems  (§  164).  Amo,  a  regular  verb 
of  the  first  conjugation,  is  taken  as  a  type. 


Principal  Parts  :  Active,  amo,  amare,  amavi,  amatum. 
Passive,  amor,  amari,  amatus  sum. 

Present  stem  ama-  Perfect  stem  amav-  Supine  stem  amat- 

ACTIVE  PASSIVE 

Present  stem,  ama- 

INDIOATIVE 


Pres. 

Imperf. 

Fut. 

amo 

ama-bam 

ama-bo 

amo-r 

ama-bar 
ama-bor 

Pres. 
Imperf. 

ame-m 
ama-rem 

SUBJUNCTI\^ 

ame-r 
ama-rer 

Pres. 
Fut. 

ama 
ama-to 

IMPERATIVE 

ama-re 
ama-tor 

Pres. 

ama-re 

INFINITIVE 

ama-ri 

Pres. 

ama-ns 

PARTICIPLE 

Gerundive  ama-ndus 

GEKUND 

ama-ndi 

Perfect  stem,  amav- 

Perf.                  amav-i 
Plupekf.           amav-eram 
Fht.  Perf.        amav-ero 

INDICATIVE 

Supine  stem,  amSt- 

amat-us  sum 
amat-us  eram 
amat-us  ero 

Perf. 
Pluperf. 

amav-erim 
amav-issem 

SUBJUNCTI^^ 

amat-us  sim 
amat-us  essem 

Perf. 

amav-isse 

INFINITIVE 

Supine  stem,  amat- 

Perf. 
Fut. 

INFINITIVE 
amat-urus  esse 

amat-us  esse 
amat-um  iri 

F(TT. 

amat-urus 

PARTICIPLE 

Perf.  amSt-us 

SUPINE     amat-iim    amat-ii 


§§  181-1881  TECULIAKl  riKt^    OF   CONJUGATION  91 

Peculiarities  of  Conjugation 

181.  In  tenses  formed  upon  the  Perfeei  Stem,  v  between  two 
vowels  is  often  lost  and  emit raet ion  takes  plaee. 

a,  Vcriccts  in  -avl,  -ovi.  -ovi.  of  ton  oontvaot  tho  t\Yo  vowols  into  a.  e.  5, 
rospoctivoly  :  as.  amasso  lor  amavisse ;  amarim  tor  amaverim ;  amassem  for 
amavissem  ;  consuorat  lor  consiieverat :  flestis  for  llevistis;  nosse  for  novisse. 
So  in  porfocts  in  -vi.  uhoro  tho  v  is  a  part  of  tho  jnvsont  stoni :  as.  commorat 
for  commoverat. 

NoTK.  —  The  first  ihtsoti  of  tho  povfivt  iudioativo  i,as.  amrivi)  is  novor  ootitraotod, 
the  thinl  verj'  raroly. 

h»  Perfoot^  in  -ivi  rogularly  omit  v,  but  raroly  contraot  tho  vowels  ox- 
oopt  boforo  st  and  ss,  and  vory  raroly  in  tho  third  porson  porfoct :  — 

audienvm  for  audiveram  ;  audisse  for  audivisso  ;  audisti  for  audivisti ;  abiit  for 
abivit ;  abierunt  for  abiveruut. 

NoTK  1.  —  Tho  fi>vnis  siris.  sirit.  siiitis.  sirint.  for  sivcris  oto.  (from  siveio  or  siverim), 
are  arohaio. 

NoTK  2. —  In  many  forms  from  tlio  porfoot  stom  is,  iss.  sis.  aro  lost  in  liUo  mnniKM*. 
■\YhoT\  s  vroiilil  bo  ropoatod  if  thoy  A\oro  retained :  as.  dixtl  for  dixisti  (x  — cs);  tifixo 
for  traxisse  ;  fvasti  for  f vasisti ;  vixot  for  vixisset ;  Pri^psomus  for  CrSpsissf  mus  ;  docosse 
for  dScessisse,     Those  forms  belonix  to  ari-haio  and  oolUHjuial  us;u;e. 

182.  Four  verbs,  —  dicO,  dijc5,  faciS,  ferS, — with  tbeir  eompounds, 
drop  the  vowel-termination  of  the  Imperative,  making  die,  due,  fSe, 
f6r;  but  eomponnds  in  -liciO  retain  it,  as,  confice. 

Note.  —  Tho  imperative  forms  dioo.  duco,  laoo  (never  fero).  oeenr  in  early  T.atin, 

a.  For  the  iniporativo  of  scio.  tho  future  form  scito  is  always  used  in  tho 
singular,  and  scitote  usually  in  tho  plural, 

183.  The  following  aneient  fm-ms  are  found  eliietlv  in  poetry: 

1.  Tn  the  fourth  conjuuation.  -ibam,  -ibo,  for  -iebam,  -iain  (futuroV  Those 
forms  aro  rogidar  in  eo.  (jo  (^  '20'r\). 

L\  In  tho  present  subjunetivo.  -im  :  as  in  duim,  perduim,  retained  in 
religious  formulas  and  often  in  eomody.  This  form  is  regular  in  sum  and 
volo  and  their  com]HMnuls  (§§  170,  100). 

;>.  Tn  tho  perftH't  subjunetivo  and  future  porfoet  indieative. -sim.  -s5  :  as, 
faxim.  faxo.  iusso,  recepso  (—  fecerim  ete.") ;  ausim  (  -  ausus  simV 

•t.   In  the  [>assive  intinitive,  -ier  :  as.  vocarier  for  vocari;  agier  for  ai,i. 

r>.  A  form  in  -asso. -assere  is  fi"»und  used  as  a  futurt^  ]>erfeot :  as.  amassis, 
from  amo ;  levasso.  from  levo  ;  impetrassere,  from  impetro ;  ifidicassit,  from 
iudico  (of.  §  l-H);>.  '2.  h.  n.). 


92 


CONJUGATION   OF  THE  VERB 


[§184 


FIRST   CONJUGATION  (a-STEMS)  — ACTIVE  VOICE 

184.  The  First  Conjugation  includes  all  verbs  which  add  a-  to 
the  root  to  form  the  present  stem,  with  a  few  whose  root  ends 
in  a-.     The  verb  amo,  love,  is  conjugated  as  follows :  — 


Principal  Parts  :  Present  Indicative  amo,  Present  Infinitive  amare. 
Perfect  Indicative  amavi,  Supine  amatum. 


Present  stem  ama- 


Perfbct  stem  amav- 


SupiNE  STEM  amat- 


INDICATIVE 

Present 

SUBJUNCTIVE 

amo,^  /  love,  am  loving, 

do  love 

amem  ^ 

amas,  thou  lovest  (you  love) 

ames 

amat,  Jie  (she,  it)  loves 

amet 

amamus,  we  love 

am  emus 

amatis,  you  love 

ametis 

amant,  they  love 

Imperfect 

ament 

amabam,  I  loved,  was  loving,  did  love 

amarem 

amabas,  you  loved 

amares 

aniabat,  he  loved 

amaret 

amabamus,  we  loved 

amaremus 

am  abatis,  you  loved 

amaretis 

amabant,  they  loved 

amarent 

Future 


amabo,  /  shall  love 
amabis,  you  ivill  love 
aniabit,  he  will  love 

amabimus,  toe  shall  love 
amabitis,  you  will  love 
amabunt,  they  will  love 


1  The  stem-vowel  a-  is  lost  before  -6,  and  in  the  Present  Subjunctive  becomes  e-. 

2  The  translation  of  the  Subjunctive  varies  widely  according  to  the  construction- 
Hence  no  translation  of  this  mood  is  given  in  the  paradigms. 


184]  FIRST   CONJUGATION  I 

INDICATIVE  SUBJUNCTIVE 

Perfect 

aniavl,  /  loved,  have  loved  aniaverim 

amavisti,  you  loved  amaveris 

amavit,  he  loved  amaverit 

amavimus,  we  loved  amaverimus 

amavistis,  you  loved  amaveritis 

amaverunt  (-ere),  they  loved  amaverint 

Pluperfect 

amaveram,  /  had  loved  aniavissem 

amaveras,  you  had  loved  amavisses 

amaverat,  he  had  loved  amavisset 

araaveramus,  we  had  loved  amavissemua 

amaveratis^  you  had  loved  "                     amavissetis 

amaverant,  they  had  loved  amavissent 

Future  Perfect 
Singular  Plural 

amavero,  /  shall  have  loved  amaverimus,  we  shall  have  loved 

amaveris,  you  will  have  loved  amaveritis,  you  ivill  have  loved 

amaverit,  he  will  have  loved  amaverint,  they  will  have  loved 

IMPERATIVE 
Present  ama,  love  thou  amate,  love  ye 

Future     amato,  thou  shall  love         amatote,  ye  shall  love 
amato,  he  shall  love  amanto,  they  shall  love 

INFINITIVE 
Present  amare,  to  love 
Perfect  amavisse  or  amasse,  to  have  loved 
Future    amaturus  esse,  to  be  about  to  love 

PARTICIPLES 
Present  amans,  -antis,  loving 
Future    amaturus,  -a,  -um,  about  to  love 

GERUND 
Genitive  amandi,  of  loving  Accusative    amandum,  loving 

Dative      amando,  for  loving  Ablative       amando,  by  loving 

SUPINE 
amatum,  to  love     amatu,  to  love 


94 


CONJUGATION   OF  THE   VERB 


[§184 


FIRST  CONJUGATION   (^Z-STEMS)  — PASSIVE  VOICE 

Principal  Parts  :  Present  Indicative  amor,  Present  Infinitive  aman. 
Perfect  Indicative  amatus  sum.^ 


Present  stem  ama- 


SupiNE  STEM  amSt- 


ESTDICATIVE 


Present 


amor,^  /  am  loved,  being  loved 
amaris  (-re),  you  are  loved 
amatur,  he  is  loved 

amamur,  ive  are  loved 
amamini,  you  are  loved 
amantur,  they  are  loved 


SUBJUNCTIVE 

amer^ 
ameris  (-re) 
ametur 

amemur 
amemini 
amentur 


Imperfect 

amabar,  I  was  loved,  being  loved  amarer 

amabaris  (-re),  you  were  loved  amareris  (-re) 

amabatur,-  he  was  loved  amaretur 

amabamur,  we  were  loved  amaremur 

amabamini,  you  were  loved  amaremini 

amabantur,  they  were  loved  amarentur 


Future 


amabor,  /  shall  be  loved 
amaberis  (-re),  you  will  be  loved 
amabitur,  he  will  be  loved 

amabimur,  we  shall  be  loved 
amabimini,  you  icill  be  loved 
amabuntur,  they  will  be  loved 


1  Fui,  fuisti,  etc.,  are  sometimes  used  instead  of  sum,  es,  etc. ;  so  also  fueram  instead 
of  eram  and  fuero  instead  of  ero.  Similarly  in  the  Perfect  and  Pluperfect  Subjunctive 
fuerim,  fueris,  etc.  are  sometimes  used  instead  of  slm,  sis,  etc.,  and  fuissem  instead  of 
essem. 

2  The  stem-vowel  a-  is  lost  before  -or,  and  in  the  Present  Subjunctive  becomes  e-. 

*  The  translation  of  the  Subjunctive  varies  widely  according  to  the  construction. 
Hence  no  translation  of  this  mood  is  given  in  the  paradigms. 


§184] 


FIRST  CONJUGATION 


95 


INDICATIVE 

amatus  sum,^  /  was  loved 
amatus  es,  you  were  loved 
amatus  est,  he  was  loved 

amati  sumus,  we  were  loved 
amati  estis,  you  ivere  loved 
araati  sunt,  thev  were  loved 


Perfect 


SUBJUNCTIVE 


amatus  sim^ 
amatus  sis 
amatus  sit 

amati  simus 
amati  sitis 
amati  sint 


Pluperfect 


amatus  eram,*  /  had  been  loved 
amatus  eras,  you  had  been  loved 
amatus  erat,  he  had  been  loved 

amati  eramus,  we  had  been  loved 
amati  eratis,  you  had  been  loved 
amati  erant,  they  had  been  loved 


amatus  essem^ 
amatus  esses 
amatus  esset 

amati  essemus 
amati  essetis 
amati  essent 


Future  Perfect 


Singular 

amatus  ero,^  /  shall  have  been  loved 
amatus  eris,  you  will  have,  etc. 
amatus  erit,  he  will  have,  etc. 


Plural 

amati  erimus,  we  shall  have,  etc. 
amati  eritis,  you  will  have,  etc. 
amati  erunt,  they  will  have,  etc. 


IMPERATIVE 

Present     amSre,  he  thou  loved  amamini,  be  ye  loved 

Future      amator,  thou  shalt  be  loved  .        

amator,  he  shall  he  loved  amantor,  they  shall  he  loved 

INFINITIVE 

Present      amari,  to  be  loved 

Perfect      amatus  esse,  to  have  been  loved 

Future        amatum  iri,  to  he  about  to  be'loved 

PARTICIPLES 

Perfect  amatus,  -a,  -um,  loved  (beloved,  or  having  been  loved) 

Future  (Gerundive)     amandus,  -a,  -um,  to-be-loved  (lovely) 


1  See  page  94,  footnote  1. 


96 


CONJUGATION   OF  THE    VERB 


[§186 


SECOND  CONJUGATION  (e-STEMS) 

185.  The  Second  Conjugation  includes  all  verbs  which  add  e- 
to  the  root  to  form  the  present  stem,  with  a  few  whose  root  ends 


m  e-. 


Principal  Parts:  Active,  moneo,  monere,  monui,  monitum; 
Passive,  moneor,  moneri,  monitus  sum. 


Present  stem  mone- 


Perfect  stem  monu- 


SupiNE  STEM  monit- 


ACTIVE    VOICE 


PASSIVE   VOICE 


INDICATIVE  SUBJUNCTIVE 

Present 


moneo,  /  warn 


moneam 


mones,  you  warn     moneas 
monet,  he  warns      moneat 


monemua 

raonetis 

monent 


moneamus 

moiieatifi 

moneant 


indicatht:        subjunctive 
Present 


moneor 
moneris  (-re) 
monetur 

monemur 
monemini 
monentur 


monear  ^ 
monearis  (-re) 
moneatur 

moneamur 
moneamini 
moneantur 


Imperfect 


monebam 

monebas 

monebat 

monebamus 

monebatis 

monebant 


monerem 

moneres 

moneret 

moneremuB 

mcneretis 
raonerent 


Imperfect 

monebar  monerer 

monebaris  (-re)  monereris  (-re) 

monebatur  moneretur 

monebamur  moneremur 

monebamini  moneremini 

monebantur  monerentur 


Future 


monebo 
monebis 
monebit 

monebimua 

monebitis 

monebunt 


Future 

monebor 
moneberis  (-re) 
monebitur 

monebimur 
monebimini 
monebuntur 


See  §  179.  b.  1. 


§185] 


SECOND   CONJUGATION 


91 


Active  Voice 

INDICATIVE  SUBJUNCTIVE 

Perfect 

monui  monuerim 

monuisti  monueris 

monuit  monuerit 

monuimus  monuerimus 

monuistis  monueritis 

monuerunt  (-re)  monuerint 

Pluperfect 

monueram 

monueras 

monuerat 


monueramus 

monueratis 

monuerant 


monuissem 

monuisses 

mormisset 

monuissemus 

monuissetis 

moDuissent 


Future  Perfect 
monuero 
monueris 
monuerit 
monuerimus 
monueritis 
monuerint 


Passive  Voice 

INDICATIVE  subjunctive 

Perfect 
monitus  sum  ^     monitus  sim  ^ 


monitus  es 
monitus  est 
moniti  sumus 
moniti  estis 
moniti  sunt 


monitus  sis 
monitus  sit 
moniti  simus 
moniti  sitis 
moniti  sint 


Pluperfect 
monitus  eram  ^    monitus  esseni ' 


monitus  eras 
monitus  erat 
moniti  eramus 
moniti  eratis 
moniti  erant 


monitus  esses 
monitus  esset 
moniti  essemus 
moniti  essetis 
moniti  essent 


Future  Perfect 
monitus  ero  ^ 
monitus  eris 
monitus  erit 
moniti  erimus 
moniti  eritis 
moniti  erunt 


Singular 
Present     mone 
Future       moneto 

moneto 


IMPERATIVE 

Plural  *  Singular 

monete  Present  monere 

monetote  Future  monetor 

monento  monetor 


Plural 
monemini 


monentor 


Present     monere 
Perfect     monuisse 
Future      moniturus  esse 


INFINITIVE 

moneri 
monitus  esse 
monitum  iri 


PARTICIPLES 
Present     monens,  -entis  Perfect         monitus,  -a,  -um 

Future       moniturus,  -a,  -um  Gerundive     monendus,  -a,-um 

GERUND  SUPINE 

monendi,  -do,  -dum,  -do      monitum,  monitu 


1  See  footnote  1  on  page  94. 


98 


CONJUGATION   OF   THE   VERB 


[§186 


THIRD   CONJUGATION   (^-STEMS) 

186.  The  Third  Conjugation  includes  all  verbs  (not  irregular, 
see  §  197)  which  add  e-  to  the  root  to  form  the  present  stem,  with 
a  few  whose  root  ends  in  e-. 

Principal  Parts  :  Active,  tego,  tegere,  texi,  tectum  ; 
Passive,  tegor,  tegi,  tectus  sum. 


Present  stem  tege-             Perf 

ECT  STEM  tex-  1            Supine  stem  tect- 

ACTIVE 

VOICE 

PASSIVE   VOICE 

INDICATIVE 

SUBJUNCTIVE 

INDICATIVE            SUBJUNCTIVE 

Present 

Present 

teg6,2  I  cover 
tegis,  you  cover 
tegit,  he  covers 

tegam  2 

tegas 

tegat 

tegor  2                     tegar  ^ 
tegeris  (-re)          tegaris  (-re) 
tegitur                   tegatur 

tegimus 

tegitis 

tegunt 

tegamus 

tegatis 

tegant 

tegimur                  tegam  ur 
tegimini                tegamim 
teguntur               tegantur 

Imperfect 

Imperfect 

tegebam 

tegebas 

tegebat 

tegerem 

tegeres 

tegeret 

tegebar                  tegerer 
tegebaris  (-re)     tegereris  (-re) 
tegebatur             tegeretur 

tegebamus 

tegebatis 

tegebant 

tegeremus 
tegeretis 

tegerent 

tegebamui            tegeremur 
tegebamini           tegeremin! 
tegebantui           tegerentur 

Future 

Future 

tegam  ^ 

teges 

teget 

' 

tegar '-^ 
teggris  (-re) 
teggtur 

tegemus 

teggtis 

tegent 

teggmur 
tegemini 
tegentur 

1  The  perfect  stem  in  this  conjugation  is  always  formed  from  the  root;  tSx-  ig  foi 
teg-s-  (see  §  15.  9) .  2  See  §  179.  c.  1. 


§  186] 


THIRD  CUJSJUGATION 


Active  Voice 

INDICATIVE  SUBJUNCTIVE 

Perfect 
texi  texerim 

texisti  texeris 

texit  texerit 

teximus  texerimus 

texistis  texeritis 

texerunt  (-re)     texerint 

Pluperfect 
texeram  texissem 

texeras  texisses 

texerat  texisset 

texeramus  texissemus 

texeratis  texissetis 

texerant  texissent 

Future  Perfect 
texero 
texeriB 
texerit 

texerimus 

texeritis 

texerint 


Passive  Voice 

INDICATIVE  SUBJUNCTIVE 

Perfect 


tectus  sum  ^ 
tectus  es 
tectus  est 

tecti  sumus 
tecti  estis 
tecti  sunt 


tectus  sim  ^ 
tectus  SIS 
tectus  sit 

tecti  simus 
tecti  sitis 
tecti  sint 


Pluperfect 


tectus  eram  ^ 
tectus  eras 
tectus  erat 

tecti  eramus 
tecti  eratis 
tecti  erant 


tectus  essem  ^ 
tectus  esses 
tectus  esset 

tecti  essemus 
tecti  essetis 
tecti  essent 


Future  Perfect 
tectus  ero  -^ 
tectus  eris 
tectus  erit 

tecti  erimus 
tecti  eritis 
tecti  erunt 


imperative 


Present 
Future 


Present 
Perfect 
Future 

Present 
Future 


Plural 
tegite 
tegitote 
tegunto 


Singular 
tege 
tegito 
tegito 

tegere 

texisse 

tectums 


tegens,  -entis 
tectiirus,  -a,  -um 


GERUND 

tegendi,  -do,  -dum,  -do 


Singular 
tegere 
tegitor 
tegitor 

infinitive 
tegi 

tectus  esse 
tectum  iri 

participles 

Perfect 
Gerundive 

supine 
tectum,  tectu 


Plural 
tegimini 

teguntor 


tectus,  -a,  -um 
tegendus  (-undus) 


1  See  footnote  1  on  page  94o 


100 


CONJUGATION    OF  THE   VERB 


[§187 


FOURTH  CONJUGATION  (/-STEMS) 

187.  The  Fourth  Conjugation  includes  all  verbs  which  add  i- 
to  the  root  to  form  the  present  stem. 

Principal  Parts:  Active,  audio,  audire,  audivi,  auditum ; 
Passive,  audior,  audiri,  auditus  sum. 


Present  stem  audi- 


Perfect  stem  audiv- 


SupiNE  stem  audit- 


ACTIVE 

VOICE 

PASSIVE 

VOICE 

INDICATIVE 

SUBJUNCTIVE 

INDICATIVE 

SUBJUNCTIVE 

Present 

Present 

audio,  /  hear 
audis,  you  hear 
audit,  he  hears 

audiam  ^ 

audias 

audiat 

audior 
audiris  (-re) 
auditur 

audiar  ^ 
audiaris  (-re) 
audiatur 

audimus 

audrtis 

audiunt 

audiamus 

audiatis 

audiaut 

audimur 
audimini 
audiuntur 

audiamur 
audiamini 
audiantur 

Imperfect 

Imperfect 

audiebam  ^ 
audiebas 

audirem 
audires 

audiebar  ^ 
audiebaris  (-re) 

audirer 
audireris  (-re) 

audiebamus  audiremus 

audiebatis  audire  tis 

audiebant  audirent 


audiebatur 


audiretur 


audiebamur  audiremur 

audiebamini         audiremini 
audiebantur         audirentur 


Future 


Future 


audiam  ^ 

audies 

audiet 

audiemus 

audietis 

audient 


audiar  ^ 
audieris  (-re) 
audietur 

audiemur 
audiemini 
audientur 


I  See  §  179.  d. 


§187] 


FOUKTH  CONJUGATION 


101 


Active  Voice 

INDICATIVE              SUBJUNCTIVE 

Perfect 
audivi                    audiverim 
audivisti                audiveris 
audivit                   audiverit 

Passive  Voice 

INDICATIVE               SUBJUNCTIVE 

Perfect 
auditus  sum  ^       auditus  sim  ^ 
auditus  es              auditus  sis 
auditus  est           auditus  sit 

audivimus             audiverimus 
audivistis               audiveritis 
audiveruat  (-re)  audiverint 

auditi  sumus 
auditi  estis 
auditi  sunt 

auditi  simus 
auditi  sitis 
auditi  sint 

Pluperfect 
audiveram             audivissem 
audiveras               audivisses 
audiverat              audivisset 

Pluperfect 
auditus  eram  ^      auditus  esseni  ^ 
auditus  eras          auditus'  esses 
auditus  erat          auditus  esset 

audiveramus         audivissemus 
audiveratis            audivissetis 
audiverant            audivissent 

auditi  eramus 
auditi  eratis 
auditi  erant 

auditi  essemus 
auditi  essetis 
auditi  essent 

Future  Perfect 
audivero 
audiveris 
audiverit 

Future 
auditus  ero  ^ 
auditus  eris 
auditus  erit 

Perfect 

audiverimus 

audiveritis 

audiverint 

auditi  erimus 
auditi  eritis 
auditi  erunt 

Singular      Plural 
Present       audi          audite 
Fttttire         auditd      auditote 

[MPERATIVE 

Singular 
audire 
auditor 
auditor 

Plural 
audimini 

audits      audiunto 

audiuntor 

Present       audire 
Perfect      audivisse 
Future        auditurus  esse 

INFINITIVE 

audiri 

auditus  esse 
auditum  iri 

PARTICIPLES 
Present       audiens,  -ientis  Perfect  auditus,  -a,  -um 

Future         auditurus,  -a,  -um  Gerundive      audiendus,  -a,  -um 


GERUND 

audlendi,  -do,  -dum,  -do 


SUPINE 
auditum,  audltu 


I  See  footnote  1,  p.  94. 


102 


CGNJTTGATIOI^    OF  THE   VERB 


[§188 


VERBS   IN  Ho  OF  THE   THIRD  CONJUGATION 

188.  Verbs  of  the  Third  Conjugation  in  -io  have  certain  forms 
of  the  present  stem  like  the  fourth  conjugation.  They  lose  the 
i  of  the  stem  before  a  consonant  and  also  before  i,  i,  and  g  (except 
in  the  future,  the  participle,  the  gerund,  and  the  gerundive).^ 
Verbs  of  this  class  are  conjugated  as  follows :  — 

Principal  Parts:  Active^  capio,  capere,  cepi,  captum; 
Passive,  capior,  capi,  captus  sum. 

Present  stem  capie-  (cape-)         Perfect  stem  c§p-        Supine  stem  capt- 


ACTIVE   VOICE 
indicative        subjunctive 

Present 
capio,  /  take  capiam 


PASSIVE   VOICE 

indicative         subjunctive 

Present 


capis,  you  take 

capias 

capit,  he  takes 

capiat 

capimus 

capiamus 

capitis 

capiatis 

capiunt 

capiant 

Imperfect 

capiebam 

caperem 

Future 

capiam 

capies 

capiet,  etc. 

Perfect 

cepi 

ceperim 

Pluperfect 

ceperam 

cepissem 

Future 

Perfect 

cepero 

capior 

caperis  (-re) 

capitur 

capimur 

capimini 

capiuntur 


capiar 

capiaris  (-re) 

capiatur 

capiamur 

capi5mim 

capiantur 


Imperfect 
capiebar  caperer 

Future 
capiar 

capieris  (-re) 
capietur,  etc. 

Perfect 
captus  sum  captus  sim 

Pluperfect 
captus  eram         captus  essem 

Future  Perfect 
captus  ero 


1  This  is  a  practical  working  rule.    The  actual  explanation  of  the  forms  of  such 
verbs  is  not  fully  understood. 


188-190] 


DEPONENT   VERBS 


103 


Active  Voice 

Present 

Singular     Plural 
cape         capite 

Future 

capito      capitote 
capito      capiunto 


Present  capere 
Perfect  cepisse 
Future        capturus 


Passive 

Voice 

IMPERATIVE 

Present 

Singular 

Plural 

capere 

capimini 

Future 

capitor 

capitor 

capiuntor 

INFmiTIVE 

capl 

captus  esse 

captum 

iri 

PARTICIPLES 
Present       capiens,  -ientis  Perfect  captus,  -a,  -um 

Future        capturus,  -a,  -um  Gerundive      capiendus,  -a,  -um 

GERUND  SUPINE 

capiendi,  -do,  -dum,  -do  captum,  -tu 


Parallel  Forms 

189.  Many  verbs  have  more  than  one  set  of  forms,  of  which 
only  one  is  generally  found  in  classic  use :  — 

lavo,  lavare  or  lavere,  wash  (see  §  211.  e). 
scateo,  scatere  or  scatere,  gush  forth. 
ludifico,  -are,  or  ludificor,  -ari,  ynock. 
fulgo,  fulgere,  or  fulgeo,  fulgere,  shine. 


DEPONENT   VERBS 

190.  Deponent  Verbs  have  the  forms  of  the  Passive  Voice, 
with  an  active  or  reflexive  signification :  — 

{First  conjugation  :      mlror,  mirari,  miratus,  admire. 
Second  conjugation  :  vereor,  vererl,  veritus, /ear. 
Third  conjugation  :     sequor,  sequi,  secutus,  follow. 
Fourth  conjugation  :  partior,  partiri,  partitus,  share. 


104 


CONJUGATION   OF  THE   VERB 


[§  190 


INDICATIVE 


Pres.   miror 

miraris  (-re) 
miratur 

miramur 
miramini 
mirantur 

Impf.    mirabar 
FuT.     mirabor 
Perf.  miratus  sum 
Plup.  miratus  eram 
F.  P.    miratus  ero 


vereor 
vereris  (-re) 
veretur 

vergmur 
veremini 
verentur 

verebar 
verebor 
veritus  sum 
veritus  eram 
veritus  ero 


sequor 
sequeris  (-re) 
sequitur 

sequimur 
sequimini 
sequuntur 

sequebar 
sequar 
secutus  sum 
secutus  eram 
secutus  ero 


partior 
partiris  (-re) 
partitur 

partimur 
partimiiii 
partiuntur 

partiebar 
partiar 
partitus  sum 
partitus  eram 
partitus  ero 


SUBJUNCTIVE 


Pres.   mirer 
Impf.    mirarer 
Perf.  miratus  sim 
Plup.  miratus  essem 


verear 
vererer 
veritus  sim 
veritus  essem 


sequar 
sequerer 
sectitus  sim 
secutus  essem 


partiar 
partirer 
partitus  sim 
partitus  essem 


IMPERATIVE 


Pres. 

mirare 

verere                     sequere 

partire 

Put. 

mirator 

veretor                   sequitor 
INFINITIVE 

partitor 

Pres. 

mirari 

vereri                     sequi 

partiri 

Perf. 

miratus  esse 

veritus  esse           secutus  esse 

partitus  esse 

Fdt. 

miraturus  esse 

veriturus  esse      secuturus  esse 
PARTICIPLES 

partiturus  esse 

Pres.   mirans  verens  sequens  partiens 

FuT.     miraturus  veriturus  secuturus  partiturus 

Perf.  miratus  veritus  secutus  partitus 

Ger.     mirandus  verendus  sequendus  partiendus 


GERUND 
miran^,  -6,  etc.     verendi,  etc.  sequendi,  etc. 


partiendi,  etc. 


SUPINE 

miratum,  -tu  veritum,  -tu  secutum,  -tu 


partitum,  -tu 


§§  190,  191]  DEPONENT   VERBS  105 

a.  Deponents  have  the  participles  of  both  voices :  — 

sequens,  following.  secuturus,  oJbout  to  follow, 

secntus,  having  followed.  sequendus,  to  be  followed. 

b.  The  perfect  participle  generally  has  an  active  sense,  but  in  verbs 
otherwise  deponent  it  is  often  passive  :  as,  mercatus,  bought ;  adeptus,  gained 
(or  having  gained^. 

c.  The  future  infinitive  is  always  in  the  active  form :  thus,  sequor  has 
seciitunis  (-a,  -um)  esse  (not  secutum  iri). 

d.  The  gerundive,  being  passive  in  meaning,  is  found  only  in  transitive 
verbs,  or  intransitive  verbs  used  impersonally :  — 

hoc  confitendum  est,  this  must  he  acknowledged. 
moriendum  est  omnibus,  all  must  die. 

e.  Most  deponents  are  intransitive  or  reflexive  in  meaning,  correspond- 
ing to  what  in  Greek  is  called  the  Middle  Voice  (§  156.  a.  n.). 

/.  Some  deponents  are  occasionally  used  in  a  passive  sense  :  as,  criminor, 
/  accuse,  or  /  am  accused. 

g.  About  twenty  verbs  have  an  active  meaning  in  both  active  and 
passive  forms  :  as,  mere5  or  mereor,  /  deserve. 

191.  More  than  half  of  all  deponents  are  of  the  First  Conju- 
gation, and  all  of  these  are  regular.  The  following  deponents 
are  irregular :  — 

adsentior,  -iri,  adsensus,  assent.  obliviscor,  -i,  oblitus,  forget. 

apiscor,  (-ip-),  -i,  aptus(-eptus),  get.  opperior,  -iri,  oppertus,  await. 

defetiscor,  -i,  -fessus,  faint.  ordior,  -iri,  orsus,  begin. 

expergiscor,  -i,  -perrectus,  rouse.  orior,  -iri,  ortus  (oriturus),  rise  (3d 
experior,  -iri,  expertus,  try.  conjugation  in  most  forms). 

fateor,  -eri,  fassus,  confess.  paciscor,  -i,  pactus,  bargain. 

fruor,  -i,  fructus  (fruitus),  enjoy.  patior  (-petior),  -i,  passus  (-pessus), 
fungor,  -i,  functus,  fulfil.  suffer. 

gradior  (-gredior),  -i,  gressus,  step.  -plector,  -i,  -plexus,  clasp. 

irascor,  -i,  iratus,  be  angry.  proficiscor,  -i,  profectus,  set  out. 

labor,  -i,  lapsus,  fall.    '  queror,  -i,  questus,  complain. 

loquor,  -i,  locutus,  speak.  reor,  reri,  ratus,  think. 

metior,  -iri,  mensus,  medsure.  reverter,  -i,  reversus,  return. 

-miniscor,  -i,  -mentus,  think.  ringor,  -i,  rictus,  snarl. 

morior,-i(-iri),  mortuus  (moriturus),  die.  sequor,  -i,  secutus,  follow. 

nanciscor,  -i,  nactus  (nanctus) ,  find.  tueor,  -eri,  tuitus  (tutus),  defend. 

nascor,  -i,  natus,  be  born.  ulclscor,  -i,  ultus,  avenge. 

nitor,  -i,  nisus  (nixus),  strive.  utor,  -i,  usus,  use,  employ. 

Note.  —  The  deponent  comperior,  -iri,  compertus,  is  rarely  found  for  comperio,  -ire. 
Reverter,  until  the  time  of  Augustus,  had  regularly  the  active  forms  in  the  perfect  sys- 
tem, reverti,  reverteram,  etc. 


100  CONJUGATION  OF  THE  VERB  [||  191-1  {^ 

a.  The  ioVkjy^iy^^  depKjnentB  Lave  no  Bupine  stem  :  — 
d^otor,  -ti,  t'/r/i  tt«i<ie  (to  lodge).  medeor,  -eri,  /((>eai. 

difiteor,  -*ri,  cierty.  renuiusoor,  -L,  coW  to  mt/uf. 

fatitcor,  -i,  gapt.  vetow,  -L  /eed  wjcK/n, 

Bqoor,  -L,  m-eK  (JDtrarig.). 
yf/TK.  —  'Dffjj'jnffnin  ar*;  really  pasjsjve  ^w  rxiiddle)  vffrbs  "whose  a>ri:ve  voice  has 
djsaj^jeared.    TJifiTH  ij»  hardjy  one  Uxat  dc»es  Dot  show  bigns  of  having  been  luad  in 
tbe  active  at  tome  p»kKl  of  the  langaage. 

Semi-Deponents 

192.  A  ffiw  v*;rbf>  h-avirjg  uo  peHeot  bi^jj]  aif:  r^-gujar  j;j  me 
present,  but  appear  in  the  ten.ses  of  completed  action  as  deponents. 
These  are  called  Semi-deponents.     They  are :  — 

aude*,  andfre,  aufus,  dare.  i;ande$,  gand^e,  givieus-  rejc/tce. 

fido,  fidfre.  fitui,  (n/^,  toled,  tolfre,  »olittJS,  '>e  v.JC/ztt. 

a.  Frorrj  attd«>5  there  is  an  old  perfecrt  f;  ausim.     The  forrn  s5des 

f^yr  61  audegj,  an  (/tc/u  trt/f,  is  freqtLent  i:  atistis  aud  rare  el»evrher'r. 

6.  The  active  forr/j»  vapulo.  vapalare,  he  Ji/jgytd,  and  veneo,  v&oirc,  6e  «oW 
(contrafrted  from  r^zram  ire,  ^^  to  jta^e),  have  a  passive  r/ieaning,  and  are 
RometiTues  called  neutral  pmnves.  To  these  may  be  added  fieii,  fo  2»e  ma</« 
^5  201),  and  exsnUre,  to  6e  hanUhsd  (live  in  exile);  cf.  accedere,  to  ?«?  arhled. 

yont..  —  Tlie  foUowing  T*:Tbi  are  »0Taeth»e»  foond  as  »erfli-rflepfi»ent»;  iurS,  iariie, 
-ritM,  «rear;  oSW,  ni^ntn,  afijrta,  m^xrry  ;  pUc»5,  pUofre,  pUcitn*.  j>/«'<m^. 

THE   PERIPHRASTIC   a>NJUGATIOWS 

193.  A  P'tripbra.^ix'^;  ff/rrja,  a«  t>;t;  narrjf;  j'j^jfratie*,  i»  a  "  roandaV/nt  way  of  ipeaV 
fag."    In  th*;  wJ'j»-^-t  »«^;rTji!!ie,  all  Ter>>-r>>ira:-»''>  r/,rj>::-tinsr  rjf  Tyartidf<!«-»  and  «am  are  P':- 
I>hra«tic  Forra*.     llx*;  T'r^.>^       '  !.  atid  the  Perfef-i 
J'artidple  with  »tJiB  i»  ixi':)'-  sojo,  rraro.  eV:.). 
Hfitxtsft  itMi  Utnu  Periphra.>;t ;                                                     -     >.    .y  v»rr>>-phra*e«  c-r^n 
«i*tiB4{  »^  the  FtJtore  Af.-tjvt   :                                                vrjth  wm. 

Jffyre.  — The  Ftjttjr^:  Pa>.-    '  ;         •  .r,  ;.>  «.".iT    -j  )rj.  ffirrxj«'J  from  the  infinite 

|«l#l«ve  '>f  05,  y«>,  Ti>,t:,'j    jrr;;^-rv>nsil)y  vritb  tht:  »rjj>;rj<'  jn  -Ufli,  toay  aJ«/>  >>e  r-la««ed  *; 
periphrastic  fona  'J  IJttfy.  ay . 

194-  There  afSHwo  Periphrastic  Conjugations,  known  resptr- 
vfi]y  au  tFie  Firnt  (or  Active)  and  the  Second  (or  Passive). 

a.  The  FJr»t   Perjphra»tic  Co^  the    F^t^re  Active 

J'articiple  with  the  irrrm^  of  ram,  ;*  or  irderuhd  ^cXhon, 

b0  The  f>e'>r>nd  Feriphr^istie  Conjugation  f-Ajmhinf»  the  Gertindive  with 
the  ff/rrrm  of  raoL,  and  denotes  fjUi^atwrt,  neceneity,  fjr  prrjffrifiiy. 

c.  77^e  jA'7:;.hra*tixr  ffirrn.*  are  mfUif^d  regalarly  throngliout  tl*e  Indiea 
-.^  inU  ,Su>>j«octiire  »]id  in  the  Vr^mtii  aad  Perfect  Infinitive. 


^  1*^  196]  THE  PERIPHRASTIC  CONOTTGATIOJff  lOT 


Imfe^fstt 
PfixnoCT 

PLrF^jtF'E'CT 


PlXrtHFECT 


Sri5:."rrVi''T'JT2r 


Pii^ES«:srr 


l-^rc.  ^1-1  -ic„  -  c^iwiviut  se- 
ise. The  Seeond  Peiipbi^ti^  1 


IKT'-.  - 

PiR¥:s«xr 

au«uidik<  - 

■ ',  -iT>i:<e  hr,  Smtad 

Inrtia^sx-T 

UMOdhi^ 

>«f  ^  itimni 

Frrr^is 

auBftajEo:i>  ; 

:t'i 

PlEHFliCr 

Aia^-"  ^    ~ 

-  .-^  fe*  Umi  U  fe.  Jkmi 

Pi.cr«:s:F«\rT 

f,--- 

FrttTiiE   PlEXFSVT 

''7H^ 

PlRS:SKVT 

>\   :". '",  ^  "V    ■  y 

I*F«XF«xrT 

P>E*r«cr 

Pnrp«ir«vr 

P*r<«vT 

»iiiatst<dbai$  «;<i<«f , 

^     ^ 

P*;«r»CT 

MftWttdtttS  l!i2l^^- 

■      -Uhtf^ 

108 


CONJUGATION   OF   THE  VERB 


196-198 


So  in  the  other  conjugations  ;  — 

Second  :  monendus  sum,  I  am  to  6e,  must  be,  advised. 
Third :  tegendus  sum,  /  am  to  be,  must  be,  covered. 
Fourth :  audiendus  sum,  I  am  to  be,  must  be,  heard. 
Third  (in  -io) :  capieadus  sum,  I  am  to  be,  must  be,  taken. 


IRREGULAR  VERBS 

197.  Several  verbs  add  some  of  the  personal  endings  of  the 
present  system  directly  to  the  root,^  or  combine  two  verbs  in 
their  inflection.  These  are  called  Irregular  Verbs.  They  are 
sum,  volo,  fero,  edo,  do,  eo,  queo,  fio,  and  their  compounds. 

Sum  has  already  been  inflected  in  §  170. 

198.  Sum  is  compounded  without  any  change  of  inflection  with 
the  prepositions  ab,  ad,  de,  in,  inter,  ob,  prae,  pro  (earlier  form  prod), 
sub,  super. 

In  the  compound  prosum  (help),  pro  retains  its  original  d  before  e : 


a. 


Principal  Parts  :  prosum,  prodesse,  profui,  profuturus 


Present 


Imperfect 
Future 
Perfect 
Pluperfect 
Fut.  Perf. 


INDICATIVE 

Singular         Plural 

prosum  prosumus 

prodes  prodestis 

prodest  prosunt 

proderam  proderamus 

prodero  proderimus 

profui  profuimus 

profueram  profueramus 

profuero  profuerimus 


SUBJUNCTRrE 
Singular  Plural 


prosim 

prosimus 

prosis 

prositis 

prosit 

prosint 

prodessem    prodessemus 

profuerim     profuerimus 
profuissem  profuissemus 


IMPERATIVE 
Present    prodes,  prodeste  Future     prodesto,  prodestSte 

INFINITIVE 

Present    prodesse  Perfect     profuisse 

Future     profuturus  esse 

PARTICIPLE 
Future     profuturus 


1  These  are  athematic  verbs,  see  §  174.  2. 


§§  198,  199] 


IRiiEGLFLAR  VERBS 


109 


&.  Sum  is  also  compounded  with  the  adjective  potis,  or  pote,  able,  making 
the  verb  possum  (be  able,  can).     Possum  is  inflected  as  follows  :  —  i 

Principal  Parts:  possum,  posse,  potui^ 


INDICATIVE 

SUBJUNCTIVE 

Singular 

Plural 

Singular 

Plural 

Present 

possum 

potes 

potest 

possumus 

potestis 

possunt 

possim 

possis 

possit 

possimus 

possitis 

possint 

Imperfect 
Future 
Perfect 
Pluperfect 
FuT.  Perf. 

poterani 

potero 

potui 

potueram 

potuero 

poteramus 

poterimus 

potuimus 

potueramus 

potuerimus 

possem 

potuerim 
potuissem 

possemus 

potuerimus 
potuissemus 

Pres.     posse 

INFINITIVE 

Perf.     potuisse 

PARTICIPLE 

Pres. 

potens  (adjective),  powerful 

199. 


Principal 
Parts : 


Note.  — Nolo  and  malo  are  compounds  of  volo 
volo  from  mage-volo. 


volo,  nolo,  malo  • 

volo,  velle,  volui,  ,  be  willing,  will,  wish 

n51o,  nolle,  nolui, ,  be  unwilling,  will  not 

malo,  malle,  malui, ,  be  more  tvilling,  prefer 

Nolo  is  for  ne-volo,  and  malo  for  ma- 


INDICATIVE 

Present 

volo 

nolo 

malo 

vis  3 

non  vis 

mavis 

vult  (volt) 

non  vnlt 

mavult 

volumus 

nolumus 

malumus 

vultis  (voltis) 

non  vultis 

mavultis 

volunt 

nolunt 

malunt 

Imperfect 

volebam 

nolebam 

malebam 

Future 

volam,  voles,  etc. 

noiam,  noles,  etc. 

malani,  males,  etc 

Perfect 

volui 

nolui 

raalui 

Pluperfect 

volueram 

nolueram 

malueram 

FuT.  Perf. 

voluero 

noluero 

maluero 

1  The  forms  potis  sum,  pote  sum,  etc.  occur  in  early  writers.  Other  early  forms  are 
potesse  ;  possiem,  -es,  -et ;  poterint,  potisit  (for  possit) ;  potestur  and  possitur  (used  with 
a  passive  infinitive,  of.  §  205.  a). 

2  Potui  is  from  an  obsolete  fpotere,  3  vis  is  from  a  different  root. 


110 


CONJUGATION    OF   THE  VERB 


[§§  199,  200 


SUBJUNCTIVE 

Present 

velim,  -IS,  -it, 

nolim          « 

vellmus,  -itis. 

-int 

Imperfect 

vellem,^  -es,  -et. 

nollem 

vellemus,  -etis 

,  -ent 

Perfect 

voluerim 

noluerim 

Pluperfect 

voluissem' 

noluissem 

IMPERATIVE 

Present 

noli,  nolite 

Future 

nolito,  etc. 

INFINITIVE 

Present 

veUei 

nolle 

Perfect 

voluisse 

noluisse 

PARTICIPLES 

Present 

volens,  -entis 

nolens,  -entis 

malim 

mallem 

maluerim 
maluissem 


malle 

maluisse 


Note. — The  forms  sis  for  si  vis,  sultis  for  si  vultis,  and  the  forms  nSvis  (n§-vis). 
nSvolt,  mavolo,  mavolunt,  mavelim,  mavellem,  etc.,  occur  in  early  writers. 


200, 


Fero,  hear,  carry,  endure  ^ 

Principal  Parts  :  fero,  ferre,^  tuli,  latum 

Present  stem  fer-  Perfect  stem  tul-  Supine  stem  lat- 


ACTIVE 

PASSIVE 

INDICATIVE 

Present 

fero 

ferimus 

feror             ferimur 

fers 

fertis 

ferris  (-re)   ferimini 

fert 

ferunt 

fertnr    ■        feruntur 

Imperfect 

ferebam 

ferebar 

Future 

feram 

ferar 

Perfect 

tuli 

latus  sum 

Pluperfect 

tuleram 

latus  eram 

Future  Perfect 

tulero 

latus  ero 

1  Vellem  is  for  fvel-sem,  and  velle  for  fvel-se  (cf.  es-se),  the  s  being  assimilated  to 
the  1  preceding. 

2  Fero  has  two  independent  stems:  fer-  in  the  present  system,  and  tul-  (for  tol-)  in 
the  perfect  from  tol,  root  of  tollo.  The  perfect  tetuli  occurs  in  Plautus.  In  the  parti- 
ciple the  root  is  weakened  to  tl-,  latum  standing  for  ftlatum  (cf.  t\t]t6s). 

8  Ferre,  ferrem,  are  for  ffer-se,  ffer-sem  (cf.  es-se,  es-sem),  s  being  assimilated  to  pre- 
ceding r;  or  ferre,  ferrem,  may  be  for  jferese,  jferesem  (see  §  15.  4). 


§200] 


IRREGULAR   VERBS 


111 


Active 


Passive 


SUBJUNCTIVE 


Present 

feram 

ferar 

Imperfect 

ferrem  ^ 

ferrer 

Perfect 

tulerim 

latus  sim 

Pluperfect 

tulissem 

IMPERATIVE 

latus  essem 

Present 

fer 

ferte 

ferre             ferimini 

Future 

ferto 

fertote 

fertor 

ferto 

ferunto 

INFINITIVE 

fertor            feruntor 

Present 

ferre 

ferri 

Perfect 

tulisse 

latus  esse 

Future 

laturus  esse 

5 

PARTICIPLES 

latum  iri 

Present 

ferens,  -entis 

Perfect             latus 

Future 

laturus 

Ge] 

RUNDivE        ferendus 

GERUND 

SUPINE 

ferendi,  -do,  -dum,  -do 

latum,  latu 

a.  The  compounds  of  fero,  conjugated  like  the  simple  verb,  are  the 


following :  — 

ad- 

au-,  ab- 
con- 
dis-,  di- 
ex-,  e- 
in- 
ob- 
re- 
sub- 


adfero 

aufero 

confero 

differo 

effero 

infers 

offero 

refero 

suffer© 


adferre 

auferre 

conferre 

differre 

efferre 

inferre 

offerre 

referre 

sufferre 


attuli 

abstuli 

contuli 

distuli 

extuli 

intuli 

obtuli 

rettuli 

sustuli^ 


allatum 

ablatum 

collatum 

dilatum 

elatum 

illatum 

oblatum 

relatum 

sublatum^ 


Note.  — In  these  compounds  the  phonetic  changes  in  the  preposition  are  especially 
to  be  noted,    ab-  and  au-  are  two  distinct  prepositions  with  the  same  meaning. 


1  See  note  3,  page  110. 

2  Sustuli  and  sublatum  also  supply  the  perfect  and  participle  of  the  verb  toll3. 


112 


CONJUGATION   OF  THE  VEKB 


[§201 


201.  Edo,  edere,  edi,  esum,  eat^  is  regular  of  the  third  conjuga- 
tion, but  has  also  an  archaic  present  subjunctive  and  some  alter- 
native forms  directly  from  the  root  (ed),  without  the  thematic 
vowel.     These  are  in  full-faced  typt 


le. 


ACTIVE 

INDICATIVE 

Present  ed6,  edis  (es^),  edit  (est) 

edimus,  editis  (estis),  edunt 
Imperfect        edebam,  edebas,  etc. 


SUBJUNCTIVE 


Present 


Imperfect 


edam  (edim),  edas  (edis),  edat  (edit) 

edamus  (edimus),  edatis  (editis),  edant  (edint) 

ederem,  ederes  (esses),  ederet  (esset) 

edere mus  (essemus),  ederetis  (essetis),  ederent  (essent) 


IMPERATIVE 

Singular 

Plural 

Present 
Future 

ede  (es) 
edito  (esto) 
edito  (esto) 

edite  (este) 
editote  (estote) 
eduiito 

INFINITIVE 

PARTICIPLES 

Present 

edere  (esse) 

Present      edens,  -entis 

Perfect 

edisse 

Future        esurus  ^ 

Future 

esurus  esse 

GERUND 

edendi, 

-do, 

-dum,  -do 

1 

SUPINE 

esum, 

esu' 

a,  Tn  the  Passive  the  following  irregular  forms  occur  in  the  third  per- 
son singular :  Present  Indicative  estur,  Imperfect  Subjunctive  essetur. 


1  In  es  etc.  the  e  is  long.    In  the  corresponding  forms  of  sum,  e  is  short.    The  differ- 
ence in  quantity  between  6d6  andes  etc.  depends  upon  inherited  vowel  variation  (§  17.  a). 

2  Old  forms  are  essunjs  and  supine  essum. 


202j  IRREGULAR    VERBS  113 

202.   The  irregular  verb  do,  give^  is  conjugated  as  follows :  — 

Principal  Parts  :  d5,  dare,  dedi,  datum 
Present  Stem  da-  Perfect  Stem  ded-  Supine  Stem  dat- 


ACTIVE 

PASSIVE 

INDICATIVE 

Present 

do           damus 

damur 

das         datis 

daris  (-re)      damini 

dat         dant 

datur              dantur 

Imperfect 

dab  am 

dabar 

Future 

dabo 

dabor 

Perfect 

ded! 

datus  sum 

Pluperfect 

dederam 

datus  eram 

Future  Perfect     dedero 

datus  ero 

SUBJUNCTIVE 

Present 

dem,  des,  det,  etc. 

,  deris  (-re),  detur,  etc. 

Imperfect 

darem 

darer 

Perfect 

dederim 

datus  sim 

Pluperfect 

dedissem 

IMPEEATIVE 

datus  essem 

Present 

da           date 

dare           damini 

Future 

dato        datote 
dato         danto 

dator         dantor 

INFINITIVE 

Present 

dare 

dari 

Perfect 

dedisse 

datus  esse 

Future 

datiii'us  esse 

PARTICIPLES 

datum  iri 

Present 

dans,  dantis           Perfect 

datus 

Future 

daturus                   Gerundive     dandus 

GERUND 

dandi,  -do,  -dum,  -do 

SUPINE 

datum,  datu 

For  compounds  of  do,  see  §  209.  a.  k. 


114 


CONJUGATION    OF   THE   VERB 


L§203 


203.  Eo,  go.^     Principal  Parts  :  e5,  ire, 

INDICATIVE 

Preseni  eo,  IS,  it 

imus,  itis,  eunt 
Imperfect  ibam,  ibas,  ibat 

ibamus,  ibatis,  ibant 
Future  ibo,  ibis,  ibit 

ibimus,  ibitis,  ibunt 
Perfect  ii  (ivi) 

Pluperfect  ieram  (iveram) 

Future  Perfect        iero  (ivero) 

IMPERATIVE 
Present       i  Future 

ite 


ii  (ivi),  itum 

SUBJUNCTIVE 

earn,  eils,  eat 
eamus,  eat  is,  eant 
irem,  irea,  iret 
iremus,  iretis,  irent 


ierim  (iverim) 
issem  (ivissem) 


Present     ire 


INFINITIVE 
Perfect    isse  (ivisse) 

PARTICIPLES 
euntis  Future    iturus 


Present    iens,  gen. 

GERUND  euiidi,  -do,  -dum,  -do 


ito,  itote 
ito,  euiito  . 

Future     iturus  esse 

Gerundive    eundum 


SUPINE  itum,  itu 


a.  The  compounds  adeo,  approach,  ineo,  enter,  and  some  others,  are  tran- 
sitive.    They  are  inflected  as  follows  in  the  passive :  — 

INDICATIVE  SUBJUNCTIVE 


Pres.  adeor 

Impf. 

adibar 

Pres. 

adear 

adiris 

FUT. 

adibor 

Impf. 

adirer 

aditur 

Perf. 

aditus  sum 

Perf. 

aditus  sim 

adimur 

Plup. 

aditus  eram 

Plup. 

aditus  essem 

adimini 

F.  P. 

aditus  ero 

adeuntur 

INFIN.    adiri      aditus  esse 


PART,  aditus    adeundus 


Thus  inflected,  the  forms  of  eo  are  used  impersonally  in  the  third  person 
singular  of  the  passive  :  as,  itum  est  (§  208.  d).  The  infinitive  iri  is  used  with 
the  supine  in  -um  to  make  the  future  infinitive  passive  (§  1 93.  n.).  The  verb 
veneo,  be  sold  (i.e.  venum  eo,  go  to  sale),  has  also  several  forms  in  the  passive. 

h.  In  the  perfect  system  of  eo  the  forms  with  v  are  very  rare  in  the  simple 
verb  and  unusual  in  the  compounds. 

c.  ii  before  s  is  regularly  contracted  to  i :  as,  isse. 

1  The  root  of  eo  is  ei  (weak  form  i).  This  ei  becomes  i  except  before  a,  o,  and  u, 
where  it  becomes  e  (cf .  eo,  earn,  eunt) .  The  strong  form  of  the  root,  i,  is  shortened 
before  a  vowel  or  final  -t  -  the  weak  form,  I,  appears  in  itum  and  iturus. 


§§  203,  204j 


mUEGULAR  VEKBS 


115 


d*  The  compound  ambi5  is  inflected  regularly  like  a  verb  of  the  fourth 
conjugation.     But  it  has  also  ambibat  in  the  imperfect  indicative. 
e.  Pro  with  eo  retains  its  original  d :  as,  prodeo,  prcdis,  prodit. 

204.  Facio,  facere,  feci,  factum,  make^  is  regular.  But  it  has  im- 
perative fac  in  the  active,  and,  besides  the  regular  forms,  the  future 
perfect  faxo,  perfect  subjunctive  faxim.     The  passive  of  facio  is  — 

fio,  fi§ri,  factus  sum,  be  made  or  become. 
The  present  system  of  fio  is  regular  of  the  fourth  conjugation, 
but  the  subjunctive  imperfect  is  fierem,  and  the  infinitive  fieri. 

Note.  — The  forms  in  brackets  are  not  used  in  good  prose. 


Present 

Imperfect 
Future 
Perfect 
Pluperfect 
Future  Perfect 


Present      fieri 


INDICATIVE 
fio,  fls,  fit 

[fimus],  [fitis],  flunt 
fiebam,  fiebas,  etc. 
flam,  fies,  etc. 
factus  sum 
factus  eram 
factus  ero 

IMPERATIVE 

[fi,  fite,  f ito, ]  1 

INFINITIVE 
Perfect     factus 


SUBJUNCTIVE 
fiam,  fias,  flat 
fianms,  fiatis,  fiant 
fierem,  fieres,  etc. 

factus  sim 
factus  essem 


Future     factum  iri 


PARTICIPLES 
Perfect      factus  Gerundive      faciendus 

a.  Most  compounds  of  facio  with  prepositions  weaken  S  to  i  in  the  present 
stem  and  to  e  in  the  supine  stem,  and  are  inflected  regularly  like  verbs  in  -io :  — 
conficio,  conficere,  confecl,  couiectnm^  finish. 
conficior,  confici,  confectus. 

h.  Other  compounds  retain  a,  and  have  -fio  in  the  passive  :  as,  benefaciS, 
-facere,  -feci,  -factum ;  passive  benefio,  -fieri,  -factus,  benefit.  These  retain  the 
accent  of  the  simple  verb :  as,  bene-fa'cis  (§  12.  a,  Exc.). 

c,  A  few  isolated  forms  of  fio  occur  in  other  compounds :  — 

conflt,  it  happens,  confiunt ;  conflat ;  confieret,  confierent ;  confieri. 

defit,  it  lacks,  deflunt ;  defiet ;  def iat ;  defieri. 

effieri,  to  be  effected. 

infio,  begin  (to  speak),  infit. 

interfiat,  let  him  perish ;  interfieri,  to  perish. 

superfit,  it  remains  over ;  superfiat,  superfieri. 


1  The  imperative  is  rarely  found,  and  then  only  in  oTly  writers. 


116 


CONJUGATION    OF  THE   VERB 


[§206 


DEFECTIVE  VERBS 


205.  Some  verbs  have  lost  the  Present  System,  and  use  only 
tenses  of  the  Perfect,  in  which  they  are  inflected  regularly. 
These  are  — 


coepi,^  /  began 


Perfect 

Pluperfect 

Future  Perfect      coepero 


odi,2  /  hate 

INDICATIVE 

coepi  odi 

coeperam  oderam 


odero 


SUBJUXCTIVE 
Perfect  coeperim  oderim 

Pluperfect  coepissem  odissem 


memini,^  /  remember 


memini 

memiiieram 

meminero 


meminerim 
meminissera 


IMPERATIVE 


memento 
mementote 


INFINITIVE 


Perfect 
Future 


Perfect 
Future 


coepisse 
coepturus  esse 


odisse 
osurus  esse 


memmisse 


PARTICIPLES 
coeptus,  begun  osus,  liating  or  hated 

coepturus  osurus,  likely  to  hate 


a.  The  passive  of  coepi  is  often  used  with  the  passive  infinitive :  as, 
coeptus  sum  vocari,  /  began  to  be  called,  but  coepi  vocare,  /  began  to  call. 
For  the  present  system  incipio  is  used. 

Note.  — Early  and  rare  forms  are  coepio,  coepiam,  coeperet,  coepere. 

5.  The  Perfect,  Pluperfect,  and  Future  Perfect  of  odi  and  memini  have 
the  meanings  of  a  Present,  Imperfect,  and  Future  respectively :  — 
odi,  I  hate ;  oderam,  I  hated  (loas  hating) ;  odero,  I  shall  hate. 

Note  1.  —  A  present  participle  meminens  is  early  and  late. 

Note  2.  — Novi  and  consuevi  (usually  referred  to  nosco  and  consa?sc6)  are  often  used 
in  the  sense  of  Iknoio  (have  learned)  and  I  am  accustomed  (have  become  accustomed) 
as  preteritive  verbs.  Many  other  verbs  are  occasionally  used  in  the  same  way  (see 
476.  N.). 


1  Root  AP  (as  in  apiscor)  with  co(n-). 

2  Root  OD,  as  in  5dium. 


8  Root  MEN,  as  in  mens. 


§206]  DEFECTIVE   VEKBS  117 

206.  Many  verbs  are  found  only  in  the  Present  System.  Such 
are  maereo,  -ere,  he  sorrowful  (cf .  maestus,  sad) ;  ferio,  -ire,  strike. 

In  many  the  simple  verb  is  incomplete,  but  the  missing  parts 
occur  in  its  compounds :  as,  vado,  vadere,  in-vasi,  in-vasum. 

Some  verbs  occur  very  commonly,  but  only  in  a  few  forms :  — 

a»  Aio,  /  say  :  — 

iNDic.      Pres.  §,io,  ais,i  ait ;  , ,  aiunt 

Impf.  aiebam,2  aiebas,  etc. 

suBjv.     Pres.  ,  aias,  aiat;  ,  ,  aiant 

IMPER.  ai  (rare) 

PART.  aiens 

The  vowels  a  and  i  are  pronounced  separately  (a-is,  a-it)  except  some- 
times in  old  or  colloquial  Latin.  Before  a  vov/el,  one  i  stands  for  two  (see 
§  6.  c)  :  —  thus  aio  was  pronounced  ai-yo  and  was  sometimes  written  alio. 

h,  Inquam,  /  say^  except  in  poetry,  is  used  only  in  direct  quotations 
(cf.  the  English  quoth). 

INDIC.      Pres.  inquam,  inquis,  inquit ;  inquimus,  inquitis  (late),  inquiunt 

Impf.  ,  ,  inquiebat ;  ,  ,  

Fdt.  ,  inquies,  inquiet ;  • , , 

Perf.  inquii,  inquisti,  ; , , 

IMPER.     Pres.  inque 

FuT.  inquito 

The  only  common  forms  are  inquam,  inquis,  inquit,  inquiunt,  and  the 
future  inquies,  inquiet. 

c.  The  deponent  fari,  to  speak,  has  the  following  forms :  — 

INDIC.      Pres.    ,  ,  f atur ;  , ,  fantur 

FuT.      fabor, ,  fabitur ;  ,  , 

Perf.  , ,  fatus  est ;  , ,  fati  sunt 

Plup.   fatus  erarn, ,  fatus  erat ;  , , 

IMPER.     Pres.   fare 

INFIN.      Pres.   fari 

PART.       Pres.   fans,  fantis,  etc.  (in  singular) 
Perf.  fatus  {having  spoken) 
Ger.    fandus  (to  he  spoken  of) 

GERUND,  gen.      landl,  abl.  fando  supmi:        fatu 

Several  forms  compounded  with  the  prepositions  ex,  prae,  pro,  inter, 
occur :  as,  praefatur,  praefamur,  affari,  profatus,  interfatur,  etc.  The  com- 
pound infans  is  regularly  used  as  a  noun  (child).  Infandus,  nefandus,  are 
used  as  adjectives,  unspeakable,  abominable. 

1  The  second  singular  ais  with  the  interrogative  -ne  is  often  written  ain. 

2  An  old  imperfect  aibam,  aibas,  etc.  (dissyllabic)  is  sometimes  found. 


118 


CONJUGATION   OF  THE   VERB 


[§206 


d,  Queo,  /  can,  nequeo,  /  cannot,  are  conjugated  like  e5.  They  are  rarely 
used  except  in  the  present.  Queo  is  regularly  accompanied  by  a  negative. 
The  forms  given  below  occur,  those  in  full-faced  ij^e  in  classic  prose. 
The  Imperative,  Gerund,  and  Supine  are  wanting. 


INDICATIVE        SUBJUNCTIVE 

INDICATIA^E           SUBJUNCTIVE 

Present 

Present 

queo                       queam 
quis                       queas 
quit                       queat 

nequeo (non 

nequls 

nequit 

queo) 

nequeam 
nequeas 
nequeat 

quimus                 queamus 

quitis                     

queunt                   queant 

nequimus 

nequitis 

nequeunt 

nequeamus 
nequeant 

Imperfect 

Imperfect 

quibam 

quibat                   quiret 
quirent 

nequibat 
nequibant 

nequirem 
nequiret 
nequirent 

EUTUBE 

Future 

quibo 
quibunt 

nequibit 
nequlbunt 

Perfect 

Perfect 

quivi                     

quivit                    quiverit  (-ierit) 
quiverunt  (-ere)     quierint 

nequivi 
nequisti 

nequivit  (nequiit) 
nequiverunt  (-quiere) 

nequiverim 

nequiverit 
nequiverint 

Pluperfect 

Pluperfect 

quivissent 

nequiverat  (-ierat) 
nequiverant  (-ierant) 

nequivisset  (-quisset) 
nequlssent 

INFINITIVE 

quire                    quisse 

nequire 

nequlvisse  (-quisse) 

PARTICIPLES 

quiens 

nequiens,  nequeuntes 

Note.  —  A  few  pas.sive  forms  are  used  with  passive  infinitives:  as,  quitur,  queuntur, 
quitus  sum,  queatur,queantur,nequitur,nequitum ;  but  none  of  theseoccurs  in  classic  prose. 


§§  206,  207; 


IMPEKSONAL   VERBS 


119 


Co  Quaeso,  /  ask,  beg  (original  form  of  quaero),  has  — 

iNDic.       Pres.  quaeso,  quaesumus 

Note.  —  Other  forms  of  quaes5  are  found  occasionally  in  early  Latin,    For  the  per- 
fect system  (quaesivi,  etc.),  see  quaero  (§211.  d). 

f.  Ovare,  to  triumph,  has  the  following :  — 

INDIC.      Pres.  ovas,  ovat 

suBjv.      Pres.  ovet 

Impf.  ovaret 

PART.  ovans,  ovaturus,  ovatus 

GER.  ovandi 

g,  A  few  verbs  are  found  chiefly  in  the  Imperative  :  — 

Pres.  singular  salve,  plural  salvete,  Fur.  salveto,  hail !  (from  sal- 
vus,  safe  and  sound).  An  infinitive  salvere  and  the  indica- 
tive forms  salveo,  salvetis,  salvebis,  are  rare. 

Pres.  singular  ave  (or  have),  plural  avete,  Fux.  aveto,  hail  or  fare- 
well.    An  infinitive  avere  also  occurs. 

Pres.  singular  cedo,  plural  cedite  (cette),  give,  tell. 

Pres.  singular  apage,  begone  (properly  a  Greek  word). 


IMPERSONAL  VERBS 

207.  Many  verbs,  from  their  meaning,  appear  only  in  the  third 
person  singular,  the  infinitive,  and  the  gerund.  These  are  called 
Impersonal  Verbs,  as  having  no  personal  subject.^  The  passive 
of  many  intransitive  verbs  is  used  in  the  same  way. 


CONJ.  I 

II 

III 

IV 

Pass.  Conj.  i 

it  is  plain 

it  is  allowed 

it  chances 

it  results 

it  is  fought 

constat 

licet 

accidit 

evenit 

pugnatur 

constabat 

licebat 

accidebat 

eveniebat 

ptignabatur 

constabit 

licebit 

accidet 

eveniet 

pugnabitur 

constitit 

licuit,  -itum  est 

accidit 

evenit 

pugnatum  est 

constiterat 

licuerat 

acciderat 

evenerat 

pugnatum  erat 

constiterit 

licuerit 

acciderit 

evenerit 

piignatum  erit 

constet 

liceat 

accidat 

eveniat 

pugnetur 

constaret 

liceret 

accideret 

eveniret 

pugnaretur 

constiterit 

licuerit 

acciderit 

evenerit 

piignatum  sit 

constitisset 

licuisset 

accidisset 

evenisset 

pugnatum  esset 

constare 

hcere 

accidere 

evenire 

pugnari 

constitisse 

licuisse 

accidisse 

evenisse 

pugnatum  esse 

-stattirum  esse 

-iturum  esse 

-tiirum  esse 

pugnatum  iri 

1  With  impersonal  verbs  the  word  it  is  used  in  English,  having  usually  no  repre- 
sentative in  Latin,  though  id,  hoc,  illud,  are  often  used  nearly  in  the  same  way. 


120  CONJUGATION   OF  THE   VERB  [§208 

208.  Impersonal  Verbs  may  be  classified  as  follows :  — 

a.  Verbs  expressing  the  operations  of  nature  and  the  time  of  day  :  — 
vesperascit  (inceptive,  §  263.  1),  it  grows  late.  ningit,  it  snows. 

luciscit  hoc,  it  is  getting  light.  fulgurat,  it  lightens. 

grandinat,  it  hails.  tonat,  it  thunders. 

pluit,  it  rains.  rorat,  the  dew  falls. 

Note.  — In  these  no  subject  is  distinctly  thouglit  of.  Sometimes,  however,  the  verb 
is  used  personally  with  the  name  of  a  divinity  as  the  subject :  as,  luppiter  tonat,  Jupiter 
thunders.  In  poetry  other  subjects  are  occasionally  used :  as,  fundae  saxa  pluunt,  tht 
slings  rain  stones. 

b»  Verbs  of  feeling,  where  the  person  who  is  the  proper  subject  becomes 
the  object,  as  being  himself  aifected  by  the  feeling  expressed  in  the  verb 
(§354.6):  — 

miseret,  it  grieves.  paenitet  (poenitet),  it  repents. 

piget,  it  disgusts.       '  pudet,  it  shames. 

taedet,  it  wearies. 

miseret  me,  I  pity  (it  distresses  me) ;  pudet  me,  I  am  ashamed. 

Note.  —  Such  verbs  often  have  also  a  passive  form :  as,  misereor,  I  pity  (am  moved 
to  pity) ;  and  occasionally  other  parts:  as,  paeniturus  (as  from  fpaenio),  paenitendus, 
pudendus,  pertaesum  est,  pigitum  est. 

c.  Verbs  which  have  a  phrase  or  clause  as  their  subject  (cf.  §§  454, 
569.  2):  — 

accidit,  contingit,  evenit,  obtingit,  obvenit,  fit,  it  happens. 

libet,  it  pleases.  delectat,  iuvat,  it  delights. 

licet,  it  is  permitted.  oportet,  it  isfdting,  ougM. 

certum  est,  it  is  resolved.  necesse  est,  it  is  needful. 

constat,  it  is  clear.  praestat,  it  is  better. 

placet,  it  seems  good  (pleases).  interest,  refert,  it  concerns. 

videtur,  it  seems,  seems  good.  vacat,  there  is  leisure. 

decet,  it  is  becoming.  restat,  superest,  it  remains. 

Note. — Many  of  these  verbs  may  be  used  personally;  as,  vaco,  I  have  leisure. 
Libet  and  licet  have  also  the  passive  forms  libitum  (licitum)  est  etc.  The  participles 
libens  and  licens  are  used  as  adjectives. 

d.  The  passive  of  intransitive  verbs  is  very  often  used  impersonally  (see 
synopsis  in  §  207) :  — 

ventum  est,  they  came  (there  was  coming). 

pugnatur,  there  is  fighting  (it  is  fought). 

itur,  some  one  goes  (it  is  gone). 

parcitur  mihi,  I  am  spared  (it  is  spared  to  me,  see  §  372). 

Note. — The  impersonal  use  of  the  passive  proceeds  from  its  original  reflexive  (or 
middle)  meaning,  the  action  being  regarded  as  accomplishing  itself  (compare  the 
French  cela  sefait). 


§§  209,  210]  CLASSIFIED   LISTS   OF  VERBS  121 

Classified  Lists  of  Verbs 
First  Conjugation 

209.  There  are  about  360  simple  verbs  of  the  First  Conjuga- 
tion, most  of  them  formed  directly  on  a  noun-  or  adjective-stem  : 

armo,  arm  (arma,  arms);  caeco,  to  blind  (caecus,  blind);  exsulo,  be  an  exile 
(exsul,  an  exile)  (§  259). 

Their  conjugation  is  usually  regular,  like  amo ;  thougli  of  many  only  a  few 
forms  are  found  in  use. 

a.  The  following  verbs  form  their  Perfect  and  Supine  stems  irregularly. 
Those  marked  *  have  also  regular  forms. 

crepo,  crepui  (-crepavi),  -crepit-,  resound.  plico,  *-plicui,  *-plicit-,  fold. 

cubo,  *cubul,  -cubit-,  lie  down.  poto,  potavi,  *p6t-,  drink. 

do,  dare,  dedi,  dat-,  give  (da).  seco,  secui,  sect-,  cut. 

domo,  domui,  domit-,  subdue,  sono,  sonui,  sonit-,^  sound. 

frico,  fricui,  *frict-,  rub.  sto,  steti,  -stat-  (-stit-),  stand. 

iuvo  (ad-iuv6),  iiivi,  iut-,^  help,  tono,  tonui,  *-tonit-,  thunder. 

mico,  micui, ,  glitter.  veto,  vetui,  vetit-,  forbid. 

need,  *necui,  necat-  (-nect-),  kill.'^ 

Note.  —  Compounds  of  these  verbs  have  the  following  forms:  — 

crepo :  con-crepui,  dis-crepui  or  -crepdvi ;  in-crepui  or  -crepdvi. 

do :  circum-,  inter-,  pessum-,  satis-,  super-,  vetium-do,  -dedl,  -dat-,  of  the  first  con- 
jugation. Other  compounds  belong  to  the  root  dha,  put,  and  are  of  the  third 
conjugation:  as,  condo,  condere,  condidi,  conditum. 

mico:  di-micdvi,  -micdt-;  e-micui, -micdt-. 

plico:  re-,  sub-  (sup-),  multi-plico,  -plicdvl,  -plicdt-;  ex-plied  (unfold),  -ul,  -it-; 
(explain),  -dvl,  -at-;  im-plico,  -dvi  {-ul),  -dtum  (-itum). 

sto:  con-sto,  -stitl,  {-stdturus) ;  ad-,  re-std,-stitl, ,•  ante-  (anti-),  inter-,  super- 

sto,  -steti, ,•  circum-sto,  -stetl  {-stitl), ;  prae-sto,  -stitl,  -stit-  {-stdt-); 

dl-sto,  ex-sto,  no  perfect  or  supine  (future  participle  ex-stdturus). 

Second  Conjugation 

210.  There  are  nearly  120  simple  verbs  of  the  Second  Conju- 
gation, most  of  them  denominative  verbs  of  condition,  having  a 
corresponding  noun  and  adjective  from  the  same  root,  and  an 
inceptive  in  -sc5  (§  263.  1):  — 

caleo,  be  warm;  calor,  warmth;  calidus,  warm;  calesc5,  grow  warm. 
timeo, /ear;  timor, /ear;  timidus,  izwud;  T^ex-MmQsco.,  to  take  fright. 

1  Future  Participle  also  in  -atiirus  (either  in  the  simple  verb  or  in  composition). 
2Nec6  has  regularly  necavi,  necatum,  except  in  composition. 


122 


CONJUGATION   OF  THE  VERB 


210,  211 


a.  Most  verbs  of  the  second  conjugation  are  inflected  like  moneo,  but 
many  lack  the  supine  (as,  arceo,  ward  off;  careo,  lack ;  egeo,  need ;  timeo, 
fear),  and  a  number  have  neither  perfect  nor  supine  (as,  n?aereo,  he  sad). 

b.  The  following  keep  e  in  all  the  systems :  — 

deleo,  destroy  delere  dele^  deletum 

fleo,  weep  flere  flevi  fletum 

ne5,  sew  nere  nevi  [netum] 

vieo,  plait  viere  [vievi]  vietum 

com-pleo,  fill  up  ^  -plere  -plevi  -pletum 

c.  The  following  show  special  irregularities  :  — 
algeo,  alsi,  he  cold. 
ardeo,  arsi,  arsurus,  hum. 
audeo,  ausus  sum,  dare. 
augeo,  auxi,  auct-,  increase. 


caveo,  cavi,  caut-,  care. 
censeo,  censul,  cens-,  value. 
cieo,  civi,  cit-,  excite. 
doceo,  docul,  doct-,  teach. 
faveo,  favi,  faut-,  faxior. 

ferve5,  fervi  (ferbui), ,  glow. 

foveo,  fovl,  fot-,  cherish. 

fulgeo,  fulsi,  ,  shine. 

gaudeo,  gavisus  sum,  rejoice. 
haere5,  haesi,  haes-,  cling. 
indulged,  indulsi,  indult-,  indulge. 
iube5,  iussi,  iuss-,  order. 

liqueo,  licui  (liqui),  ,  melt. 

luceo,  luxi, ,  shine. 

lugeo,  luxi,  ,  mourn. 

maneo,  mansi,  mans-,  wait. 
misceo,  -cui,  mixt-  (mist-),  mix. 
mordeo,  momordi,  mors-,  hite. 
moved,  movi,  mot-,  move. 


mulceo,  mulsi,  muls-,  soothe. 
mulgeo,  mulsi,  muls-,  milk. 

(c6)nive5,  -nivi  (-nixi),  ,  ivink. 

(ab)ole6,  -olevi,  -olit-,  destroy. 
pendeo,  pependi,  -pens-,  hang. 
prandeo,  prandi,  prans-,  dine. 
rideo,  risi,  -ris-,  laugh. 
sede5,  sedi,  sess-,  sit. 
soleo,  solitus  sum,  he  v:ont. 

sorbeo,  sorbui  (sorpsi), ,  suck. 

spondeo,  spopondi,  spons-,  pledge. 

strideo,  stridi,  ,  whiz. 

suadeo,  suasi,  suas-,  urge. 

teneo  (-tineo),  tenui,  -tent-,  hold. 

tergeo,  tersi,  ters-,  wipe. 

tondeo,  -totondi  (-tondi),  tons-,  shear. 

torqueo,  torsi,  tort-,  twist. 

torreo,  torrui,  tost-,  roast. 

turgeo,  tursi, ,  swell. 

urgeo,  ursi, ,  urge. 

video,  vidi,  vis-,  see. 
voved,  vovi,  vot-,  vow. 


Third  Conjugation 

211.  The  following  lists  include  most  simple  verbs  of  the 
Third  Conjugation,  classed  according  to  the  formation  of  the  Per- 
fect Stem :  — 

a.  Forming  the  perfect  stem  in  s  (x)  (§  177.  h  and  note):  — 

angd,  anxi, ,  choke.  claudo,  clausi,  claus-,  shid. 

carpo,  carpsi,  carpt-,  pluck.  como,  compsi,  compt-,  coiiih,  deck. 

cedo,  cessi,  cess-,  yield.  coquo,  coxi,  coct-,  cook. 

cingo,  cinxi,  cinct-,  hind.  -cutio,  -cussi,  -cuss-,  shake. 

,    1  And  other  compounds  of  -pleo. 


211] 


THIRD   CONJUGATION 


123 


demo,  dempsi,  dempt-,  take  away, 

died,  dixi,  diet-,  say. 

dividd,  divisi,  divis-,  divide. 

duco,  duxi,  duct-,  guide. 

emungo,  -munxi,  -munct-,  clean  out. 

figo,  fixi,  fix-.,  fix. 

fingo  [fig]  ,  finxi,  fict-,  fashion. 

fleets,  flexi,  flex-,  hend. 

-fligo,  -flixi,  -flict-, ,  smite. 

fluo,  flijxi,  flux-,  ^oiy. 

frendo, ,  fres-  (fress-),  gnash. 

frigo,  frixi,  friet-,  fry. 

gero,  gessi,  gest-,  carry. 

iungo,  iunxi,  iunct-,  join. 

laedo,  laesl,  laes-,  hurt. 

-licio,  -lexi,  -leet-,  entice  (elicui,  -licit-) . 

ludo,  lusi,  lus-,  play. 

mergo,  mersi,  mers-,  plunge. 

mitto,  misi,  miss-,  send. 

necto  [nec],  nexi  (nexui),  nex-,  weave. 

nubo,  nupsi,  nupt-,  marry. 

pecto,  pexi,  pex-,.  comb. 

pergo,  perrexi,  perrect-,  go  on. 

pingo  [pig],  pinxi,  pict-,  paint. 

plango  [flag],  planxi,  planet-,  beat. 

plaudo,  plausi,  plaus-,  applaud. 

plecto,  plexi,  plex-,  braid. 

premo,  pressi,  press-,  press. 

promo,  -mpsi,  -mpt-,  bring  out. 

b.  Reduplicated  in  the  perfect  (§ 

cado,  cecidi,  cas-, /aZZ. 
caedo,  cecidi,  caes-,  cut. 

cano,  cecini, ,  sing. 

curro,  cucurri,  curs-,  run. 

disco  [dig],  didici, ,  learn. 

-do  [dha],  -didi,  -dit-  (as  in  ab-do,  etc., 

with  credo,  vendo),  put. 
falls,  fefelli,  fals-,  deceive. 
pango  [pag],  pepigi(-pegi),  pact-,/asiew, 

fix,  bargain. 
pared,  peperei  (parsi),  (parsurus),  spare. 


quatio,  (-cussi),  quass-,  shake. 
rado,  rasi,  ras-,  scrape. 
rego,  rexi,  rect-,  rule. 

repo,  repsi, ,  creep. 

rodo,  rosi,  ros-,  gnaw. 
scalpo,  sealpsi,  sealpt-,  scrape. 
scribo,  scripsi,  script-,  write. 
sculpo,  seulpsi,  sculpt-,  carve. 

serpo,  serpsi,  ,  crawl. 

spargo,  sparsi,  spars-,  scatter. 
-spicio,  -spexi,  -spect-,  view. 
-stinguo,  -stinxi,  -stinct-,  quench. 
strings,  strinxi,  strict-,  bind. 
struS,  struxi,  struct-,  build. 
sugo,  siixi,  stict-,  suck. 
sums,  sumpsi,  sumpt-,  take. 
surgS,  surrexi,  surrect-,  rise. 
tegS,  texl,  tect-,  shelter. 
temnS,  -tempsi,  -tempt-,  despise. 
tergS,  tersi,  ters-,  wipe. 
tingo,  tinxi,  tinet-,  stain. 
trahS,  traxi,  tract-,  drag. 
triidS,  trijsi,  triis-,  thrust. 
unguo  (ungS),  unxi,  unct-,  anoint. 
urS,  ussi,  ust-,  burn. 
vadS,  -vasi,  -vas-,  go. 
vehS,  vexi,  vect-,  draw. 
vivS,  vixi,  vict-,  live. 


177.  c):  — 

pario,    peperi,    part-   (pariturus),  bring 

forth. 
pellS,  pepuli,  puis-,  drive. 
pendo,  pependi,  pens-,  weigh. 

posco,  poposci, ,  demand. 

pungS   [pug],  pupugi  (-punxi),  punct-, 

prick. 
sistS  [sta],  stiti,  stat-,  stop. 
tango  [tag],  tetigi,  tact-,  touch. 
tends  [ten], tetendi(-tendi), tent-,  sireicA. 
tundS  [tud],  tutudi,  tuns-  (-tus-),  beat 


c.  Adding  u  (v)  to  the  verb-root  (§  177.  a)  :  — 
alS,  alui,  alt-  (alit-),  nourish.  compescS,  compeseui 


cemS,  crevi,  -cret-,  decree. 
colo,  colui,  cult-,  dwell,  till. 


-,  restrain. 
cSnsulS,  -lui,  cSnsult-,  consult. 
cresco,  crevi,  cret-,  increase. 


124 


CONJUGATION    OF   THE  VERB 


[§211 


-cumb5  [cub],  -cubui,  -cubit-,  lie  down 
depso,  depsui,  depst-,  knead. 

fremo,  fremui,  ,  roar. 

gemo,  gemui,  ,  groan. 

gigno  [gen],  genui,  genit-,  beget. 
meto,  messui,  -mess-,  reap. 
molo,  mclui,  molit-,  grind. 
occul5,  occului,  occult-,  hide. 
(ad)olesc6,  -evi,  -ult-,  g^'oio  up. 
pasco,  pavi,  past-,  feed. 
percello,  -culi,  -culs-,  upset. 
pono  [pos],  posui,  posit-,  put. 
quiesco,  quievi,  quiet-,  rest. 

d.  Adding  iv  to  the  verb-root  (§  177./) 


rapio,  rapui,  rapt-,  seize. 
scisco,  scivi,  scit-,  decree. 
ser5,  sevi,  sat-,  sow. 
sero,  serui,  sert-,  entivlne. 
sino,  sivi,  sit-,  permit. 
spemo,  sprevi,  spret-,  scorn. 
sterno,  stravi,  strat-,  strew. 

sterto,  -stertui,  ,  snore. 

strep5,  strepui,  ,  sound. 

suesco,  suevi,  suet-,  be  wont. 
texo,  texui,  text-,  weave. 

tremS,  tremui,  ,  tremble. 

vomo,  vomui,  ,  vomit. 


arcesso,^  -ivi,  arcessit-,  summon. 

capesso,  capessivi,  ,  undertake. 

cupio,  cupivi,  cupit-,  desire. 

incesso,  incessivi,  ,  attack. 

lacesso,  lacessivi,  lacessit-,  provoke. 


peto,  petivi,  petit-,  seek. 
quaero,  quaesivi,  quaesit-,  seek. 

rudo,  rudivi, ,  bray. 

sapio,  sapivi, ,  be  wise. 

tero,  trivi,  trit-,  rub. 


e.  Lengthening  the  vowel  of  the  root  (cf.  §  177.  d): 


ago,  egi,  act-,  drive. 

capio,  cepi,  capt-,  take. 

edo,  edi,  esum,  eat  (see  §  201). 

emo,  emi,  empt-,  buy. 

facio,  feci,  fact-,  make  (see  §  204). 

fodi5,  fodi,  foss-,  dig. 

frango  [frag],  fregi,  fract-,  break. 

fugio,  fugi,  (fugiturus),^ee. 

fundo  [fud],  fudi,  fus-,  pour. 

iacio,  ieci,  iact-,  throw  (-ici5,  -iect-). 


lavo,  lavi,  lot-  (laut-),  wash  (also  regu- 
lar of  first  conjugation). 

Ieg6,2  legi,  Iect-,  gather. 

lino  [li],  levi  (livi),  lit-,  smear. 

Iiiiqu5  [lic],  -liqui,  -lict-,  leave. 

nosco  [gno]  ,  novi,  not-  (c6-gnit-,  a-gnit-, 
ad-gnit-),  know. 

rumpd  [rup],  rupi,  rupt-,  burst. 

scabo,  scabi, ,  scratch. 

vinc5  [vie],  vici,  vict-,  conquer. 


f.  Retaining  the  present  stem  or  verb-root  (cf.  §  177.  e):  — 


acuo,  -ui,  -lit-,  sharpen. 
arguo,  -ui,  -ut-,.  accuse. 
bibo,  bibi,  (p5tus),  drink. 
-cendo,  -cendi,  -cens-,  kindle. 

(con)gruo,  -ui, ,  agree. 

ciido,  -cudi,  -ciis-,  forge. 

facesso,  -ii  (facessi),  facessit-,  execute. 

-fendd,  -fendi,  -fens-,  ward  off. 

findo  [fid],  fidi,3  fiss-,  split. 

ico,  ici,  ict-,  hit. 


imbuo,  -ui,  -iit-,  give  a  taste  of. 
luo,  lui,  -lut-,  wash. 
mando,  mandi,  mans-,  chew. 
metuo,  -ui,  -iit-,  fear. 
minuo,  -ui,  -iit-,  lessen. 

-nuo,  -nui, ,  nod. 

paado,  pandi,  pans-  (pass-),  open. 
pinso,  -si,  pins-  (pinst-,  pist-),  bruise. 
prehendo,  -hendi,  -hens-,  seize. 
ruo,  rui,  rut-  (ruiturus),  fall. 


1  Sometimes  accerso,  etc. 

2  The  following  compounds  of  leg5  have  -lexi :  diligo,  intellego,  neglego. 

3  In  this  the  perfect  stem  is  the  same  as  the  verb-root,  having  lost  the  reduplica- 
tion (§  177.  c.  n.). 


§§  211,  212] 


FOURTH  CONJUGATION 


125 


scando,  -scendi,  -scensus,  climb. 
scindo  [scid],  scidi,i  sciss-,  tear. 
sido,  sidi  (-sedi),  -sess-,  settle. 
solvo,  solvi,  solut-,  loose,  pay. 

spuo,  -ui, ,  spit. 

statuo,  -ui,  -ut-,  establish. 

sternuo,  -ui,  ,  sneeze. 

strido,  stridi, ,  whiz. 


su5,  sui,  sijt-,  sew. 
(ex)u6,  -ui,  -ut-,  put  off. 
tribuo,  -ui,  -Ot-,  assign. 
vello,  velii  (-vulsi),  vuls-,  pluck, 
vend,  -verri,  vers-,  sweep. 
verto,  verti,  vers-,  turn. 
viso  [vid],  visi,  vis-,  visit. 
volvo,  volvi,  volut-,.  turn. 


Note.  —  Several  have  no  perfect  or  supine:  as,  claud5,  limp;  fatisco,  gape;  hisco, 
yaivn;  tollo  (sustuli,  sublatum,  supplied  from  suffero),  raise;  vergo,  incline. 

^. 

Fourth  Conjugation 

212.  There  are  —  besides  a  few  deponents  and  some  regular 
derivatives  in  -iirio,  as,  esurio,  he  hungry  (cf.  §  263.4)  —  about 
60  verbs  of  this  conjugation,  a  large  proportion  of  them  being 
descriptive  verbs  :  like  — 

crocio,  croak;  mugio,  bellow;  tianio,  tinkle. 

a.  Most  verbs  of  the  Fourth  Conjugation  are  conjugated  regularly,  like 
audi5,  though  a  number  lack  the  supine. 

&.  The  follovi^ing  verbs  show  special  peculiarities  :  — 

amicio,  amixi  (-cui),  amict-,  clothe. 
aperio,  aperui,  apart-,  open. 
comperio,  -peri,  comj^ei t-,  find. 
farcio,  farsi,  fartum,  stuff. 
feriS,  ,  ,  strike. 


fulcio,  fulsi,  fult-,  prop. 

haurio,  hausi,  haust-  (hausurus),  drain. 

opsrio,  operui,  opert-,  cover. 

reperio,  repperi,  repert-,  ^nd. 


saepi5,  saepsi,  saept-,  hedge  in. 

salio  (-silio),  salui  (salii),  [salt-  (-suit-)], 

leap. 
sancio  [sac],  sanxi,  sanct-,  sanction. 
sarcio,  sarsi,  sart-,  patch. 
sentio,  sensi,  sens-,  feel. 
sepelio,  sepelivi,  sepult-,  bury. 
venio,  veni,  vent-,  come. 
vinci5,  vinxi,  vinct-,  bind. 


For  Index  of  Verbs,  see  pp.  436  ft. 


1  See  footnote  3,  page  124. 


126  PARTICLES  [§§  213,  214 

PAETICLES 

213.  Adverbs,  Prepositions,  Conjunctions,  and  Interjections 
are  called  Particles. 

In  their  origin  Adverbs,  Prepositions,  and  Conjunctions  are 
either  (1)  case-forms^  actual  or  extinct,  or  (2)  compounds  and 
phrases. 

Particles  cannot  always  be  distinctly  classified,  for  many  adverbs  are 
used  also  as  prepositions  and  many  «s  conjunctions  (§§  219  and  222). 

ADVERBS 

Deeivation  of  Adverbs 

214.  Adverbs  are  regularly  formed  from  Adjectives  as  follows : 

a.  From  adjectives  of  the  first  and  second  declensions  by  changing  the 
characteristic  vowel  of  the  stem  to  -e  :  as,  care,  dearly,  from  earns,  dear  (stem 
caro-)  ;  amice,  like  a  friend,  from  amicus,  friendly  (stem  amico-) . 

Note.  —  The  ending  -e  is  a  relic  of  an  old  ablative  in  -ed  (of.  §  43.  n.  1). 

&.  From  adjectives  of  the  third  declension  by  adding  -ter  to  the  stem. 
Stems  in  nt-  (nom.  -ns)  lose  the  t-.     All  others  are  treated  as  i-stems  :  — 

fortiter,  bravely,  from  fortis  (stem  forti-),  hrave. 
acriter,  eagerly,  from  acer  (stem  acri-),  eager. 
vigilanter,  watchfully,  from  vigilans  (stem  vigilant-), 
prudenter,  prudently,  from  prudens  (stem  prudent-), 
aliter,  otherwise,  from  alius  (old  stem  ali-). 

Note.  — This  suffix  is  perhaps  the  same  as  -ter  in  the  Greek  -Tepo^  and  in  uter,  alter. 
If  so,these  adverbs  are  in  origin  either  neuter  accusatives  (of .  cZ)  or  mascuHne  nominatives. 

c.  Some  adjectives  of  the  first  and  second  declensions  have  adverbs  of 
both  forms  (-e  and  -ter).  Thus  Qmxxs,  hard,  has  both  dure  and  diiriter ; 
miser,  ivretched,  has  both  misere  and  miseriter. 

d»  The  neuter  accusative  of  adjectives  and  pronouns  is  often  used  as  an 
adverb  :  as,  multum,  much ;  facile,  easily ;  quid,  ichy. 

This  is  the  origin  of  the  ending  -ius  in  the  comparative  degree  of  ad- 
verbs (§  218):  as,  acrius,  more- keenly  (positive  .acriter) ;  facilius,  more  easily 
(positive  facile). 

Note.  —  These  adverbs  are  strictly  cognate  accusatives  (§  390). 

e.  The  ablative  singular  neuter  or  (less  commonly)  feminine  of  adjectives, 
pronouns,  and  nouns  may  be   used   adverbially :    as,   fals5,  falsely ;   cit5, 


§§214-216]  DERIVATION   OF  ADVERBS  127 

quickly  (with   shortened  o);   recta  (via),  straight  (straiglitwmj) ;    crebro,  fre- 
quently;  volgo,  commonly ;  forte,  by  chance;  sponte,  of  one's  own  accord. 

NofE.  —  Some  adverbs  are  derived  from  adjectives  not  in  use:  as,  abunde,  plenti- 
fully (as  if  from  fabundus ;  cf .  abundo,  abound) ;  saepe,  often  (as  if  from  fsaepis,  dense, 
close-packed ;  cf .  saepes,  hedge,  and  saepio,  hedge  in) . 

215.  Further  examples  of  Adverbs  and  other  Particles  which 
are  in  origin  case-forms  of  nouns  or  pronouns  are  given  below. 
In  some  the  case  is  not  obvious,  and  in  some  it  is  doubtful. 

1.  Neuter  Accusative  forms:  non  (for  ne-oinom,  later  unum),  not;  iterum  (compara- 
tive of  i-,  stem  of  is),  a  second  time;  demum  (superlative  of  de,  down),  at  last. 

2.  Feminine  Accusatives:  partim,  partly.  So  statim,  07i  the  spot;  saltim,  at  least 
(generally  saltern),  from  lost  nouns  in  -tis  (genitive  -tis).  Thus  -tim  became  a  regular 
adverbial  termination ;  and  by  means  of  it  adverbs  were  made  from  many  noun-  and 
verb-stems  immediately,  without  the  intervention  of  any  form  which  could  have  an 
accusative  in  -tim:  as,  separatim,  separately,  from  separatus,  separate.  Some  adverbs 
that  appear  to  be  feminine  accusative  are  possibly  instrumental:  as,  palam,  openly; 
perperam,  wrongly;  tarn,  so;  quam,  as. 

3.  Plural  Accusatives :  as,  alias,  elsewhere ;  foras,  out  of  doors  (as  end  of  motion). 
So  perhaps  quia,  because. 

4.  Ablative  or  Instrumental  forms:  qua,  where;  intra,  within;  extra,  outside;  qui, 
how;  aliqui,  somehow;  foris,  out  of  doors;  quo,  whither;  adeo,  to  that  degree;  ultro, 
beyond;  citr5,  this  side  (as  end  of  motion) ;  retro,  back;  illoc  (for  fiHo-ce),  weakened  to 
illuc,  thither.    Those  in  -tro  are  from  comparative  stems  (cf,  uls,  cis,  re-). 

5.  Locative  forms :  ibi,  there ;  ubi,  lohere ;  illi,  illi-c,  there ;  peregri  (peregre),  abroad; 
hie  (for  fhi-ce),  here.  Also  the  compounds  hodie  (probably  for  fhodie),  to-day;  perendie, 
day  after  to-morrow. 

6.  Of  uncertain  formation:  (1)  those  in  -tus  (usually  preceded  by  1),  with  an  abla- 
tive meaning:  as,  funditus, /rom  the  bottom,  utterly _;  divinitus,  from  above,  provi- 
dentially; intus,  within;  penitus,  within;  (2)  those  in  -dem,  -dam,  -d5:  as,  quidem, 
indeed;  quondam,  once;  quando  (cf.  donee),  when;  (3)  dum  (probably  accusative  of 
time),  while;  iam,  now. 

216.  A  phrase  or  short  sentence  has  sometimes  grown  together 

into  an  adverb  (cf .  notwithstanding.,  nevertheless^  besides) :  — 

postmodo,  presently  (a  short  time  aftor). 
denuo  (for  de  novo),  anew. 
videlicet  (for  vide  licet),  to  wit  (see,  you  may), 
nihilominus,  nevertheless  (by  nothing  the  less). 

Note.  —  Other  examples  are:  —  antea,  old  antidea,  6p/ore  (ante  ea,  probably  abla- 
tive or  instrumental) ;  ilico  (in  loco),  on  the  spot,  immediately ;  prorsus,  absolutely  (pro 
versus,  straight  ahead) ;  riirsus  (re-vorsus),  again;  quotannis,  yearly  (quotannis,  as  many 
years  as  there  are) ;  quam-ob-rem,  wherefore ;  cominus,  hand  to  hand  (con  manus) ;  eminus, 
at  long  range  (ex  manus) ;  nimirum,  without  doubt  (ni  mirum) ;  ob-viam  (as  in  Ire  obviam, 
to  go  to  meet) ;  pridem  (cf.  prae  and  -dem  in  i-AQm),  for  some  time;  forsan  (fors  slii),  per- 
haps (it's  a  chance  whether);  forsitan  (fors  sit  an),  perhaps  (it  would  be  a  chance 
whether) ;  scilicet  (fsci,  licet),  tliat  is  to  say  (know,  you  may ;  cf.  i-licet,  you  may  go) ; 
actutum  (actu,  on  the  act,  and  turn,  then). 


128 


PARTICLES 


[§217 


Classification  of  Adverbs 
217.  The  classes  of  Adverbs,  with  examples,  are  as  follows :  — 


a.  Adverbs  of  Place 


hie,  here. 
ibi,  there. 
istic,  there. 
illic,  there. 
ubi,  where. 
alicubi,  somewhere. 

ibidem,  in  the  same 

place. 
alibi,  elsewhere,   in 

another  place. 
ubiubi,  wherever. 

ubivis,     anywhere, 

where  you  will. 
sicubi,  if  any  where. 

necubi,     lest    any- 
where. 


hue,  hither. 
eo,  thither. 
istuc,  thither. 
illuc,  thither. 
quo,  whither. 
aliquo,  somewhither, 

{to)  somewhere. 
eodem,  to  the  same 

place. 
alio,    elsewhere,    to 

another  place. 
quoquo,    whitherso- 
ever. 
quo  vis,    anywhere, 

whither  you  will. 
siquo,  if  anywhere 

{any  whither). 
nequo,     lest     any- 

whither. 


hinc,  hence. 

inde,  thence. 

istinc,  thence. 

illinc,  thence. 

unde,  whence. 

alicunde,/ro.'H  some- 
where. 

indidem,  from    the 
same  place. 

aliunde,    from    an- 
other place. 

undecunque,  whence- 
soever. 

undique, /rowi  every 
quarter. 

sicunde,  if  from  any- 
where. 

necunde,    lest  from 
anywhere. 


hac,  by  this  vjay. 
ea,  by  that  way. 
ista,  by  that  way. 
ilia  (iliac),  "     " 
qua,  by  what  way. 
aliqua,  by  someway. 

eadem,  by  the  same 

way. 
alia,      in     another 

way. 
quaqua,  in  whatever 

way. 
quavis,  by  whatever 

way. 
siqua,  if  anywhere. 

nequa,     lest     any- 
where. 


Note.  —  The  demonstrative  adverbs  Mc,  ibi,  istic,  illi,  illic,  and  their  correlatives, 
correspond  in  signification  with  the  pronouns  hie,  is,  iste,  ille  (see  §  146),  and  are  often 
equivalent  to  these  pronouns  with  a  preposition :  as,  inde  =  ab  eo,  etc.  So  the  relative  or 
interrogative  ubi  corresponds  with  qui  (quis),  ali-cubi  with  aliquis,  ubiubi  with  quisquis, 
si-cubi  with  siquis  (see  §§  147-151,  with  the  table  of  correlatives  in  §  152). 

usque,  all  the  way  to;  usquam,  anywhere;  nusquam,  nowhere;  citro,  to  this  side; 
intro,  inwardly;  ultro,  beyond  {or  freely,  i.e.  beyond  what  is  required); 
porro,  further  on. 

quorsum  (for  quo  vorsum,  whither  turned?),  to  what  end?  horsum,  this  way; 
prorsum,  forward  (prorsus,  utterly);  introrsum,  inwardly;  retrorsum,  back- 
ward; sursum,  upward;  deorsum,  downward;  seorsum,  apart;  aliorsum, 
another  loay. 

h.  Adverbs  of  Time 

quando,  when?  (interrogative);  cum  (quom),  when  (relative);  ut,  when,  as;  nunc, 
noiv;  tunc  (turn),  then;  mox,  presently ;  iam,  already ;  dum,  while;  iam  diii, 
iam  diidum,  iam  pridem,  long  ago,  long  since. 

1  All  these  adverbs  were  originally  case-forms  of  pronouns.  The  forms  iu  -bl  and 
-ic  are  locative,  those  in  -5  and  -uc,  -a  and  -ac,  ablative  (see  §  215) ;  those  iu  -inc  are 
from.-ini  (of  uncertain  origin)  with  the  particle  -ce  added  (thus  illim.  illin-c). 


§§  217,  218]  ADVERBS  129 

primum  (■pnmd) ^  first ;  deinde  (postea),  next  after;  postremum  {postxemo)^  finally; 

posteaquam,  postquam,  ivhcn  {after  that,  as  soon  as), 
umquam  (unquam),  ever ;  numquam  (nunquam),  never ;  semper,  always, 
aliquando,  at  some  time,  at  length;  quandoque  (quandocumque),  whenever ;  denique, 

at  last, 
quotiens  (quoties),  how  often;  totieus,  so  often;  aliquotiens,  a  number  of  times. 
cotidie,  every  day  ;  hodie,  to-day  ;  heri,  yesterday  ;  eras,  to-morrow  ;  pridie,  the  day 

before  ;  postridie,  the  day  after  ;  in  dies,  from  day  to  day. 
nondam,  not  yet ;  necdum,  nor  yet ;  vixdum,  scarce  yet ;  quam  primum,  as  soon  as 

possible;  saepe,  often;  ciehro,  frequently ;  iam  non,  no  longer. 

c.  Adverbs  of  Manner,  Degree,  or  Cause 

quam,  hoiv,  as;  tam,  so ;  quamvis,  however  much,  although;  paene,  almost;  magis, 

more;  valde,  greatly ;  vix,  hardly. 
cur,  quare,  why ;  ideo,  idcirco,  propterea,  on  this  account,  because;  eo,  therefore; 

ergo,  itaque,  igitur,  therefore. 
ita,  sic,  so;  ut  (uti),  as,  how;  utut,  utcumque,  however, 

d.  Interrogative  Particles 

an,  -ne,  anne,  utrum,  utrumne,  num,  whether. 
nonne,  annon,  whether  not ;  numquid,  ecquid,  whether  at  all. 
On  the  use  of  the  Interrogative  Particles,  see  §§  332,  335. 

e.  Negative  Particles 

non,  not  (in  simple  denial) ;  baud,  minime,  not  (in  contradiction)  ;  ne,  not  (in  pro- 
hibition) ;  neve,  neu,  nor ;  nedum,  much  less. 

ne,  lest;  neque,  nee,  nor ;  ne  .  .  .  quidem,  not  even. 

non  modo  .  .  .  verum  (sed)  etiam,  not  only  .  .  .  but  also. 

non  modo  .  .  .  sed  ne  .  .  .  quidem,  not  only  not  .  .  .  but  not  even. 

si  minus,  if  not;  quo  minus  (quominus),  so  as  not. 

quin  (relative),  but  that;  (interrogative),  why  not? 

ne,  nee  (in  composition),  not;  so  in  nescio,  I  know  not ;  nego,  I  say  no  (aio,  /  say 
yes) ;  negotium,  business  (fnec-otium) ;  nemo  (ne-  and  hemo,  old  form  of  homo), 
no  one  ;  ne  quis,  lest  any  one  ;  neque  enim,  for  .  .  .  not. 

For  the  use  of  Negative  Particles,  see  §  325  ff . 

For  the  Syntax  and  Peculiar  uses  of  Adverbs,  see  §  320  ff. 

Comparison  of  Adverbs 

218.  The  Comparative  of  Adverbs  is  the  neuter  accusative  of 
the  comparative  of  the  corresponding  adjective;  the  Superlative 
is  the  Adverb  in  -e  formed  regularly  from  the  superlative  of  the 
Adjective :  — 


130  PARTICLES  [§§  218-220 

care,  dearly  (from  carus,  dear) ;  carius,  carissime. 

misere  (rniseriter),  wretchedly  (from  miser,  loretched);  miserius,  miserrime. 

leviter  (from  levis,  liyht) ;  levius,  levissime. 

aiidacter  (audaciter)  (from  audax,  bold) ;  audacius,  audacissime. 

bene,  well  (from  bonus,  good) ;  melius,  optime. 

male,  ill  (from  malus,  bad) ;  peius,  pessime. 

a.  The  following  are  irregular  or  defective  :  — 
diu,  long  (in  time) ;  diutius,  diutissime. 
potiua,  rather  ;  potissimum,  ^rsi  of  all,  in  preference  to  all. 
saepe,  often;  saepius,  oftener,  again;  saepissime. 
satis,  enough;  saXius,  preferable. 
secus,  otherwise;  setius,  worse. 
multum  (multo),  magis,  maxime,  much,  more,  juost. 
parum,  not  enough ;  minus,  less ;  minime,  least. 
nuper,  newly ;  nuperrime. 
tempere,  seasonably;  temperius. 

Note.  —  In  poetry  the  comparative  mage  is  sometimes  used  instead  of  magis. 

PREPOSITIONS 

219.  Prepositions  were  not  originally  distinguished  from  Adverbs  in  form  or  mean- 
ing, but  have  become  specialized  in  use.  They  developed  comparatively  late  in  the 
history  of  language.  In  the  early  stages  of  language  development  the  cases  alone 
were  sufficient  to  indicate  the  sense,  but,  as  the  force  of  the  case-endings  weakened, 
adverbs  were  used  for  greater  precision  (cf .  §  338) .  These  adverbs,  from  their  habitual 
association  with  particular  cases,  became  Prepositions;  but  many  retained  also  their 
independent  function  as  adverbs. 

Most  prepositions  are  true  case-forms :  as,  the  comparative  ablatives  extra,  infra,  supra 
(for  textera,  flnfera,  fsupera),  and  the  accusatives  circum,  coram,  cum  (cf .  §  215) .  Circiter 
is  an  adverbial  formation  from  circum  (cf.  §214.  b.  N.) ;  praeter  is  the  comparative  of 
prae,  propter  of  prope.i  Of  the  remainder,  versus  is  a  petrified  nominative  (participle 
of  verto) ;  adversus  is  a  compound  of  versus ;  trans  is  probably  an  old  present  participle 
(cf .  in-tra-re) ;  while  the  origin  of  the  brief  forms  ab,  ad,  de,  ex,  ob,  is  obscure  and 
doubtful. 

220.  Prepositions  are  regularly  used  either  with  the  Accusa- 
tive or  with  the  Ablative. 

a.  The  following  prepositions  are  used  with  the  Accusative :  — 

ad,  to.  circiter,  about.  intra,  inside. 

adversus,  against.  cis,  citra,  this  side.  iuxta,  near. 

adversum,  towards.  contra,  against.  ob,  on  account  of. 

ante,  before.  erga,  towards.  penes,  in  the  power  of. 

apud,  at,  near.  extra,  outside.  per,  through. 

circa,  around.  infra,  below.  pone,  behind. 

circum,  around.  inter,  among.  post,  after. 

i  The  case-form  of  these  prepositions  ir  -ter  is  doubtf ul= 


§§  220,  221]  PREPOSITIONS  131 

praeter,  beyond.  secundum,  next  to.         ultra,  on  the  further  side. 

prope,  near.  supra,  above.  versus^  towards. 

propter,  on  account  of.        trans,  across. 

h.  The  following  prepositions  are  used  with  the  Ablative  :  —  ^ 

a,  ab,  abs,  away  from.,  by.  e,  ex,  out  of. 

absque,  without.,  but  for.  prae,  in  comparison  with. 

c5ram,  in  presence  of.  pro,  in  front  of  for. 

cum,  with.  ■  sine,  without. 

de,  from.  tenus,  up  to.,  as  far  as. 

c.  The  following  may  be  used  with  either  the  Accusative  or  the  Ablar 
tive,  but  with  a  difference  in  meaning  :  — 

in,  into^  in.  '  sub,  under. 

subter,  beneath.  super,  above. 

In  and  sub,  when  followed  by  the  accusative,  indicate  motion  to,  when  by 
the  ablative,  rest  in,  a  place : 

venit  in  aedis,  he  came  into  the  house ;  erat  in  aedibus,  he  was  in  the  house. 
disciplina  in  Britannia  reperta  atque  inde  in  Galiiam  translata  esse  existi-. 
matur,  the  system  is  thought  to  have  been  discovered  in  Great  Britain  and 
thence  brought  over  to  Gaul. 
sub  ilice  consederat,  he  had  seated  himself  under  an  ilex. 
sub  leges  mittere  orbem,  to  subject  the  world  to  laws  (to  send  the  world  under 


221.  The  uses  of  the  Prepositions  are  as  follows :  — 

1.  A,  ab,  away  froTYi^  from,  off  from,  with  the  ablatiVe. 

a.  Of  place :  as,  —  ab  urbe  prof  ectus  est,  he  set  out  from  the  city. 

b.  Of  time :  (1)  from :  as,  —  ab  hora  tertia  ad  vesperam,  from  the  third  hour 
till  evening ;  (2)  just  after :  as,  —  ab  eo  magistratti,  after  [holding]  that  office. 

c.  Idiomatic  uses :  a  reliquis  differunt,  they  differ  from  the  others ;  a  parvulls, 
from  early  childhood ;  prope  ab  m-be,  near  (not  far  from)  the  city ;  liberare  ab, 
to  set  free  from ;  occisus  ab  hoste  (periit  ab  hoste),  slain  by  an  enemy ;  ab  hac 
parte,  on  this  side;  ab  re  eius,  to  his  advantage;  a  re  publica, /or  the  interest  of 
the  state. 

2.  Ad,  to,  towards,  at,  near,  with  the  accusative  (cf.  in,  into). 

a.  Of  place :  as,  —  ad  nrbem  venit,  he  came  to  the  city  ;  ad  meridiem,  towards 
the  south;  ad  exercitum,  to  the  army  ;  ad  hostem,  toward  the  enemy ;  ad  urbem, 
near  the  city. 

b.  Of  time :  as,  — ad  nonam  horam,  till  the  ninth  hoiir. 

c.  With  persons :  as,  —  ad  eum  venit,  he  came  to  him. 

1  For  palam  etc.,  see  §  432. 

2  Ab  signifies  direction /rom  the  ol^ject*  but  often  towards  the  speaker;  compare  dS, 
down  from,  and  ex,  out  of. 


132  PARTICLES  [§221 

d.  Idiomatic  uses :  ad  supplicia  descendant,  tJiey  resort  to  punishment ;  ad 
haec  respondit,  to  this  he  answered;  ad  leinpas,  at  the  [fit]  time;  adire  ad  rem 
publicam,  to  go  into  public  life;  ad  petendam  pacem,  to  seek  peace;  ad  latera, 
on  the  flank  ;  ad  arma,  to  arms;  ad  hunc  modum,  in,  this  way ;  quern  ad  modum, 
how,  as;  ad  centum,  nearly  a  hundred;  ad  hoc,  besides;  omnes  ad  tinum,  all  to 
a  man;  ad  diem,  on  the  day. 

3.  Ante,  in  front  of,  before,  with  the  accusative  (cf.  post,  after). 

a.  Of  place  :  as, — ante-poYta,m,  in  front  of  the  gate;  ante  exerci  turn,  in  adufwice 
of  the  army. 

b.  Of  time :  as,  —  ante  bellum,  before  the  war. 

c.  Idiomatic  uses :  ante  urbem  captam,  before  the  city  was  taken  ;  ante  diera 
quintum  (a.d.v.)  Kal.,  the  fifth  day  before  the  Calends;  ante  quadriennium, /owr 
years  before  or  ago ;  ante  tempus,  too  soon  (before  the  time).  , 

4.  Apud,  at,  by,  among,  with  the  accusative. 

a.  Of -place  (rare  and  archaic) :  as,  —  apud  forum,  at  the  forum  (in  the  market- 
place). 

h.  With  reference  to  persons  or  communities :  as,  —  apud  Helvetios,  among 
the  Helvetians;  apud  populum,  before  the  people;  apud  aliquem,  at  one's  house; 
apud  se,  at  home  or  in  his  senses;  apud  Ciceronem,  in  [the  works  of]  Cicero. 

5.  Circa,  abo2it,  around,  with  the  accusative  (cf.  circum,  circiter). 

a.  Of  place  :  templa  circa  forum,  the  temples  about  the  forum ;  circa  se  habet, 
he  has  with  him  (of  persons). 

6.  Of  time  or  number  (in  poetry  and  later  writers) :  circa  eandem  hOram, 
about  the  same  hour;  circa  Idiis  Octobris,  about  the  fifteenth  of  October;  circa 
decern  mllia,  about  ten  thousand. 

c.  Figuratively  (in  later  writers),  about,  in  regard  to  (cf.  de) :  circa  quern 
ptigna  est,  loith  regard  to  whom,  etc.  ;  circa  deos  neglegentior,  rather  neglectful  of 
(i.e.  in  worshipping)  tlie  gods. 

6.  Circiter,  about,  with  the  accusative. 

a.  Of  time  or  number :  circiter  idus  Novembris,  aboui  the  thirteenih  of  Novem- 
ber;  circiter  meridiem,  about  noon. 

7.  Circum,  about,  around,  with  the  accusative. 

a.  Of  place:  circura  haec  loca,  hereabout;  circum  Capuam,  round  Capua; 
circum  ilium,  with  him ;  legatio  circum  Tnsulas  missa,  an  embassy  sent  to  the 
islands  round  about;  circum  amicos,  to  his  friends  round  about. 

8.  Contra,  o2')jposite,  against,  with  the  accusative. 

contra  Italiam,  over  against  Italy ;  contra  haec,  in  answer  to  this. 

a.  Often  as  adverb:  as, — haec  contra,  this  in  reply;  contra  autem,  but  on 
the  other  hand ;  quod  contra,  whereas,  on  the  other  hand, 

9.  Cum,  tvith,  together  ivith,  with  the  ablative. 


§221]  PREPOSITIONS  133 

a.  Of  place:  as, — vade  m5cum,  go  with  me;  cum  omnibus  impedlraentis, 
with  all  [their]  baggage. 

h.  Of  time  :  as,  — prima  cum  Itice,  at  early  dawn  (with  first  light). 

c.  Idiomatic  uses:  maguo  cum  dolore,  with  great  sorrow;  communicare  ali- 
quid  cum  aliquo,  share  something  with  some  one;  cum  malo  suo,  to  his  own  hurt; 
confligere  cum  hoste,  to  fight  with  the  enemy ;  esse  cum  telo,  to  go  armed;  cum 
silentio,  in  silence. 

10.  De,  doivn  from,  from,  with  the  ablative  (cf.  ab,  away  from  ; 
ex,  out  of). 

a.  Of  place:  as,  —  de  caelo  demissus,  sent  down  from  heaven;  de  navibus 
desilire,  to  jump  down  from  the  ships. 

b.  Figuratively,  concerning,  about,  of:^  as, — cognoscit  de  Clodi  caede,  he 
learns  of  the  murder  of  Clodlus  ;  consilia  de  bello,  plans  of  war. 

c.  In  a  partitive  sense  (compare  ex),  out  of,  of:  as,  —  unus  de  plebe,  one  of  the- 
people. 

d.  Idiomatic  uses:  multis  de  causis,  for  many  reasons;  qua  de  causa,  for 
which  reason;  de  improvIs5,  of  a  sudden;  de  industria,  on  purpose;  de  integro, 
aneio  ;  d6  tertia  vigilia,  just  at  midnight  (starting  at  the  third  watch) ;  de  mense 
Decembri  navigare,  to  sail  as  early  as  December. 

11.  Ex,  e,  from  (the  midst,  opposed  to  in),  out  of,  with  the  abla- 
tive (cf.  ab  and  de). 

a.  Of  place  :  as,  — ex  omnibus  partibus  silvae  evolaverunt,  they  flew  out  from 
all  parts  of  the  forest;  ex  Hispania,  [a  man] /rom,  Spain. 

b.  Of  time  :  as,  —  ex  eo  die  quintus,  the  fifth  day  from  that  (four  days  after)  ; 
ex  hoc  die,  from  this  day  forth. 

c.  Idiomatically  or  less  exactly :  ex  consulatu,  right  after  his  consulship ; 
ex  gius  sententia,  according  to  his  opinion;  ex  aequo,  justly ;  ex  improvlso, 
unexpectedly ;  ex  tua  re,  to  your  advantage;  magna  ex  parte,  in  a  great  degree; 
ex  equo  ptignare,  to  fight  on  horseback;  ex  usii,  expedient;  e  regione,  opposite; 
quaerere  ex  aliquo,  to  ask  of  some  one;  ex  senatus  consulto,  according  to  the 
decree  of  the  senate ;  ex  f uga,  in  [their]  flight  (proceeding  immediately  from  it) ; 
unus  e  filiis,  one  of  the  sons. 

12.  In,  with  the  accusative  or  the  ablative. 
1.  With  the  accusative,  i7ito  (opposed  to  ex). 

a.  Of  place  :  as,  —  in  Italiam  contendit,  he  hastens  into  Italy. 

b.  Of  time,  till,  until :  as,  —  in  Iticem,  till  daylight. 

c.  Idiomatically  or  less  exactly :  in  meridiem,  towards  the  south ;  amor  in 
(erga,  adversus)  patrem,  love  for  his  father ;  in  aram  confugit,  he  fled  to  the  altar 
(on  the  steps,  or  merely  to)  ;  in  digs,  from  day  to  day ;  in  longitudinem,  length- 
wise; in  latitudinem  patebat,  extended  in  width;  in  haec  verba  iurare,  to  swear 
to  these  words;  hunc  in  modum,  in  this  way ;  5ratio  in  Catilinam,  a  speech  against 

1  0/ originally  meant /row  (cf.  off). 


134  PARTICLES  [§221 

Catiline;  in  perpetuum,  forever;  in  peius, /or  the  worse;  in  diem  vlvere,  to  live 
from  hand  to  mouth  (for  the  day). 

2.  With  the  ablative,  in,  on,  among. 

In  very  various  connections  :  as,  —  in  castris,  in  the  camp  (cf .  ad  castra,  <o,  at, 
or  near  the  camp) ;  in  mari,  on  the  sea;  in  urbe  esse,  to  be  in  town;  in  tempore, 
in  season;  in  scribendo,  while  writing ;  est  mihi  in  animo,  I  have  it  in  mind,  1 
intend;  in  ancoris,  at  anchor;  in  hoc  homine,  in  the  case  of  this  man;  in  dubio 
esse,  to  he  in  doubt. 

13.  Infra,  helow,  with  the  accusative. 

a.  Of  place:  as, — ad  mare  infra  oppidum,  by  the  sea  helow  the  town;  Infra 
caelum,  under  the  sky. 

b.  Figuratively  or  less  exactly:  as, — infra  Homerum,  later  than  Homer; 
Infra  tres  pedes,  less  than  three  feet;  infra  elephantos,  smaller  than  elephants; 
Infra  infimos  omnis,  the  lowest  of  the  low. 

14.  Inter,  between,  among,  with  the  accusativa 

inter  me  et  Sclpionem,  between  myself  and  Scipio ;  inter  os  et  offam,  between 
thf.  cup  and  the  lip  (the  mouth  and  the  morsel) ;  inter  hostium  tela,  amid 
the  weapons  of  the  enemy  ;  inter  omnis  primus,  first  of  all ;  inter  biben- 
dnm,  while  drinking ;  inter  se  loquuntur,  they  talk  together. 

15.  Ob,  towards,  on  account  of,  with  the  accusative. 

a.  Literally :  (1)  of  motion  (archaic) :  as,  —  ob  Romam,  towards  Borne 
(Ennius) ;  ob  viam,  to  the  road  (preserved  as  adverb,  in  the  way  of).  (2)  Of  place 
in  which,  before,  in  a  few  phrases :  as,  —  ob  oculos,  before  the  eyes. 

b.  Figuratively,  in  return  for  (mostly  archaic,  probably  a  word  of  account, 
balancing  one  thing  against  another) :  as,  —  ob  mulierem,  in  pay  for  the  woman ; 
ob  rem,  for  gain.  Hence  applied  to  reason,  cause,  and  the  like,  on  account  of 
(a  similar  mercantile  idea),  for :  as,  —  ob  earn  causam,/or  that  reason;  quam  ob 
rem  (quamobrem),  wherefore,  why. 

16.  Per,  through,  over,  with  the  accusative. 

a.  Of  motion:  as, — per  urbem  Ire,  to  go  through  the  city ;  per  mtiros,  over 
the  walls. 

b.  Of  time  :  as,  —  per  hiemem,  throughout  the  winter. 

c.  Figuratively,  of  persons  as  means  or  instruments :  as,  — per  homines  ido- 
neos,  through  the  instrumentality  of  suitable  persons ;  licet  per  me,  you  (etc.)  may 
for  all  me.  Hence,  stat  per  me,  it  is  through  my  instrumentality  ;  so,  per  se,  in 
and  of  itself. 

d.  Weakened,  in  many  adverbial  expressions;  as, — per  iocum.  in  jest;  per 
speciem,  in  show,  ostentatiously. 

17.  Prae,  in  front  of  with  the  ablative. 

a.  Literally,  of  place  (in  a  few  connections) :  as,  —  prae  se  portare,  to  carry 
in  one's  arms;  prae  se  ferre,  to  carry  before  one,  (hence  figuratively)  exhibit, pro- 
claim ostentatiously,  make  known. 


§  221]  PREPOSITIONS  135 

b.  Figuratively,  of  hindrance,  as  by  an  obstacle  in  front  (compare  English 
for) :  as,  — prae  gaudio  conticuit,  he  was  silent  for  joy. 

c.  Of  comparison :  as,  — prae  magnitudine  corporum  suorum,  in  comparison 
with  their  own  great  size. 

18.  Praeter,  along  by,  by,  with  the  accusative. 

a.  Literally  :  as,  —  praeter  castra,  hy  the  camp  (along  by,  in  front  of) ;  praeter 
oculos,  before  the  eyes. 

b.  Figuratively,  beyond,  besides,  more  than,  in  addition  to,  except :  as,  — praeter 
spem,  beyond  hope;  praeter  alios,  more  than  others;  praeter  paucos,  with  the 
exception  of  a  few. 

19.  Pro,  in  front  of,  with  the  ablative. 

sedens  pro  aede  Castoris,  sitting  in  front  of  the  temple  of  Castor ;  pro  populo, 

in  presence  of  the  people.     So  pro  rostris,  on  [the  front  of]  the  rostra  ; 

pro  contione,  before  the  assembly  (in  a  speech). 

a.  In  various  idiomatic  uses:  pro  lege,  in  defence  of  the  law;  pro  vitula, 

instead  of  a  heifer ;  pro  centum  milibus,  as  good  as  a  hundred  thousand ;  pro 

rata  parte,  in  due  proportion;  pro  hac  vice, /or  this  once;  pro  consule,  in  place 

of  consul;  pro  viribus,  considering  his  strength;  pro  virili  parte,  to  the  best  of 

one's  ability;  pro  tua  prMentia,  in  accordance  with  your  wisdom. 

20.  Propter,  near,  by,  with  the  accusative. 

propter  te  sedet,  he  sits  next  you.     Hence,  on  account  of  (cf.  all  along  of) : 
as, — propter  metum,  i^rowgr^ /ear. 

21.  Secundum/ y^^s^  behind,  following,  with  the  accusative. 

a.  Literally:  as,  — ite  secundum  me  (Plant.),  go  behind  me;  secundum  litus, 
near  the  shore;  secundum  fltimen,  along  the  stream  (cf.  secundo  flumine,  down 
stream). 

b.  Figuratively,  according  to:  as,  —  secundum  naturam,  according  to  nature. 

22.  Sub,  under,  up  to,  with  the  accusative  or  the  ablative. 

1.  Of  motion,  with  the  accusative :  as,  —  sub  montem  succedere,  to  come  close 
to  the  hill. 

a.  Idiomatically:  sub  noctem,  towards  night ;  sub  Iticem,  near  daylight ;  sub 
haec  dicta,  at  (following)  these  words. 

2.  Of  rest,  with  the  ablative :  as,  — sub  love,  in  the  open  air  (under  the  heaven, 
personified  as  Jove) ;  sub  monte,  at  the  foot  of  the  hill. 

a.  Idiomatically :  sub  e5dem  tempore,  about  the  same  time  (just  after  it). 

23.  Subter,  under,  below,  with  the  accusative  (sometimes,  in  poetry, 
the  ablative). 

subter  togam  (Liv.),  under  his  mantle;  but, — subter  litore  (Catull.),  below 
the  shore. 

24.  Super,2  with  the  accusative  or  the  ablative. 

^  Old  participle  of  sequor.  *  Comparative  of  sub. 


136  PAliTICLES  [^  221 

1.  With  the  accusative,  above,  over,  on,  beyond,  upon. 

a.  Of  place :  super  vallum  praecipitari  (lug.  58),  to  be  hurled  over  the  ram- 
part;  super  laterCs  coria  indilcuntur  (B.C.  ii.  10),  hides  are  dravm  over  the  bricks; 
super  terrae  tumulum  statu!  (Le^%  ii.  65),  to  be  placed  on  the  mound  of  earth; 
supnr  Numidiam  (Tug.  19),  beyond  Numidia. 

b.  Idiomatically  or  less  exactly:  vulnus  super  vulnus,  wound  upon  wound; 
super  vinum  (Q.  C.  viii.  4),  over  his  wine. 

2.  With  the  ablative,  concerning,  about  (the  only  use  with  this  case  in 
prose). 

hac  super  re,  concerning  this  thing;  super  tali  re,  abo7d  such  an  affair;  lit- 
teras  super  tanta  re  exspectare,  to  wait  for  a  letter  in  a  matter  of  such 
importance. 

a.  Poetically,  in  other  senses :  llgna  super  foc5  largS  reprinPns  (Hor.  Od.  i. 
0,  5),  piling  logs  generously  on  the  fire ;  nocte  super  media  (Aen.  ix.  61),  after 
midnight. 

25.  Supra,  on  top  of,  above,  with  the  accusative. 

supra  terram,  on  the  surface  of  the  earth.  So  also  figuratively  :  as,  —  supra 
banc  memorlam,  before  our  remembrance;  supra  mOreiii,  more  than 
usual;  suprii  quod,  besides. 

26.  Tenus  (postpositive),  as  far  as,  up  to,  regularly  with  the  abla- 
tive, sometimes  with  the  genitive  (cf.  §  359.  b). 

1.  With  the  ablative  :  Tauro  tenus,  as  far  as  Taurus;  capulO  tenus,  up  to  the 
hilt. 

2.  With  the  genitive  :  Cumarum  tenus  (Fam.  viii.  1.2),  as  far  as  Cumae. 

Note  1 .  — Tenus  is  frequently  connected  with  the  feminine  of  an  adjective  pronoun, 
making  an  adverbial  phvaso:  as,  hactenus,  hitherto;  quatenus,  so  far  as;  de  hac  re 
hactenus,  so  much,  for  t/i.at  (about  tills  matter  .so  far). 

NoTK  2,  — Tenus  was  originally  a  neuter  noun,  meaning  line  or  extent.  In  its  use 
with  the  genitive  (mostly  poetical)  it  may  bo  regarded  as  an  adverbial  accusative 
(§.'^i)7.a). 

27.  Trans,  across,  over,  through,  hy,  with  the  accusative. 

a.  Of  motion:  as, — trans  inarc  currunt,  they  run  across  the  sea;  trans  flu- 
men  ferro,  to  carry  over  a  river  ;  trans  aethera,  through  the  sky ;  trans  caput  iace, 
throw  over  your  head. 

b.  Of  rest :  as,  —  trans  Rhenum  incolunt,  they  live  across  the  Rhine. 

28.  Ultra,  heyoiid  (on  the  further  side),  with  the  accusative. 

cis  Padum  ultraque,  on  this  side  of  the  Fo  and  beyond;  ultra  sum  numcrum, 
more  than  that  number ;  ultra  fidem,  incredible;  ultra  modum,  immod- 
erate. 

Note.  —  vSomo  adverbs  ap])(>ar  as  prcjwHitions:  as,  iutus,  insuper  (see  §  219). 
For  Prepositions  in  Compounds,  soo  ^  207. 


222-224]  CONJUNCTIONS  137 


CONJUNCTIONS 

222.  Conjunctions,  like  prepositions  (of.  §  210),  are  closely  related  to  adverbs,  and 
are  either  petrified  cases  of  nouns,  pronouns,  and  adjectives,  or  obscured  phrases:  as, 
quort,  an  old  accusative;  dum,  probably  an  old  accusative  (cf.  turn,  cum) ;  vero,  an  old 
neuter  ablative  of  verus;  nihilominus,  none  the  less;  proinde,  Y\t.  forward  from  there. 
Mo.st  conjunctions  are  connected  with  pronominal  adverbs,  whJch  cannot  always  be  re- 
ferred to  their  original  case-forms. 

223.  Conjunctions  connect  words,  phrases,  or  sentences.  They 
are  of  two  classes,  Coordinate  and  Subordinate :  — 

a.  Coordinate,  connecting  coordinate  or  similar  constructions  (see  §  278. 
2.  a).     These  are:  — 

1.  Copulative  or  disjunctive,  implying  a  connection  or  separation  of  thought 
as  well  as  of  words:  as,  et,  and;  aut,  or;  neque,  nor. 

2.  Adversative,  implying  a  connection  of  words,  but  a  contrast  in  thought : 
as,  sod,  hut. 

3.  Causal,  introducing  a  cause  or  reason  :  as,  nam,  for. 

4.  Illative,  denoting  an  inference :  as,  igitur,  therefore. 

h.  Subordinate,  connecting  a  subordinate  or  independent  clause  with 
that  on  which  it  depends  (see  §  278.  2.  h).     These  are  :  — 

1.  Conditional,  denoting  a  condition  or  hypothesis:  as,  si,  if;  nisi,  unless. 

2.  Comparative,  implying  comparison  as  well  as  condition  :  as,  ac  si,  as  if. 

3.  Concessive,  denoting  a  concession  or  admission :  as,  quamquam,  although 
(lit.  however  much  it  may  be  true  that,  etc.). 

4.  Temporal:  as,  postquam,  after. 

5.  Consecutive,  expressing  result:  as,  ut,  so  that. 

6.  Final,  expressing  purpose :  as,  ut,  in  order  that;  ne,  that  not. 

7.  Causal,  expressing  cause :  as,  quia,  because. 

224.  Conjunctions  are  more  numerous  and  more  accurately 
distinguished  in  Latin  than  in  English.  The  following  list 
includes  the  common  conjunctions  ^  and  conjunctive  phrases  :  — 

COOKDINATE 

a.  Copulative  and  Disjunctive 

et,  -que,  atque  (ac),  and. 

et  .  .  .  et ;  et  .  .  .  -que  (atque);  -que  .  .  .  et ;  -que  .  .  .  -que  (poetical),  both  .  .  .  and. 

etiam,  quoque,  neque  non  (necnon),  quin  etiam,  itidem  (item),  also. 

cum  .  .  .  turn ;  tum  .  .  .  tum,  both  .  .  .  and;  not  only  .  .  .  but  also. 

1  Some  of  these  have  been  included  in  the  classification  of  adverbs.  See  also  list 
of  Correlatives,  §  152 


138  PARTICLES  [§224 

qua  .  .  .  qua,  on  the  one  hand  .  .  .  on  the  other  hand. 

modo  .  .  .  modo,  now  .  .  .  now. 

aut  .  .  .  aut ;  vel  .  .  .  vel  (-ve),  either  .  .  .  or. 

sive  (seu)  .  .  .  sive,  whether  .  .  .  or. 

nee  (neque)  ...  nee  (neque);  neque  .  ,  .  nee ;  nee  .  .  .  neque  (rare),  neither  .  .  .  nor. 

et  .  .  .  neque,  both  .  .  .  and  not. 

nee  .  .  .  et ;  nee  (neque)  .  .  .  -que,  neither  {both  not)  .  .  .  and. 

h.  Adversative 

sed,  autem,  verum,  vero,  at,  atqui,  hut. 

tamen,  attcimen,  sed  tamen,  verum  tamen,  but  yet,  nevertheless. 

nihilominus,  none  the  less. 

at  vero,  but  in  truth;  enimvei-5,  for  in  truth. 

ceterum,  on  the  other  hand,  but. 

c.  Causal 

nam,  namque,  enim,  etenim,  for. 

quapropter,  quare,  quamobrem,  quocirea,  unde,  wherefore,  whence. 

d.  Illative 

ergo,  igitur,  itaque,  ideo,  ideireo,  inde,  proinde,  therefore,  accordingly. 


Subordinate 
a.  Conditional 

8i,  if;  sin,  but  if;  nisi  (ni),  unless,  if  not;  quod  si,  but  if. 
modo,  dum,  dummodo,  si  modo,  if  only,  provided. 
dummodo  ne  (dum  ne,  modo  ne),  ^provided  only  not. 

h.   Comparative 

ut,  uti,  sicut,  just  as;  velut,  as,  so  as;  prout,  praeut,  ceu,  like  as,  according  as. 
tamquam  (tanquam),  quasi,  ut  si,  ae  si,  velut,  veluti,  velut  si,  as  if. 
quam,  atque  (ac),  as,  than. 

c.  Concessive 

etsi,  etiamsi,  tametsi,  even  if;  quamquam  (quanquam),  although. 
quamvis,  quantumvis,  quaralibet,  quantumlibet,  however  much. 
lieet  (properly  a  verb),  ut,  eum  (quom),  though,  suppose,  luhereas. 

d.  Temporal 

cum  (quom),  quando,  when;  ubi,  ut,  ivhen,  as;  cum  primum,  ut  primum,  ubi  primum, 

simul,  simul  ae,  simul  atque,  as  soon  as;  postquam  (posteaquam),  after. 
prius  .,.  .  quam,  ante  .  .  .  quam,  before;  non  ante  .  .  .  quam,  not  .  .  .  until. 
dum,  usque  dum,  donee,  quoad,  until,  as  long  as,  while. 


§§  224-226]  INTERJECTIONS  139 


e.  Consecutive  and  Final 

ut  (uti) ,  quo,  so  that  J  in  order  that. 

ne,  ut  ne,  lest  {that  .  .  .  not,  in  order  that  not)  ;-neve  (neu),  that  not,  nor. 

quin  (after  negatives),  quominus,  but  that  (so  as  to  prevent),  that  not. 

f.   Causal 

quia,  quod,  quoniam  (tquom-iam),  quando,  because. 

cum  (quom),  since. 

quandoquidem,  si  quidem,  quippe,  ut  pote,  since  indeed,  inasmuch  as. 

propterea  .  .  .  quod,  for  this  reason  .  .  .  that. 

On  the  use  of  Conjunctions,  see  §§  323,  324. 


INTERJECTIONS 

225.  Some  Interjections  are  mere  natural  exclamations  of  feeling;  others  are 
derived  from  inflected  parts  of  speech,  e.g.  the  imperatives  em,  lo  (probably  for  erne, 
take);  age,  come,  etc.  Names  of  deities  occur  in  hercle,  pol  (from  Pollux),  etc.  Many- 
Latin  interjections  are  borrowed  from  the  Greek,  as  euge,  euhoe,  etc. 

226.  The  following  list  comprises  most  of  the  Interjections  in 
common  use :  — 

6,  en,  ecce,  ehem,  papae,  vah  (of  astonishment). 

16,  evae,  evoe,  euhoe  (of  joy). 

heu,  eheu,  vae,  alas  (of  sorrow). 

heus,  eho,  ehodum,  ho  (of  calling) ;  st,  hist. 

eia,  euge  (oi  praise). 

pro  (of  attestation) :  as,  pro  pudor,  shame  I 


140  FORMATION   OF  AVORDS  [§§227-230 


FORMATION   OF  WORDS 

227.  All  formation  of  words  is  originally  a  process  of  composition.  An  element 
significant  in  itself  is  added  to  another  significant  element,  and  thus  the  meaning  of 
the  two  is  combined.  No  other  combination  is  possible  for  the  formation  either  of 
inflections  or  of  stems.  Thus,  in  fact,  ivords  (since  roots  and  stems  are  significant 
elements,  and  so  words)  are  first  placed  side  by  side,  then  brought  under  one  accent, 
and  finally  felt  as  one  word.  The  gradual  process  is  seen  in  sea  voyage,  sea-nymph, 
seaside.  But  as  all  derivation,  properly  so  called,  appears  as  a  combination  of  unin- 
flected  stems,  every  type  of  formation  in  use  must  antedate  inflection.  Hence  words 
were  not  in  strictness  derived  either  from  nouns  or  from  verbs,  but  from  ste7ns  which 
were  neither,  because  they  were  in  fact  both ;  for  the  distinction  between  noun-stems 
and  verb-stems  had  not  yet  been  made. 

After  the  development  of  Inflection,  however,  th^t  one  of  several  kindred  words 
which  seemed  the  simplest  was  regarded  as  the  primitive  form,  and  from  this  the  other 
words  of  the  group  were  thought  to  be  derived.  Such  supposed  processes  of  formation 
were  then  imitated,  often  erroneously,  and  in  this  way  7iew  modes  of  derivation  arose. 
Thus  new  adjectives  were  formed  from  nouns,  new  nouns  from  adjectives,  new  adjec- 
tives from  verbs,  and  new  verbs  from  adjectives  and  nouns. 

In  course  of  time  the  real  or  apparent  relations  of  many  words  became  confused, 
so  that  nouns  and  adjectives  once  supposed  to  come  from  nouns  were  often  assigned 
to  verbs,  and  others  once  supposed  to  come  from  verbs  were  assigned  to  nouns. 

Further,  since  the  language  was  constantly  changing,  many  words  went  out  of  use, 
and  do  not  occur  in  the  literature  as  we  have  it.  Thus  many  Derivatives  survive  of 
which  the  Primitive  is  lost. 

Finally,  since  all  conscious  word-formation  is  imitative,  intermediate  steps  in  deriva- 
tion were  sometimes  omitted,  and  occasionally  apparent  Derivatives  occur  for  which 
no  proper  Primitive  ever  existed. 

ROOTS  AND  STEMS 

228.  Roots  ^  are  of  two  kinds  :  — 

1.  Verbal,  expressing  ideas  of  action  or  condition  (sensible  phenomena). 

2.  Pronominal,  expressing  ideas  of  position  and  direction. 

From  verbal  roots  come  all  parts  of  sj^eech  except  pronouns  and  certain 
particles  derived  from  pronominal  roots. 

229.  Stems  are  either  identical  with  roots  or  derived  from  them. 
They  are  of  two  classes:  (1)  Noun-stems  (including  Adjective- 
stems)  and  (2)  Verb-stems. 

Note.  —  Noun-stems  and  v^rb-stems  were  not  originally  different  (see  p.  163),  and 
in  the  consciousness  of  the  Romans  were  often  confounded;  but  in  general  they  were 
treated  as  distinct. 

230.  Words  are  formed  by  inflection  :  (1)  from  roots  inflected 
as  stems;  (2)  from  derived  stems  (see  §  232). 

1  For  the  distinction  between  Hoots  and  Stems,  see  §§  24,  25. 


§§231-233]  PRIMARY   SUFFIXES  141 

231.  A  root  used  as  a  stem  may  appear  — 

a»  With  a  short  vowel :  as,  due-is  (dux),  dug  ;  nec-is  (nex);  i-s,  i-d.  So 
in  verbs :  as,  es-t,  fer-t  (cf.  §  171.  2). 

&.  With  a  long  vowel  ^ :  as,  liic-is  (lux),  lug  ;  pac-is  (pax).  So  in  verbs  ; 
duc-o,  i-s  for  f eis,  from  eo,  ire ;  fatur  from  fari. 

c.  With  reduplication  :  as,  fur-fur,  mar-mor,  mur-mur.  So  in  verbs :  as, 
gi-gno  (root  gen),  si-sto  (root  sta). 


DERIVED   STEMS  AND  SUFFIXES 

232.  Derived  Stems  are  formed  from  roots  or  from  other  stems 
by  means  of  suffixes.     These  are :  — 

1.  Primary :  added  to  the  root,  or  (in  later  times  by  analogy)  to  verb- 
stems. 

2.  Secondary :  added  to  a  noun-stem  or  an  adjective-stem. 

Both  primary  and  secondary  suf&xes  are  for  the  most  part  pronominal 
roots  (§  228.  2),  but  a  few  are  of  doubtful  origin. 

Note  1.  —  The  distinction  between  primary  and  secondary  suffixes,  not  being  orig- 
inal (see  §  227) ,  is  continually  lost  sight  of  in  the  development  of  a  language.  Suffixes 
once  primary  are  used  as  secondary,  and  those  once  secondary  are  used  as  primary. 
Thus  in  hosticus  (hosti  +  cus)  the  suffix  -cus,  originally  ko-  (see  §  234.  II.  12)  primary,  as 
in  paucus,  has  become  secondary,  and  is  thus  regularly  used  to  form  derivatives;  but 
in  pudlcus,  apricus,  it  is  treated  as  primary  again,  because  these  words  were  really  or 
apparently  connected  with  verbs.  So  in  English  -able  was  borrowed  as  a  primary 
suffix  {tolerable,  eatable),  but  also  makes  forms  like  clubbable,  salable;  -some  is  prop- 
erly a  secondary  suffix,  as  in  toilsome,  lonesome,  but  makes  also  such  words  as  meddle- 
some, venturesome. 

Note  2.  —  It  is  the  stem  of  the  word,  not  the  nominative,  that  is  formed  by  the 
derivative  suf&x.    For  convenieuce,  however,  the  nominative  will  usually  be  given. 

Primary  Suffixes 

233.  The  words  in  Latin  formed  immediately  from  the  root  by 
means  of  Primary  Sufl&xes,  are  few.     For  — 

1.  Inherited  words  so  formed  were  mostly  further  developed  by  the 
addition  of  other  suffixes,  as  we  might  make  an  adjective  lone-iy-some-ish, 
meaning  nothing  more  than  lone,  lonely,  or  lonesome. 

2.  By  such  accumulation  of  suffixes,  new  compound  suffixes  were  formed 
which  crowded  out  even  the  old  types  of  derivation.     Thus,  — 

1  The  difference  in  vowel- quantity  in  the  same  root  (as  Due)  depends  on  inherited 
variations  (see  §  17.  a). 


142  FORMATION   OF  WORDS  [§§  233,  234 

A  word  like  mens,  mentis,  by  the  suifix  on-  (nom.  -o),  gave  mentio,  and  this, 
being  divided  into  men  +  tio,  gave  rise  to  a  new  type  of  abstract  nouns  in  -ti5: 
as,  lega-tio,  embassy. 

A  word  like  auditor,  by  the  suffix  io-  (nom.  -ius),  gave  rise  to  adjectives  like 
auditor-ius,  of  which  the  neuter  (auditorium)  is  used  to  denote  the  place  where 
the  action  of  the  verb  is  performed.  Hence  torio-  (nom.  -torium),  n.,  becomes  a 
regular  noun-suffix  (§  250.  a). 

So  in  English  such  a  word  as  suffocation  gives  a  suffix  -ation,  and  with  this  is 
made  starvation^  though  there  is  no  such  word  as  starvate. 

234.  Examples  of  primary  stem-suffixes  are :  — 

I.  Vowel  suffixes :  — 

1.  0-  (m.,  n.),  a-  (f.),  found  in  nouns  and  adjectives  of  the  first  two  declen- 
sions :  as,  sonus,  ludus,  vagus,  toga  (root  teg). 

2.  i-,  as  in  ovis,  avis  ;  in  Latin  frequently  changed,  as  in  rupes,  or  lost,  as  in 
scobs  (scobis,  root  scab). 

3.  U-,  disguised  in  most  adjectives  by  an  additional  i,  as  in  sua-vis  (for  tsuad- 
vis,  instead  of  tsua-dus,  cf.  ijdtjs),  ten-uis  (root  tex  in  tendo),  and  remaining  alone 
only  in  nouns  of  the  fourth  declension,  as  acus  (root  ak,  sharp,  in  acer,  acies, 
w/cus),  pecu,  genu. 

n.  Suffixes  with  a  consonant :  — 

1.  to-  (m.,  n.),  ta-  (f.),  in  the  regular  perfect  passive  participle,  as  tectus, 
tectum ;  sometimes  with  an  active  sense,  as  in  potus,  pransus ;  and  found  in  a 
few  words  not  recognized  as  participles,  as  putus  (cf.  piirus),  altus  (alo). 

2.  ti-  in  abstracts  and  rarely  in  nouns  of  agency,  as  messis,  vestis,  pars, 
mens.     But  in  many  the  i  is  lost. 

3.  tu-  in  abstracts  (including  supines),  sometimes  becoming  concretes,  as 
actus,  luctus. 

4.  no-  (m.,  n.),  na-  (f.),  forming  perfect  participles  in  other  languages,  and  in 
Latin  making  adjectives  of  like  participial  meaning,  which  often  become  nouns, 
as  magnus,  plenus,  regnum. 

5.  ni-,  in  nouns  of  agency  and  adjectives,  as  ignis,  segnis. 

6.  nu-,  rare,  as  in  manus,  pinus,  comu. 

7.  mo-  (ma-),  with  various  meanings,  as  in  animus,  almus,  firmus,  forma. 

8.  vo-  (va-)  (commonly  uo-,  ua-),  with  an  active  or  passive  meaning,  as  in 
equus  (equos),  arvum,  conspicuus,  exiguus,  vacivus  (vacuus). 

9.  ro-  (ra-),  as  in  ager  (stem  ag-ro-),  integer  (cf.  intactus),  sacer,  pleri-que  (cf. 
plenus,  pletus). 

10.  lo-  (la-),  as  in  caelum  (for  tcaed-lum),  chisel,  exemplum,  sella  (for  tsedla). 

II.  yo-  (ya-),  forming  gerundives  in  other  languages,  and  in  Latin  making 
adjectives  and  abstracts,  hicluding  many  of  the  first  and  fifth  declensions,  as 
eximius,  audacia,  Florentia,  pemicies. 

12.  ko-  (ka-),  sometimes  primary,  as  in  pauci  (cf.  TraOpos),  locus  (for  stlocus). 
In  many  cases  the  vowel  of  this  termination  is  lost,  leaving  a  consonant  stem: 
as,  apex,  cortex,  loquax. 


§§234-236]  DERIVATION   OF  NOUNS  143 

13.  en-  (on-,  en-,  on-),  in  nouns  of  agency  and  abstracts :  as,  aspergo,  compago 
(-inis),  gero  (-onis). 

14.  men-,  expressing  means,  often  passing  into  the  action  itself :  as,  agmen, 
flumen,  fulmen. 

15.  ter-  (tor-,  ter-,  tor-,  tr-),  forming  nouns  of  agency  :  as,  pater  (i.e.  protector), 
f rater  (i.e.  supporter),  orator. 

16.  tro-,  forming  nouns  of  means:  as,  claustrum  (claud),  mulctrum  (mulg). 

17.  es-  (os-),  forming  names  of  actions,  passing  into  concretes :  as,  genus 
(generis),  tempus  (see  §  15.  4).  The  infinitive  in  -ere  (as  in  reg-ere)  is  a  locative  of 
this  stem  (-er-e  for  t-es-i). 

18.  nt-  (ont-,  ent-),  forming  present  active  participles:  as,  legens,  with  some 
adjectives  from  roots  unknown :  as,  frequens,  recens. 

The  above,  with  some  suffixes  given  below,  belong  to  the  Indo-European 
parent  speech,  and  most  of  them  were  not  felt  as  living  formations  in  the 
Latin. 

Significant  Endings 

235.  Both  primary  and  secondary  suffixes,  especially  in  tlie 
form  of  compound  suffixes,  were  used  in  Latin  with  more  or  less 
consciousness  of  their  meaning.  They  may  therefore  be  called 
Significant  Endings. 

They  form:  (1)  Nouns  of  Agency;  (2)  Abstract  Nouns  (in- 
cluding Names  of  Actions) ;  (3)  Adjectives  (active  or  passive). 

Note.  —  There  is  really  no  difference  in  etymology  between  an  adjective  and  a 
noun,  except  that  some  formations  are  habitually  used  as  adjectives  and  others  as 
nouns  (§  20.  b.  n.  2). 

DERIVATION  OF  NOUNS 
Nouns  of  Agency 

236.  Nouns  of  Agency  properly  denote  the  agent  or  doer  of  an 
action.  But  they  include  many  words  in  which  the  idea  of  agency 
has  entirely  faded  out,  and  also  many  words  used  as  adjectives. 

a,  Nouns  denoting  the  agent  or  doer  of  an, action  are  formed  from  roots 
or  verb-stems  by  means  of  the  suffixes  — 

-tor  (sor),  M. ;  -trix,  f. 

can-tor,  can-trix,  singer  ;  can-ere  (root  can),  to  sing. 

vic-tor,  vic-trix,  conqueror  (victorious) ;  vinc-ere  (vie),  to  conquer. 
ton-sor    (for   ttond-tor),    tons-trix    (for 

ttond-trix),  hair-cutter  ;  tond-ere  (tond  as  root),  to  shear. 

peti-tor,  candidate;  pet-Sre  (pet;  peti-  as  stem),  to  seek. 


144  FORMATION   OF  WORDS  [§§  236-238 

By  analogy  -tor  is  sometimes  added  to  noun-stems,  but  these  may  be  stems 
of  lost  verbs  :  as,  via-tor,  traveller,  from  via,  wmj  (but  cf .  the  verb  invio). 

Note  1.  —  The  termination  -tor  (-sor)  has  the  same  phonetic  change  as  the  supine 
ending  -turn  (-sum),  and  is  added  to  the  sam-e  form  of  root  or  verb-stem  as  that  ending. 
The  stem-ending  is  tor-  (§234.  II.  15),  which  is  shortened  in  the  nominative. 

Note  2.  —  The  feminine  form  is  always  -trix.  Masculines  in  -sor  lack  the  feminine, 
except  expulsor  (expultrix)  and  tonsor  (tonstrix) . 

6.  t-,  M.  or  F.,  added  to  verb-stems  makes  nouns  in  -es  (-itis,  -etis ;  stem 
it-,  et-)  descriptive  of  a  character  :  — 

prae-stes,  -stitis,  (verb-stem  from  root  sta,  stare,  stand)  ^  guardian. 
teges,  -etis  (verb-stem  tege-,  cf.  tego,  cover),  a  coverer,  a  mat. 
pedes,  -itis  (pes,  ped-is,  foot,  and  i,  root  of  ire,  go),  foot-soldier. 

c.  -0  (genitive  -onis,  stem  on-),  m.,  added  to  verb-stems^  indicates  a  person 
employed  in  some  specific  art  or  trade  :  — 

com-bibo  (bib  as  root  in  bib5,  bibere,  drink),  a  pot-companion. 
gero,  -onis  (ges  in  gero,  gerere,  carry),  a  carrier. 

Note.  — This  termination  is  also  used  to  form  many  nouns  descriptive  of  personal 
characteristics  (cf.  §256). 

Names  of  Actions  and  Abstract  Nouns 

237.  Names  of  Actions  are  confused,  through  their  termina- 
tions, with  real  abstract  nouns  (names  of  qualities)^  and  with  con- 
crete nouns  denoting  means  and  instrument. 

They  are  also  used  to  express  the  concrete  result  of  an  action 

(as  often  in  English). 

Thus  legi5  is  literally  the  act  of  collecting,  but  comes  to  mean  legion  (the  body 
of  soldiers  collected) ;  cf.  levy  iu  English. 

238.  Abstract  Nouns  and  Names  of  Actions  are  formed  from 
roots  and  verb-stems  by  means  of  the  endings  — 

a.  Added  to  roots  or  forms  conceived  as  roots  — 

NoM.     -or,  M.  -es,  f.  -us,  n. 

Gen.      -oris  -is  -eris  or  -oris 

Stem     or-  (earlier  6s-)       i-  er-  (earlier  ^/qS-} 

tim-or, /ear ;  timere,  to  fear. 

am-or,  love;  amare,  to  love. 

sed-es,  seat;  sedere,  to  sit. 

caed-es,  slaughter ;  caedere,  to  kill. 

genus,  birth,  race ;  gen,  to  be  born  (root  of  gigno,  bear). 

1  So  conceived,  but  perhaps  this  termination  was  originally  added  to  noun-stems. 


§§  238,  239]    NAMES  OF  ACTIONS  AND  ABSTRACT  NOUNS  145 

Note.  —  Many  nouns  of  this  class  are  formed  by  analogy  from  imaginary  roots: 
as  facinus  from  a  supposed  root  facin. 

b.  Apparently  added  to  roots  or  verb-stems  — 

NoM.     -io,  F.  -tio  (-sio),  f.  -tura  (-sura),  f.        -tus,  m. 

Gen.      -ionis  -tionis  (-sionis)  -tiirae  (-surae)         -tus  (-sus) 

Stem     ion-  tion-  (sion-)  tiira-  (sura-)  tu-  (su-) 

leg-io,  a  collecting  {levy),  a  legion;  legere,  to  collect. 

reg-io,  a  direction,  a  region;  regere,  to  direct. 

voca-tio,  a  calling  ;  vocare,  to  call. 

moli-tio,  a  toiling  ;  moliri,  to  toil. 

scrip-tura,  a  writing  ;  scribere,  to  write. 

sen-sus  (for  isent-tus),  feeling  ;  sentire,  to  feel. 

Note  1.  — tio,  -tura,  -tus  are  added  to  roots  or  verb-stems  precisely  as  -tor,  with  the 
same  phonetic  change  (cf .  §  236.  a.  n.  i).  Hence  they  are  conveniently  associated  with 
the  supine  stem  (see  §  178) .  They  sometimes  form  nouns  when  there  is  no  correspond- 
ing verb  in  use :  as,  senatus,  senate  (cf.  senex) ;  mentio,  mention  (cf .  mens) ;  fetura,  off- 
spring {ct.ietus);  litteratura,  literature  (cf.  litterae);  consulatus,  consulship  (cf.  consul). 

Note  2.  —  Of  these  endings,  -tus  was  originally  primary  (cf .  §  234.  II.  3.) ;  -16  is  a  com- 
pound formed  by  adding  on-  to  a  stem  ending  in  a  vowel  (originally  i) :  as,  dicio  (cf. 
-dicus  and  dicis) ;  -tio  is  a  compound  formed  by  adding  on-  to  stems  in  ti- :  as,  gradatio 
(cf.  gradatim) ;  -tiira  is  formed  by  adding  -ra,  feminine  of  -rus,  to  stems  in  tu-:  as, 
natiira  from  natus ;  statura  from  status  (cf .  figiira,  of  like  meaning,  from  a  simple  u- 
stem,  ffigu-s;  and  maturus,  Matiita). 

239.  Nouns  denoting  acts^  or  means  and  results  of  acts,  are 
formed  from  roots  or  verb-stems  by  the  use  of  the  suffixes  — 

-men,  n.;  -mentum,  n.;  -monium,  n.  ;  -monia,  f. 

ag-men,  line  of  march,  band  ;  ag,  root  of  agere,  to  lead. 

regi-men,  rule;         \  .    /         \     ^         s:  ^    j-     j. 

1  1      \  regi-  (rage-),  stem  of  regere,  to  direct. 

regi-mentum,  rule;  J  &    \    &    /'  &      ? 

certa-men,  contest,  tattle  ;  certa-,  stem  of  certare,  to  contend. 

So colu-men, piZZar ;  m5-men,  movement;  no-men,  name;  flu-men,  stream. 

testi-monium,  testimony  ;  testari,  to  witness. 

queri-monia,  complaint;  queri,  to  complain. 

-monium  and-mSnia  are  also  used  as  secondary,  forming  nouns  from  other 
nouns  and  from  adjectives :  as,  sancti-monia,  sanctity  (sanctus,  holy) ;  matri- 
monium,  marriage  (mater,  mother). 

Note.  —  Of  these  endings,  -men  is  primary  (cf .  §  234.  II.  14) ;  -mentum  is  a  compound 
of  men-  and  to-,  and  appears  for  the  most  part  later  in  the  language  than  -men :  as, 
momen,  movement  (Lucr.) ;  momentum  (later).  So  elementum  is  a  development  from 
L-M-N-a,  l-m-n's  (letters  of  the  alphabet) ,  changed  to  elementa  along  with  other  nouns 
in  -men.  -monium  and  -monia  were  originally  compound  secondary  suffixes  formed 
from  mon-  (a  by-form  of  men-),  which  was  early  associated  with  mo-.    Thus  almus 


146  FORMATION   OF  WORDS  [§§  239,  241 

(stem  almo-) ,  fostering ;  Almon,  a  river  near  Rome;  alimonia,  support.  But  the  last 
was  formed  directly  from  alo  when  -monia  had  become  established  as  a  supposed 
primary  suffix. 

240.  Nouns  denoting  means  or  instrument  are  formed  from  roots 

and  verb-stems  (rarely  from  noun-stems)  by  means  of  the  neuter 

suffixes  — 

-bulum,  -culum,  -brum,  -crum,  -trum 

pa-bulum, /odder ;  pascere,  to  feed. 

sta-bulum,  stall;  stare,  to  stand. 

vehi-culum,  wagon ;  vehere,  to  carry. 

candela-brum,  candlestick ;  candela,  candle  (a  secondary  formation). 

sepul-crum,  tomb ;  sepelire,  to  burg. 

claus-trum  (tclaud-trum),  bar  ;  claudere,  to  shut. 

axa.-tium,  plough ;  axaxe,  to  plough. 

Note. trum  (stem  tro-)  was  an  old  formation  from  tor-  (§234.  II.  15),  with  the 

stem  suffix  o-,  and  -clum  (stem  clo-  for  tlo-)  appears  to  be  related ;  -culum  is  the  same 
as  -clum;  -bulum  contains  lo-  (§  234.  II.  9,  10)  and  -brum  is  closely  related. 

a.  A  few  masculines  and  feminines  of  the  same  formation  occur  as  nouns 
and  adjectives :  — 

f a-bula,  tale  ;  f ari,  to  speak. 

ridi-culus,  laughable;  ridere,  to  laugh. 

fa-ber,  smith;  facere,  to  make. 

late-bra,  hiding-place;  latere,  to  hide. 

tere-bra,  auger  ;  terere,  to  bore. 

mulc-tra,  milk-pail ;  mulgere,  to  milk. 

241.  Abstract  Nouns,  mosth/  from  adjective-stems,  rarely  from 
noun-stems,  are  formed  by  means  of  the  secondary  feminine  suf- 
fixes— 

-ia  (-ies),  -tia  (-ties),  -tas,  -tus,  -tudo 

audac-ia,  boldness;  audax,  bold. 

pauper-ies,  poverty  ;  pauper,  poor. 

tristi-tia,  sadness;  tristis,  sad. 

segni-ties,  laziness;  segnis,  lazy. 

boni-tas,  goodness;  bonus,  good. 

senec-tus,  age;  senex,  old. 

magni-tud5,  greatness;  magnus,  great. 

1.  In  stems  ending  in  o-  or  a- the  stem-vowel  is  lost  before  -ia  (as  superb-iaj 
and  appears  as  i  before  -tas,  -tus,  -tia  (as  in  boni-tas,  above). 

2.  Consonant  stems  often  insert  1  before  -tas :  as,  loquax  (stem  loquac-), 
loquaci-tas ;  but  hones-tas,  maies-tas  (as  if  from  old  adjectives  in  -es),  uber-tas, 
volup-tas.  0  after  i  is  changed  to  e :  as,  pius  (stem  pio-),  pie-tas ;  socius,  socie- tas. 


§241]  NEUTER   ABSTRACTS  l¥l 

a.  In  like  manner  -do  and  -go  (f.)  form  abstract  nouns,  but  are  asso> 
ciated  with  verbs  and  apparently  added  to  verb-stems :  — 

cupi-do,  desire,  from  cupere,  to  desire  (as  if  from  stem  cupl-). 

dulce-do,  sweetness  (cf.  dulcis,  sweet),  as  if  from  a  stem  dulce-,  cf.  dulce-sco. 

iumba-g5,  lumbago  (cf.  lumbus,  loin),  as  if  from  flumbo,  -are. 

Note.  —  Of  these,  -ia  is  inherited  as  secondary  (cf.  §  234.  II.  11).  -tia  is  formed  by 
adding  -ia  to  stems  with  a  t-suffix :  as,  militia,  from  miles  (stem  milit-) ;  molestia 
from  molestus ;  dementia  from  Clemens ;  whence  by  analogy,  mali-tia,  avari-tia.  -tas 
is  inheritM,  but  its  component  parts,  ta-  +  ti-,  are  found  as  suffixes  in  the  same  sense  ; 
as,  senecta  from  senex;  semen-tis  from  semen,  -tiis  is  tu-  +  ti-,  cf.  servitu-do.  -do  and 
-go  appear  only  with  long  vowels,  as  from  verb-stems,  by  a  false  analogy ;  but  -do  is 
do-  +  on- :  as,  cupidus,  cupido ;  gravidus,  gravedo  (cf .  grave-sco) ;  albidus,  albedo  (cf .  al- 
besco) ;  formidus,  hot,  formido  (cf.  f ormidulosus) ,  {hot  flash?)  fear;  -go  is  possibly  co-  + 
5n-;  cf.  vorax,  vorago,  but  cf.  Cethegus.  -tfldo  is  compounded  of  -do  with  tu-stems, 
which  acquire  a  long  vowel  from  association  with  verb-stems  in  u-  (cf.  volumen,  from 
volvo) :  as,  consuetu-do,  valetii-do,  habitu-do,  sollicitu-do ;  whence  servitud5  (cf .  servitiis, 
-tutis). 

b.  Neuter  Abstracts,  which  easily  pass  into  concretes  denoting  ojices 
and  groups,  are  formed  from  noun-stems  and  perhaps  from  verb-stems  by 
means  of  the  suffixes  — 

-ium,   -tium 

hospit-ium,  hospitality,  an  inn;"^  hospes  (gen.  hospit-is),  a  guest. 

colleg-ium,  colleagueship,  a  college  ;  coUega,  a  colleague. 

auspic-ium,  soothsaying,  an  omen;  auspex  (gen.  auspic-is),  a  soothsayer. 

gaud-ium,  joy ;  gaudere,  to  rejoice. 

effug-ium,  escape;  effugere,  to  escape. 

benefic-ium,  a  kindness  ;  benefacere,  to  benefit ;  cf .  beneficus. 

desider-ium,  longing  ;  desiderare,  to  miss,  from  tde-sides,  oui 

of  place,  of  missing  soldiers, 

adverb-ium,  adverb  ;  ad  verbum,  [added]  to  a  verb. 

interlun-ium,  time  of  new  moon  ;  inter  lunas,  between  moons. 

regifug-ium,  jlight  of  the  kings  ;  regis  fuga,  flight  of  a  king. 

servi-tium,  slavery,  the  slave  class;  servus,  a  slave. 

Vowel  stems  lose  their  vowel  before  -ium  :  as,  colleg-ium,  from  coUega. 

Note. ium  is  the  neuter  of  the  adjective  suffix  -ius.    It  is  an  inherited  primary 

suffix,  but  is  used  with  great  freedom  as  secondary,  -tium  is  formed  like  -tia,  by  add- 
ing -ium  to  stems  with  t :  as,  exit-ium,  equit-ium  (cf .  exitus,  equites) ;  so,  by  analogy, 
calvitium,  servitium  (from  calvus,  servus) . 

c.  Less  commonly,  abstract  nouns  (which  usually  become  concrete)  are 
formed  from  noun-stems  (confused  with  verb-stems)  by  means  of  the 
suffixes  — 

^  The  abstract  meaning  is  put  first 


148  EORMATION    OF   WORDS  [§§241-243 

-nia,  F. ;  -nium,  -lium,  -cinium,  n. 

pecu-nia,  money  {chattels) ;  pecu,  cattle. 

contici-nium,  the  hush  of  night;  conticescere,  to  become  still. 

auxi-lium,  help ;  augere,  to  increase. 

latro-cinium,  robbery ;  latro,  robber  (cf.  latrocinot,  rob,  im- 

plying an  adjective  flatrocinus). 

For  Diminutives  and  Patronymics,  see  §§  243,  244. 


DERIVATION   OF  ADJECTIVES 

242.  Derivative  Adjectives,  which  often  become  nouns,  are 
either  Nominal  (from  nouns  or  adjectives)  or  Verbal  (as  from  roots 
or  verb-stems). 

Nominal  Adjectives 

243.  Diminutive  Adjectives  are  usually  confined  to  one  gen- 
der, that  of  the  primitive,  and  are  used  as  Dimi7iutive  Nouns. 

They  are  formed  by  means  of  the  suffixes  — 

-ulus  (-a,  -um),  -olus   (after  a  vowel),  -cuius,  -ellus,  -illus 

riv-ulus,  a  streamlet;  rivus,  a  brook. 

gladi-olus,  a  small  sword ;  gladius,  a  sword. 

fili-olus,  a  little  son;  filius,  a  son. 

fili-ola,  a  little  daughter ;  filia,  a  daughter. 

atri-olum,  a  little  hall;  atrium,  a  hall. 

homun-culus,  a  dwarf;  homo,  a  man. 

auri-cula,  a  little  ear ;  auris,  an  ear. 

munus-culum,  a  little  gift ;  munus,  n.  ,  a  gift. 

codic-illi,  writing -tablets ;  codex,  a  block. 

mis-ellus,  rather  wretched  ;  miser,  wretched. 

lib-ellus,  a  little  book ;  liber,  a  book. 

aure-olus  (-a,  -um),  golden;  aureus  (-a,  -um),  golden. 
parv-olus  (later  parv-ulus),  very  small;   parvus  (-a,  -um),  little. 

maius-culus,  soynewhat  larger;  maior  (old  maids),  greater. 

Note  1.  — These  diminutive  endings  are  all  formed  by  adding  -lus  to  various  stems. 
The  formation  is  the  same  as  that  of  -ulus  in  §  251.  But  these  words  became  set- 
tled as  diminutives,  and  retained  their  connection  with  nouns.  So  in  English  the 
diminutives  whitish,  reddish,  are  of  the  same  formation  as  bookish  and  snappish. 
-cuius  comes  from  -lus  added  to  adjectives  in  -cus  formed  from  stems  in  n-  and  s-:  as, 
iuven-cus,  Aurun-cus  (cf.  Auruncul^ius) ,  pris-cus,  whence  the  cu  becomes  a  part  of  the 
termination,  and  the  whole  ending  (-cuius)  is  used  elsewhere,  but  mostly  with  n-  and  s- 
stems,  in  accordance  with  its  origin. 

Note  2. — Diminutives  are  often  used  to  express  affection,  pity,  or  contempt:  as, 
deliciolae,  little  pet ;  muliercula,  a  poor  (weak)  woman  j  Graeculus,  a  iniserable  Greek. 


§§  213-246]  NOMINAL   ADJECTIVES  149 

«.  -cio,  added  to  stems  in  n-,  has  the  same  diminutive  force,  but  is  used 
with  masculines  only :  as,  homun-cio,  a  dwarf  (from  homo,  a  man). 

244.  Patronymics,  indicating  descent  or  relationship,  are  formed 
bj  adding  to  proper  names  the  suffixes  — 

-ades,  -ides,  -ides,  -eus,  m.  ;  -as,  -is,  -eis,  f. 

These  words,  originally  Greek  adjectives,  have  almost  all  become  nouns 
in  Latin  :  — 

Atlas:  Atlanti-ades,  Mercury;  Atlant-ides  (Gr.  plur.),  the  Pleiads. 

Scipio  :  Scipi-ades,  son  of  Scipio. 

Tyndareus :   Tyndar-ides,    Castor   or  Pollux,  son  of    Tyndarus ;   Tyndar-is, 

Helen,  daughter  of  Tyndarus. 
Anchises :  Anchisi-ades,  ^neas,  son  of  Anchises. 
Theseus  :  Thes-ides,  son  of  Theseus. 
Tydeus :  Tyd-ides,  Biomedes,  son  of  Tydeus. 
Oileus  :  Aiax  Oil-eus,  son  of  Oileus. 
Cisseus ;  Cisse-is,  Hecuba,  daughter  of  Cisseus. 
Thaumas :  Thaumant-ias,  Iris,  daughter  of  Thaumas. 
Hesperus :  Hesper-ides  (from  Hesper-is,  -idis),  plur.,  the  daughters  of  Hesperus^ 

the  Hesperides. 

245.  Adjectives  meaning/wZZ  of,  prone  to,  are  formed  from  noun- 
stems  with  the  suffixes  — 

-osus,  -lens,  -lentus 

fluctu-osus,  billowy ;  fluctus,  a  billow. 

fonn-osus,  beautiful;  forma,  beauty. 

pericul-osus,  dangerous;  periculum,  danger. 

pesti-lens,  pesti-lentus,  pestilent ;  pestis,  pest. 

vino-lentus,  vin-osus,  given  to  drink  ;  vinum,  wine. 

246.  Adjectives  meaning  provided  with  are  formed  from  nouns 
by  means  of  the  regular  participial  endings  — 

-tus,  -atus,  -itus,  -utus 

funes-tus,  deadly;  funus  (st.  funer-,  older  fune/oS-),  death. 

hones-tus,  honorable;  honor,  honor. 

faus-tus  (for  t f aves-tus), /awraWe;  f&vor,  favor. 

barb-atus,  bearded ;  barba,  a  beard. 

turr-itus,  turreted ;  turris,  a  tower. 

cora-ntus,  horned ;  cornn,  a  horn. 

Note.  — atus,  -itus,  -utus,  imply  reference  to  an  imaginary  verb-stem ;  -tus  is  added 
directly  to  nouns  without  any  such  reference. 


150  FORMATION   OF  WORDS  [§§  247-249 

247.  Adjectives  of  various  meanings,  but  signifying  in  gen- 
eral made  of  or  helo7iging  to,  are  formed  from  noums  by  means  of 
the  suffixes  — 

-eus,  -ius,  -aceus,  -icius,  -aneus  (-neus),  -ticus 

aur-eus,  golden;  aurum,  gold. 

patr-ius,  paternal ;  pater,  a  father. 

uxor-ius,  uxorious  ;  uxor,  a  wife. 

ros-aceus,  of  roses  ;  rosa,  a  rose. 

later-icius,  of  brick  ;  later,  a  brick. 

praesent-aneus,  operating  instantly ;  praesens,  present. 

extr-aneus,  external;  extra,  without. 

subterr-aneus,  subterranean  ;  sub  terra,  underground. 

salig-neus,  of  willow;  salix,  willow. 

vola-ticus,  winged  (volatus,  a  flight)  ;  volare,  toflij. 

domes-ticus,  of  the  house,  domestic;  domus,  a  house. 

silva-ticus,  sylvan ;  silva,  a  wood. 

Note. ius  is  originally  primitive  (§  234.  II.  11) ;  -eus  corresponds  to  Greek  -eios, 

-eos,  and  has  lost  a  y-sound  (cf.  yo-,  §  234.  II.  11) ;  -icius  and  -aceus  are  formed  by  add- 
ing -ius  and  -eus  to  stems  in  i-c-,  a-c-  (suffix  ko-,  §234.  II.  12);  -neus  is  no- + -eus 
(§  234.  II.  4) ;  -aneus  is  formed  by  adding  -neus  to  a-stems ;  -ticus  is  a  formation  with 
-eus  (cf.  hosti-cus  with  silva-ticus),  and  has  been  affected  by  the  analogy  of  participial 
stems  in  to-  (nominative  -tus) . 

248.  Adjectives  denoting  pertaining  to  are  formed  from  noun- 
stems  with  the  suffixes  — 

-alls,  -aria,  -elis,  -His,  -ulis 

natur-alis,  natural;  natiira,  nature. 

^opul-a.ns,fellow-countryman;  populus,  a  people. 

patru-elis,  cousin;  patruus,  uncle. 

host-ilis,  hostile  ;  hostis,  an  enemy. 

cur-ulis,  curule;  currus,  a  chariot. 

Note.  —The  suffixes  arise  from  adding -lis  (stem  li-)  to  various  vowel  stems.  The 
long  vowels  are  due  partly  to  confusion  between  stem  and  suffix  (cf.  vita-lis,  from 
vita-,  with  reg-alis),  partly  to  confusion  with  verb-stems:  cf.  Aprilis  (aperire),  ediilis 
(edere),  with  senilis  (senex).  -ris  is  an  inherited  suffix,  but  in  most  of  these  formations 
-aris  arises  by  differentiation  for  -alis  in  words  containing  an  1  (as  milit-aris) . 

249.  Adjectives  with  the  sense  of  belonging  to  are  formed  by 
means  of  the  suffixes  — 

-anus,  -enus,  -mus;  -as,  -ensls ;  -eus,  -acus  (-acus),  -icus ;  -€U8, 
-eius,  -icius 

1.  So  from  common  nouns:  — 
mont-anus,  of  the  mountains  ;  mons  (stem  monti-),  mountain. 

veter-anus,  veteran;  vetus  (stem  veter-),  old, 

anteluc-anus,  before  daylight;  ante  lucem,  before  light. 


§§  249,  250] 


NOMINAL  ADJECTIVES 


151 


terr-enus,  earthly; 

ser-enus,  calm  (of  evening  stillness)  ; 

coll-inus,  of  a  hill ; 

div-inus,  divine; 

libert-inus,  of  the  class  of  freedmen  ; 

cui-as,  of  what  country  f 

infim-as,  of  the  lowest  rank ; 

for-ensis,  of  a  market-place,  or  the  Forum ; 

civi-cus,  civic,  of  a  citizen  ; 

fullon-icus,  of  a  fuller ; 

mer-acus,  pure  ; 

femin-eus,  of  a  woman,  feminine  ; 

lact-eus,  milky ; 

pleb-eius,  of  the  commons,  plebeian; 

patr-icius,  patrician  ; 


terra,  earth. 

serus,  late. 

coUis,  hill. 

divus,  god. 

libertus,  one'' s  freedman. 

quis,  who  f 

infimus,  lowest. 

forum,  a  market-place. 

civis,  a  citizen. 

fullo,  a  fuller. 

merum,  pure  wine. 

femina,  a  woman. 

lac,  milk  (stem  lacti-). 

plebes,  the  commons. 

pater,  father. 


2.  But  especially  from  proper  nouns  to  denote  belonging  to  or  coming  from  : 

Rom-anus,  Boman;  Roma,  Rome. 

Sull-ani,  Sulla'' s  veterans  ;  Sulla. 

Cyzic-eni,  Cyzicenes,  people  of  Cyzicus  ;  Cyzicus. 

Ligur-inus,  of  Liguria  ;  Liguria. 

Ar-pm-3iS,  of  Arpinum  ;  Arpinum. 

Sicili-ensis,  Sicilian;  Sicilia,  Sicily. 

ili-acus,  Trojan  (a  Greek  form) ;  Ilium,  Troy. 

Platon-icus,  Platonic;  Plato. 

Aquil-eius,  a  Roman  name ;  )  a     'i 
Aquil-eia,  a  town  in  Italy  ;    )  •1       • 

a.  Many  derivative  adjectives  witli  these  endings  have  by  usage  become 
nouns : — 

Silv-anus,  u.,  a  god  of  the  woods  ;  silva,  a  wood. 

membr-ana,  f.,  sk'm;  membrum,  limb. 
Aemili-anus,  m.,  name  of  Scipio  Africanus  ;  Aemilia  (gens). 


lanius,  butcher. 

tAufidius  (Aufidus). 

incola,  an  inhabitant. 

caecus,  bl'md. 

ruo,  fall  (no  noun  existing). 

doctor,  teacher. 


lani-ena,  r.,  a  butcher'' s  stall ; 

Aufidi-enus,  m.,  a  Eoman  name; 

inquil-inus,  m.,  a  lodger  ; 

Caec-ina,  used  as  m.,  a  Roman  name  ; 

ru-ina,  f.,  a  fall; 

doctr-ina,  f.,  learning  ; 
Note.  —  Of  these  terraiuations,  -anus,  -enus,  -inus  are  compounded  from  -nus  added 
to  a  stem- vowel :  as,  area,  arcanus ;  collis,  colllnus.  The  long  vowels  come  from  a  con- 
fusion with  verb-stems  (as  in  ple-nus,  finl-tus,  tribu-tus),  and  from  the  noun-stem  in  a-: 
as,  arcanus.  A  few  nouns  occur  of  similar  formation,  as  if  from  verb-stems  in  6-  and 
U-:  as,  colonus  (col5,  cf.  incola),  patronus  (cf.  patro,  -are),  tribunus  (cf.  tribuo,  tribus), 
Portunus  (cf.  portus),  Vacuna  (cf.  vaco,  vacuus). 

250.  Other  adjectives  meaning  in  a  general  way  belonging  to 
(especially  of  places  and  times)  are  formed  with  the  suffixes  — 


152  FORMATION    OF  WORDS  [§§  250,  251 

-ter  (-tris),  -ester  (-estris),  -timus,  -nus,  -emus,  -urnus,  -ternus  (-turnus) 

palus-ter,  of  the  marshes  ;  palus,  a  marsh. 

pedes-ter,  of  the  foot-soldiers  ;  pedes,  a  footman. 

semes-tris,  lasting  six  months  ;  sex  menses,  six  moidhs. 

silv-ester,  silv-estris,  woody;  silva,  a  wood. 

fini-timus,  neighboring^  on  the  borders  ;  finis,  an  end. 

mari-timus,  of  the  sea  ;  mare,  sea. 

ver-nus,  vernal;  ver,  spring. 

hodi-eraus,  of  to-day  ;  hodie,  to-day. 

di-urnus,  daily ;  dies,  day. 

hes-temus,  of  yesterday ;  heri  (old  hesi),  yesterday. 

diu-turnus,  lasting ;  diu,  long  (in  time). 

Note.  —  Of  these,  -ester  is  formed  by  adding  tri-  (cf.  tro-,  §  234.  II.  IG)  to  stems  in 
t-  or  d-.  Thus  fpedet-tri-  becomes  pedestri-,  and  others  follow  the  analogy,  -nus  is  an 
inherited  suffix  (§  234.  II.  4).  -emus  and  -urnus  are  formed  by  adding  -nus  to  s-steras: 
as,  diur-nus  (for  fdius-nus),  and  hence,  by  analogy,  hodiemus  (hodie).  By  an  extension 
of  the  same  principle  were  formed  the  suffixes  -ternus  and  -turnus  from  words  like 
paternus  and  nocturnus. 

a.  Adjectives  meaning  lelonging  to  are  formed  from  nouns  by  means  of 
the  suffixes  — 

-arius,  -torius  (-sorius) 

ordin-arius,  regular;  ordo,  rank,  order. 

argent-arius,  of  silver  ov  money  ;  argentum,  silver. 

extr-arius,  stranger  ;  extra,  outside. 

meri-torius,  profitable;  meritus,  earned. 

devor-sorius,  of  an  inn  (cf .  §  254.  5) ;  devorsus,  turned  aside. 

Note  1.  — Here  -ius  (§  234.  II.  11)  is  added  to  shorter  forms  in  -aris  and  -or :  as,  pecii- 
liarius  (from  peculiaris) ,  bellatorius  (from  bellator) . 

Note  2.  —  These  adjectives  are  often  fixed  as  nouns  (see  §  254). 

Verbal  Adjectives 

251.  Adjectives  expressing  the  action  of  the  verb  as  a  quality 
or  tendency  are  formed  from  real  or  apparent  verb-stems  with  the 
suffixes  — 

-ax,  -idus,  -ulus,  -vus  (-uus,  -Ivus,  -tivus) 

-Sx  denotes  2i faulty  or  aggressive  tendency;  -tivus  is  oftener  passive. 

pfign-ax,  jpwgrwaciows  ;  pugnare,  to  fight. 

aud-ax,  bold ;  audere,  to  dare. 

cup-idus,  eager ;  cupere,  to  desire. 

bib-ulus,  thirsty  (as  dry  earth  etc.) ;  bibere,  to  drink. 

proter-vus,  violent,  wanton  ;  proterere,  to  trample. 


§§  251-253]  VERBAL  ADJECTIVES  153 

noc-uus  (noc-ivus),  hurtful,  injurious;  nocere,  to  do  harm. 

recid-ivus,  restored  ;  recidere,  to  fall  back. 

cap-tivus,  captive;  m.,  a  prisoner  of  war  ;  capere,  to  take. 

Note.  — Of  these,  -ax  is  a  reduction  of  -acus  (stem- vowel  a-  +  -cus),  become  inde- 
pendent and  used  with  verb-stems.  Similar  forms  in  -Sx,  -ox,  -ix,  and  -Qx  are  found 
or  employed  in  derivatives:  as,  imbrex,  m,,  a  rain-tile  (from  imber);  senex,  old  (from 
seni-s) ;  ieiox,jierce  (from  ferus) ;  atrox,  savage  (from  ater,  black) ;  celox,  f.,  a  yacht 
(cf.  cello);  felix,  happy,  originally /er^i^e  (of.  felo,  suck);  fiducia,  f.,  confidence  (as 
from  ffidux) ;  cf.  also  victrix  (from  victor).     So  manducus,  cheioing  (from  mando). 

-idus  is  no  doubt  denominative,  as  in  herbidus,  grassy  (from  herba,  herb) ;  tumidus, 
swollen  (cf.  tumu-lus,  hill;  tumul-tus,  uproar);  callidus,  tough,  cunning  (cf.  callum, 
tough  flesh) ;  mucidus,  slimy  (cf .  mucus,  slime) ;  tabidus,  toasting  (cf.  tabes,  wasting 
disease).    But  later  it  was  used  to  form  adjectives  directly  from  verb-stems. 

-ulus  is  the  same  suffix  as  in  diminutives,  but  attached  to  verb-stems.  Cf .  aemulus, 
rivalling  (cf.  imitor  and  imago) ;  sedulus,  sitting  by,  attentive  (cf.  domi-seda,  home- 
staying,  and  sedo,  set,  settle,  hence  calm) ;  pendulus,  hanging  (cf.  pondo,  ablative,  in 
weight ;  perpendiculum,  a  plummet ;  appendix,  an  addition) ;  stragulus,  covering  (cf . 
strages) ;  legulus,  a  picker  (cf.  sacri-legus,  a  picker  up  of  things  sacred). 

-vus  seems  originally  primary  (cf.  §  234.  II.  8),  but  -ivus  and  -tivus  have  become 
secondary  and  are  used  with  nouns:  as,  aestivus,  of  summer  (from  aestus,  heat); 
tempestivus,  timely  (from  tempus) ;  cf.  domes-ticus  (from  domus). 

252.  Adjectives  expressing  passive  qualities^  but  occasionally 
active,  are  formed  by  means  of  the  suffixes  — 

-ills,  -bills,  -ius,  -tills  (-sills) 

frag-ilis,  frail ;  frangere  (frag),  to  break. 

no-bilis,  well  known.,  famous  ;  noscere  (gno),  to  know. 

exim-ius,  choice,  rare  (cf.  e-greg-ius) ;  eximere,  to  take  out,  select. 

ag-ilis,  active;  agere,  to  drive. 

hab-ilis,  handy  ;  habere,  to  hold. 

al-tilis,  fattened  (see  note) ;  alere,  to  nourish. 

Note. — Of  these,  -ius  is  primary,  but  is  also  used  as  secondary  (cf .  §  241.  h.  n.)  .  -ills 
is  both  primary  (as  in  agilis,  fragilis)  and  secondary  (as  in  similis,  like,  cf .  6^o$^  ofxaKos^ 
English  same)  ;  -bills  is  in  some  way  related  to  -bulum  and  -brum  (§  240.  n.)  ;  in  -tills 
and  -silis,  -lis  is  added  to  to-  (so-) ,  stem  of  the  perfect  participle :  as,  fossilis,  dug  up 
(from  fossus,  dug);  volatilis,  vnnged  (from  volatus, ^i^r/i^. 

253.  Verbal  Adjectives  that  are  Participial  in  meaning  are 
formed  with  the  suffixes  — 

-ndus,  -bundus,  -cundus 
a,  -ndus  (the  same  as  the  gerundive  ending)  forms  a  few  active  or  reflex- 
ive adjectives :  — 

secu-ndus,  second  (the  following),  favorable;     sequl,  to  follow. 
rotu-ndus,  round  (whirling)  i ;  rotate,  to  whirl. 

1  Cf.  volvendTS mensibus  (Aen.  1.  260),  in  the  revolving  months;  cf.  oriundi  ab Sabinis 
(Liv.  i.  17),  sprung  from  the  Sabines,  where  oriundi  =  orti. 


154  FORMATION   OF  WORDS  [§§  253,  254 

6.  -bundus,  -cundus,  denote  a  continuance  of  the  act  or  quality  expressed 
by  the  verb  :  — 

vita-bundus,  avoiding ;  vitare,  to  shun. 

treme-bundus,  tremhling  ;  tremere,  to  tremble. 

mori-bundus,  dying,  at  the  point  of  death ;  moriri,  to  die. 

fa-cundus,  eloquent ;  fari,  to  speak, 

fe-cunius,  fruitful ;  root  fe,  nourish. 

ira-cundus,  irascible  ;  cf .  irasci,  to  be  angry. 

Note.  —  These  must  have  been  originally  nominal:  as  in  the  series,  rubus,  red 
bush;  rubidus  (but  no  fnibicus),  ruddy;  Rubic5n,  Red  River  (cf.  Minio,  a  river  of 
Etruria;  Minius,  a  river  of  Lusitania);  rubicundus  (as  in  averruncus,  homun-culus) . 
So  turba,  commotion;  turbo,  a  top;  turbidus,  roily,  etc.  Cf.  apexabo,  longabo,  gravedo, 
dulcedo. 

c.  Here  belong  also  the  participial  suffixes  -minus,  -mnus  (cf.  Greek 
-/xevos),  from  which  are  formed  a  few  nouns  in  which  the  participial  force  is 
still  discernible :  —  ^ 

fe-mina,  woman  (the  nourisher) ;  root  fe,  nourish. 

alu-mnus,  a  foster-child,  nursling ;  alere,  to  nourish. 

Nouns  with  Adjective  Suffixes 

254.  Many  fixed  forms  of  the  Nominal  Adjective  suffixes  men- 
tioned in  the  preceding  sections,  make  Nouns  more  or  less  regu- 
larly used  in  particula^r  senses :  — 

1.  -arius,  person  employed  about  anything  :  — 
argent-arius,  m.,  silversmith,  broker,  from  argentum,  silver. 
Corinthi-arius,  m.  ,  worker  in  Corinthian  bronze  (sarcastic  nickname  of  Augustus), 

from  (aes)  Corinthium,  Corinthian  bronze. 
centon-arius,  m.,  ragman,  from  cento,  patchwork. 

2.  -aria,  thing  connected  with  something :  — 
argent-aria,  f.,  bank,  from  argentum,  silver. 
aren-ariae,  f.  plural,  sandpits,  from  arena,  sand. 
Asin-aria,  f.,  name  of  a  play,  from  asinus,  ass.^ 

3.  -arium,  place  of  a  thing  (with  a  few  of  more  general  meaning) :  — 
aer-arium,  n.  ,  treasury,  from  aes,  copper. 

tepid-arium,  n.,  warm  bath,  from  tepidus,  warm. 
sud-arium,  n.  ,  a  towel,  cf .  sudo,  -are,  sweat. 
sal-arium,  n.,  salt  money,  salary,  from  sal,  salt. 
calend-arium,  n.,  a  note-book^  from  calendae,  calends. 

'  Cf ,  §  163.  footnote  1 . 

2  Probably  an  adjective  with  fabula,  play,  understood. 


§254]  NOUNS   WITH   ADJECTIVE   SUFFIXES  155 

4.  -toria  (-soria) :  — 

Agita-toria,  f.  ,  a  play  of  Plautus,  The  Carter,  from  agitator, 
vor-soria,  f.,  a  tack  (nautical),  from  versus,  a  turn. 

5.  -torium  (-sorium),  place  of  action  (with  a  few  of  more  general  meaning)  : 
devor-sorium,  n.  ,  an  inn,  as  from  devorto,  turn  aside. 

audi-torium,  n.,  a  lecture-room,  as  from  audio,  hear. 
ten-torium,  n.,  a  tent,  as  from  tendo,  stretch. 
tec-torium,  n.,  plaster,  as  from  tego,  tectus,  cover. 
por-torium,  n.,  toll,  cf.  porto,  carry,  and  portus,  harbor. 

6.  -fle,  animal-stall :  — 

bov-ile,  N.,  cattle-stall,  from  bos,  bovis,  ox,  cow. 
ov-ile,  N.,  sheepfold,  from  ovis,  stem  ovi-,  sheep. 

7.  -al  for  -ale,  thing  connected  with  the  primitive :  — 
capit-al,  N.,  headdress,  capital  crime,  from  caput,  head. 

penetr-ale  (especially  in  plural),  n.,  inner  apartment,  cf.  penetro,  enter. 
Saturn-alia,  n.  plural  (the  regular  form  for  names  of  festivals),  feast  of  Sat- 
•    urn,  from  Saturnus. 

8.  -etum,  N.  (cf.  -atus,  -iitus,  see  §  246.  n.), -turn,  jo/aceo/a  thing,  especially 
with  names  of  trees  and  plants  to  designate  where  these  groio :  — 

querc-etum,  n.  ,  oak  grove,  from  quercus,  oak. 
oliv-etum,  n.,  olive  grove,  from  oliva,  an  olive  tree. 
salic-tum,  n.,  a  willow  thicket,  from  salix,  a  willow  tree. 
Argil-etum,  n.  ,  The  Clay  Pit,  from  argilla,  clay. 

9.  -cus  (sometimes  with  inserted  i,  -icus),  -icus,  in  any  one  of  the  gen. 
ders,  with  various  meanings  :  — 

vili-cus,  M. ,  a  steward,  vili-ca,  f.  ,  a  stewardess,  from  villa,  farm-house. 

fabr-ica,  r.,  a  workshop,  from  faber,  workman. 

am-icus,  m.,  am-ica,  f.,  friend,  cf.  amare,  to  love. 

bubul-cus,  M.,  ox-tender,  from  biib-ulus,  diminutive,  cf.  bos,  ox. 

cant-icum,  n.  ,  song,  from  cantus,  act  of  singing. 

rubr-ica,  r. ,  red  paint,  from  ruber,  red. 

10.  -€us,  -ea,  -eum,  with  various  meanings  :  — 

alv-eus,  M.,  a  trough,  from  alvus,  the  belly. 

capr-ea,  f.,  a  wild  she-goat,  from  caper,  he-goat. 

flamm-eum,  n.,  a  bridal  veil,  from  flamma,  flame,  from  its  color. 

11.  -ter  (stem  tri-),  -aster,  -ester:  — 

eques-ter,  m.,  knight,  for  fequet-ter. 

sequ-ester,  m.,  a  stake-holder,  from  derivative  of  sequor,  follow. 

ole-aster,  m.  ,  wild  olive,  from  olea,  an  olive  tree. 


156  FORMATION  OF  WORDS  [§§256-259 

IRREGULAR  DERIVATIVES 

255.  The  suffix  -o  (genitive  -onis,  stem  6n-),  usually  added  to 
verb-stems  (see  §  236.  c),  is  sometimes  used  with  noun-stems  to 
form  nouns  denoting  2^ossessed  of.  These  were  ©riginally  adjec- 
tives expressing  quality  or  character,  and  hence  often  appear  as 

proper  names :  — 

epulae,  a  feast;  epul-6,  a /easier. 

nasus,  a  nose ;  nas-o,  with  a  large  nose  (also  as  a  proper  name), 
volus  (in  bene-volus),  wishing ;  vol-5n8S  (plural),  volunteers, 
frms,  forehead ;  front-o,  big-head  (also  as  a  proper  name). 
curia,  a  curia  ;  curi-6,  head  of  a  curia  (also  as  a  proper  name), 
testis,  a  rope;  resti-o,  a  rope-maker. 

a.  Rarely  suffixes  are  added  to  compound  sterns  imagined,  but  not  used 
in  their  compound  form  :  — 

ad-verb-ium,  adverb ;  ad,  <o,  and  verbum,  verb.,  but  without  the  intervening 

tadverbus. 
lati-f und-ium,  large  estate ;  latus,  wide.,  fundus,  estate.,  but  without  the  inter- 
vening tlatifundus. 
su-ove-taur-ilia,  a  sacrifice  of  a  swine,  a  sheep,  and  a  bull ;  sus,  swine,  ovis, 
sheep,  taurus,  bull,  where  the  primitive  would  be  impossible  in  Latin, 
though  such  formations  are  common  in  Sanskrit. 

DERIVATION  OF  VERBS 

256.  Verbs  may  be  classed  as  Primitive  or  Derivative. 

1.  Primitive  Verbs  are  those  inherited  by  the  Latin  from  the  parent  speech. 

2.  Derivative  Verbs  are  those  formed  in  the  development  of  the  Latin 
as  a  separate  language. 

257.  Derivative  Verbs  are  of  two  main  classes :  — 

1.  Denominative  Verbs,  formed  from  nouns  or  adjectives. 

2,  Verbs  apparently  derived  from  the  stems  of  other  verbs. 

Denominative  Verbs 

258.  Verbs  were  formed  in  Latin  from  almost  every  form  of 
noun-stem  and  adjective-stem. 

259.  1.  Verbs  of  the  First  Conjugation  are  formed  directly 
from  a-stems,  regularly  with  a  transitive  meaning:  as,  fuga, 
flight ;  fugare,  put  to  flight. 


§§  259-261]  DENOMINATIVE  VERBS  157 

2.  Many  verbs  of  the  First  Conjugation  are  formed  from  o- 
stems,  changing  the  o-  into  a-.  These  are  more  commonly  tran- 
sitive :  — 

stimulo,  -are,  to  incite,  from  stimulus,  a  goad  (stem  stimulo-). 

aequo,  -are,  to  make  even,  from  aequus,  even  (stem  aequo-). 

hiberno,  -are,  to  pass  the  winter,  from  hibernus,  of  the  winter  (stem  hibemo-). 

albo,  -are,  to  whiten,  from  albus,  white  (stem  albo-). 

pio,  -are,  to  expiate,  from  pius,  piire  (stem  pio-). 

novo,  -are,  to  renew,  from  novus,  new  (stem  novo-), 

anno,  -are,  to  arm,  from  arma,  arms  (stem  armo-). 

damno,  -are,  to  injure,  from  damnum,  injury  (stem  damno-). 

3.  A  few  verbs,  generally  intransitive,  are  formed  by  analogy 

from  consonant  and  i-  or  u-stems,  adding  a  to  the  stem ;  —  ^ 

vigilo,  -are,  to  watch,  from  vigil,  awake. 

exsulo,  -are,  to  be  in  exile,  from  exsul,  an  exile. 

auspicor,  -ari,  to  take  the  auspices,  from  auspex  (stem  auspic-),  augur. 

pulvero,  -are,  to  turn  (anything)  to  dust,  from  pulvis  (stem  pulver-for  pulvis-), 

dust. 
aestuo,  -are,  to  surge,  boil,  from  aestus  (stem  aestu-),  tide,  seething. 
levo,  -are,  to  lighten,  from  levis  (stem  levi-),  light. 

260.  A  few  verbs  of  the  Second  Conjugation  (generally  in- 
transitive) are  recognizable  as  formed  from  noun-stems ;  but  most 
are  inherited,  or  the  primitive  noun-stem  is  lost:  — 

albeo,  -ere,  to  be  white,  from  albus  (stem  albo/e-)>  white. 
caneo,  -ere,  to  be  hoary,  from  canus  (stem  can<Ve-)»  hoary, 
clareo,  -ere,  to  shine,  from  clarus,  bright. 
claudeo,  -ere,  to  be  lame,  from  claudus,  la?ne. 
algeo,  -ere,  to  be  cold,  cf.  algidus,  cold. 

261.  Some  verbs  of  the  Third  Conjugation  in-u5,-uere,  are  formed 
from  noun-stems  in  u-  and  have  lost  a  consonant  i :  — 

statuo  (for  tstatu-yo),  -ere,  to  set  up,  from  status,  position. 

metuo,  -ere,  to  fear,  from  metus,  fear. 

acuo,  -ere,  to  sharpen,  from  acus,  needle. 

arguo,  -ere,   to  clear  up,  from  inherited  stem  targu-,  bright  (cf.  dpyvpos). 

Note.  —  Many  verbs  in  u  are  inherited,  being  formed  from  roots  in  u;  as,  fluo, 
fluere,  flow ;  so-lvo  (for  fse-luo,  cf.  XiJw),  solvere,  dissolve.  Some  roots  have  a  parasitic 
u :  as,  loquor,  locutus,  speak. 

1  The  type  of  all  or  most  of  the  denominative  formations  in  §§  259-262  was  inherited, 
but  the  process  went  on  in  the  development  of  Latin  as  a  separate  language. 


158  FOKMATION   OF  WORDS  [§§  262,  263 

262.  Many  i-verbs  or  verbs  of  the  Fourth  Conjugation  are 

formed  from  i-stems  :  — 

molior,  -iri,  to  toil^  from  moles  (-is),  mass. 
fini5,  -ire,  to  bound,  from  finis,  end. 
sitio,  -ire,  to  thirst,  from  sitis,  thirst. 
stabilio,  -ire,  to  establish,  from  stabilis,  stable. 

a.  Some  arise  by  confusion  from  other  stems  treated  as  i-stems :  — 
bullio,  -ire,  to  boil,  from  bulla  (stem  bulla-),  bubble. 

condio,  -ire,  to  preserve,  from  condus  (stem  condo-),  storekeeper. 

insanio,  -ire,  to  rave,  from  insanus  (stem  insano-),  mad. 

gestio,  -ire,  to  show  wild  longing,  from  gestus  (stem  gestu-),  gesture.     • 

Note.  —  Some  of  this  form  are  of  doubtful  origin :  as,  ordior,  begin,  cf .  ordo  and 
exordium.  The  formation  is  closely  akin  to  that  of  verbs  in  -io  of  the  third  conjugar 
tion  (p.  102). 

b.  Some  are  formed  with  -io  from  consonant  stems :  — 
custodiS,  -ire,^o  guard,  from  custos  (stem  custod-),  guardian. 
fulgurio,  -ire,  to  lighten,  from  fulgur,  lightning. 

Note.  — Here  probably  belong  the  so-called  desideratives  in-urio  (see  §  263, 4.  n.). 

Verbs  from  Other  Verbs 

263.  The  following  four  classes  of  verbs  regularly  derived 
from  other  verbs  have  special  meanings  connected  with  their 
terminations. 

Note.  —  These  classes  are  all  really  denominative  in  their  origin,  but  the  forma- 
tions had  become  so  associated  with  actual  verbs  that  new  derivatives  were  often 
formed  directly  from  verbs  without  the  intervention  of  a  noun-stem, 

1.  Inceptives  or  Inchoatives  add  -sco  ^  to  the  present  stem  of  verbs. 
They  denote  the  beginning  of  an  action  and  are  of  the  Third  Conjuga- 
tion.    Of  some  there  is  no  simple  verb  in  existence  :  — 

cale-sc6,  grow  warm,  from  caleo,  be  warm. 

laba-sco,  begin  to  totter,  from  labo,  totter. 

sci-sco,  determine,  from  scio,  know. 

con-cupi-sco,  conceive  a  desire  for,  from  cupio,  desire. 

ale-SCO,  grow,  from  alo,  feed. 

So  ira-scor,  get  angry  ;  cf.  ira-tus. 

iuvene-sco,  grow  young ;  cf,  iuvenis,  young  man. 

mite-sco,  grow  mild;  cf.  mitis,  mild. 

vespera-scit,  it  is  getting  late  ;  cf ,  vesper,  evening. 

1  For  -SCO  in  primary  formation,  see  §  176,  b.  1. 


§  263]  VERBS  FROM  OTHER  VERBS  159 

Note.  —  Inceptives  properly  have  only  the  present  stem,  but  many  use  the  perfect 
and  supine  systems  of  simple  verbs:  as,  calesco,  groio  ivarm,  calui;  ardesco,  blaze 
forth,  arsi;  proflciscor,  set  out,  profectus. 

2.  Intensives  or  Iteratives  are  formed  from  the  Supine  stem  and  end 
in -to  or  -ito  (rarely  -so).  They  denote  a,  forcible  or  repeated  action,  but 
this  special  sense  often  disappears.  Those  derived  from  verbs  of 
the  First  Conjugation  end  in  -ito  (not  -ato). 

iac-to,  hurl,  from  iacio,  throw. 
dormi-to,  he  sleepy,  from  dormio,  sleep. 
vol-ito,  Jlit,  from  volo,  fly. 
vendi-to,  try  to  sell,  from  vendo,  sell. 
quas-s6,  shatter,  from  quatio,  shake. 

They  are  of  the  first  conjugation,  and  are  properly  denominative. 

a.  Compound  suffixes  -tito,  -sito,  are  formed  with  a  few  verbs.  These 
are  probably  derived  from  other  Iteratives ;  thus,  cantitd  may  come  from 
canto,  iterative  of  cano,  sing. 

b.  Another  form  of  Intensives  —  sometimes  called  Meditatives,  or  verbs 
of  practice — ends  in  -esso  (rarely  -isso).  These  denote  a  certain  energy  or 
eagerness  of  action  rather  than  its  repetition :  — 

cap-esso,  lay  hold  on,  from  capio,  take. 
fac-esso,  do  (with  energy),  from  facio,  do. 
pet-esso,  pet-isso,  seek  (eagerly),  from  peto,  seek. 
These  are   of  the  third  conjugation,  usually  having  the  perfect  and 
supine  of  the  fourth :  — 

arcesso,  arcessere,  arcessivi,  arcessitum,  summon. 
lacesso,  lacessgre,  lacessivi,  lacessitum,  provoke. 
Note.  —  The  verbs  in  -esso,  -isso,  show  the  same  formation  as  levasso,  impetrassere, 
iudicassit,  etc.  (§  183.  5),  but  its  origin  is  not  fully  explained. 

3.  Diminutives  end  in  -illo,  and  denote  a  feeble  or  pettj/  action  :  — 
cav-illor,  jest,  cf .  cavilla,  raillery. 

cant-illo,  chirp  or  warble,  from  canto,  sing. 
Note.  —  Diminutives  are  formed  from  verb-stems  derived  from  real  or  supposed 
diminutive  nouns. 

4.  Desideratives  end  in  -turio  (-surio),  and  express  longing  ot  wish- 
ing. They  are  of  the  fourth  conjugation,  and  only  two  are  in  com- 
mon use :  — 

par-turio,  be  in  labor,  from  pario,  bring  forth. 
e-surio  (for  ted-turi5),  be  hungry,  from  edo,  eat. 
Others  are  used  by  the  dramatists. 

Note. — Desideratives  are  probably  derived  from  some  noun  of  agency:  as,  emp- 
turio,  wish  to  buy,  from  emptor,  buyer.  Viso,  go  to  see,  is  an  inherited  desiderative  of 
a  different  formation. 


160  FORMATIOM   OF  WOKDS  [§§  264,  265 

COMPOUND  WORDS 

264.  A  Compound  Word  is  one  whose  stem  is  made  up  of  two 
or  more  simple  stems. 

a,  A  final  stem-vowel  of  the  first  member  of  the  compound  usually  dis- 
appears before  a  vowel,  and  usually  takes  the  form  of  i  before  a  consonant. 
Only  the  second  member  receives  inflection.^ 

b.  Only  noun-stems  can  be  thus  compounded,  A  preposition,  however, 
often  becomes  attached  to  a  verb. 

265.  New  stems  are  formed  by  Composition  in  three  ways :  — 

1.  The  second  part  is  simply  added  to  the  first :  — 
su-ove-taurilia  (sus,  ovis,  taurus),  the  sacrifice  of  a  swine,  a  sheep,  and  a  hull 

(cf.  §  255.  a), 
septen-decim  (septem,  decern),  seventeen. 

2.  The  first  part  modifies  the  second  as  an  adjective  or  adverb 
(Determinative  Compounds)  :  — 

lati-fundium  (latus,  fundus),  a  large  landed  estate. 
omni-potens  (omnis,  potens),  omnipotent. 

3.  The  first  part  has  the  force  of  a  case,  and  the  second  a  verbal 
force  {Objective  Compounds):  — 

agri-cola  {ager^  field,  tcola  akin  to  colo,  cultivate),  a  farmer. 
armi-ger  (anna,  arms,  tger  akin  to  ger5,  cari^),  armor-bearer. 
corni-cen  (coma,  horn,  teen  akin  to  cano,  sing),  horn-blower. 
carni-fex  (caxoj  flesh,  tfex  akin  to  faci5,  make),  executioner. 

a.  Compounds  of  the  above  kinds,  in  which  the  last  word  is  a  noun, 
may  become  adjectives,  meaning  j905sessec?  o/the  quality  denoted:  — 
ali-pes  (ala,  wing,  pes,  foot),  wing-footed. 
magn-animus  (magnus,  great,  animus,  soul),  great-souled. 
an-ceps  (amb-,  at  both  ends,  caput,  head),  double. 

NoTK.  —  Many  compounds  of  the  above  classes  appear  only  in  the  form  of  some 
further  derivative,  the  proper  compound  not  being  found  in  Latin.    . 

1  The  second  part  generally  has  its  usual  inflection ;  but,  as  this  kind  of  composi- 
tion is  in  fact  older  than  inflection,  the  compounded  stem  sometimes  has  an  inflection 
of  its  own  (as,  cornicen,  -cinis;  lucifer,  -fori;  iudex,  -dicis),  from  stems  not  occurring  in 
Latin.  Especially  do  compound  adjectives  in  Latin  take  the  form  of  i-stems:  as, 
animus,  exanimis;  norma,  abnormis  (see  §  73).  In  composition,  stems  regularly  have 
their  uninflected  form:  as,  igni-spicium,  divining  by  fire.  But  in  o-  and  a-stems  the 
final  vowel  of  the  stem  appears  as  i-,  as  in  ali-pes  (from  ala,  stem  ala-) ;  and  i-  is  so 
common  a  termination  of  compounded  stems,  that  it  is  often  added  to  stems  which  do 
not  properly  have  it:  as,  flori-comus,  floiocr-croivned  (from  flos,  flor-is,  and  coma,  hair). 


§§  266,  267]  SYI^TACTIC   COMPOILNDS  161 

Syntactic  Compounds 

266.  In  many  apparent  compounds,  complete  words  —  not 
stems  —  have  grown  together  in  speech.  These  are  not  strictly 
compounds  in  the  etymological  sense.  They  are  called  Syntac- 
tic Compounds.     Examples  are ;  — 

a.  Compounds  of  facio,  facto,  with  an  actual  or  formerly  existing  noun- 
stem  confounded  with  a  verbal  stem  in  e-.     These  are  causative  in  force : 
consue-facio,  habituate  (cf.  c5nsue-sco,  become  accustomed). 
cale-facio,  cale-facto,  to  heat  (cf.  cale-sc5,  grow  warm). 

h.  An  adverb  or  noun  combined  with  a  verb  :  — 
bene-dico  (bene,  well^  dico,  speak),  to  bless. 
satis-facio  (satis,  enough,  facio,  do),  to  do  enough  (for). 

c.  Many  apparent  compounds  of  stems  :  — 
fide-iubeo  (fide,  surety,  iubeo,  command),  to  give  surety. 
man-suetus  (manul,  to  the  hand,  suetus,  accustomed),  tame. 
Marci-por  (Marci  puer),  slave  of  Marcus. 
luppiter  (flu,  old  vocative,  and  pater),  father  Jove. 
anim-adverto  (animum  adverts),  attend  to,  punish. 

d*  A  few  phrases  forced  into  the  ordinary  inflections  of  nouns :  — 
pro-consul,  proconsul  (for  pro  consule,  instead  of  a  consul). 
trium-vir,  triumvir  (singular  from  trium  virorum). 

septen-trio,  the  Bear,  a  constellation  (supposed  singular  of  septem  triones, 
the  Seven  Plough-Oxen). 

In  all  these  cases  it  is  to  be  observed  that  words,  not  stems,  are  united. 

267.  Many  syntactic  compounds  are  formed  by  prefixing  a 
Particle  to  some  other  part  of  speech. 

a.  Prepositions  are  often  prefixed  to  Verbs.     In  these  compounds  the 
prepositions  retain  their  original  adverbial  sense  :  — 
a,  ab,  AWAY :  a-mittere,  to  send  away. 
ad,  TO,  TOWARDS:  af-ferre  (ad-fero),  to  bring. 
ante,  before:  ante-ferre,  to  prefer ;  ante-cellere,  to  excel. 
circum,  around  :  circum-munire,  to  fortify  completely. 
com-,  con-  (cum),  together  or  forcibly  :  c6n--ferre,  to  bring  together ;  col- 

locare,  to  set  firm. 
de,  DOWN,  utterly  :  de-spicere,  despise ;  de-struere,  destroy. 
e,  ex,  out:  ef-ferre  (ec-iero),  to  carry  forth,  uplift. 
in  (with  verbs),  in,  on,  against  :  in-ferre,  to  bear  against. 
inter,  between,  to  pieces  :  inter-rumpere,  to  interrupt. 
ob,  towards,  to  meet:  of-ferre,  to  offer;  ob-venire,  to  meet. 
sub,  UNDER,  UP  from  UNDER:  sub-struere,  to  build  beneath;  sub-ducere,  toleadup, 
super,  upon,  over  and  above  :  super-fluere,  to  overflow. 


162  FOKMATION   OF  WORDS 

Note  1. — In  such  compounds,  however,  the  prepositions  sometimes  have  theil 
ordinary  force  as  prepositions,  especially  ad,  in,  circum,  trans,  and  govern  the  case  of 
a  noun:  as,  transire  flumen,  to  cross  a  river  (see  §  388.  b). 

Note  2.  —  Short  a  of  the  root  is  weakened  to  i  before  one  consonant,  to  e  before 
two:  as,  facio,  conficio,  confectus;  iacio,  eici5,  eiectus.  But  long  a  is  retained:  as, 
peractus. 

b.  Verbs  are  also  compounded  with  the  following  inseparable  particles, 
which  do  not  appear  as  prepositions  in  Latin  :  — 

amb-  (am-,  an-),  aeood  ;  amb-ire,  to  go  about  (cf.  d/iipl,  about). 

dis-,  di-,  ASUNDER,  APART  !  dis-cedeie,  to  depart  (cf.  duo,  two) ;  di-vid5re,  to 

divide. 
per-,  FORWARD;  pci-tendere,  to  hold  forth,  predict  (cf.  ^orro,  forth). 
red-,  re-,  back,  again:  red-ire,  to  return;  re-cludere,  to  open  (from  claudo, 

shut) ;  re-ficere,  to  repair  (make  again). 
sed-,  se-,  apart:  se-cerno,  to  separate;  cf.  sed-itio,  a  going  apart,  secession 

(e5,  ire,  to  go). 

c.  Many  Verbals  are  found  compounded  with  a  preposition,  like  the 
verbs  to  which  they  correspond  :  — 

per-fuga,  deserter;  cf.  per-fugi5. 

tra-dux.  vine-branch ;  cf.  tra-duco  (trans-duco). 

ad-vena,  stranger;  cf.  ad-venio. 

con-iux  (con-iiinx),  spouse;  cf.  con-iungo. 

in-dex,  pointer  out;  cf.  in-dico. 

prae-ses,  guardian;  cf.  prae-sideo. 

com-bibo,  boon  companion;  cf.  com-bibo,  -ere. 

d.  An  Adjective  is  sometimes  modified  by  an  adverbial  prefix. 

1.  Of  these,  per-  (less  commonly  prae-),  very;  sub-,  somewhat ;  in-,  not,  are 
regular,  and  are  very  freely  prefixed  to  adjectives :  — 

per-magnus,  very  large.  in-nocuus,  harmless. 

per-pauci,  very  few.  in-imicus,  unfriendly. 

sub-rusticus,  rather  clownish.  in-sanus,  insane. 

sub-fuscus,  darkish.  in-finitus,  boundless. 

prae-longus,  very  long.  iin-purus,  impure. 

Note.  — Per  and  sub,  in  these  senses,  are  also  prefixed  to  verbs :  as,  per-terreo,  terrify ; 
sub-rideo,  smile.    In  ignoscd,  pardon,  in-  appears  to  be  the  negative  prefix 

2.  The  negative  in-  sometimes  appears  in  combination  with  an  adjective 
that  does  not  occur  alone  :  — 

in-ennis,  unarmed  (cf.  arma,  arms). 

im-bellis,  unwarlike  (cf.  bellum,  war). 

im-punis,  without  punishment  (cf.  poena,  punishmeid). 

in-teger,  untouched,  whole  (cf.  tango,  to  touch,  root  tag). 

iD-vituSj  unwilling  (probably  from  root  seen  in  vi-s,  thou  wishes£). 


PART   SECOND— SYNTAX 


INTRODUCTORY  NOTE 

268.  The  study  of  formal  grammar  arose  at  a  late  period  in  the  history  of  lan- 
guage, and  dealt  with  language  as  a  fully  developed  product.  Accordingly  the  terms 
of  Syntax  correspond  to  the  logical  habits  of  thought  and  forms  of  expression  that 
had  grown  up  at  such  a  period,  and  have  a  logical  as  well  as  a  merely  grammatical 
meaning.  But  a  developed  syntactical  structure  is  not  essential  to  the  expression  of 
thought.  A  form  of  words  —  like  6  puerum  pulchrum!  oh!  beautiful  hoy — expresses 
a  thought  and  might  even  be  called  a  sentence ;  though  it  does  not  logically  declare  any- 
thing, and  does  not,  strictly  speaking,  make  what  is  usually  called  a  sentence  at  all. 

At  a  very  early  period  of  spoken  language,  word-forms  were  no  doubt  significant 
in  themselves,  without  inflections,  and  constituted  the  whole  of  language,  —  just  as  to 
a  child  the  name  of  some  familiar  object  will  stand  for  all  he  can  say  about  it.  At  a 
somewhat  later  stage,  such  uninflected  words  put  side  by  side  made  a  rudimentary 
form  of  proposition :  as  a  child  might  sa.jjire  bright ;  horse  run.  With  this  began  the 
first  form  of  logical  distinction,  that  of  Subject  and  Predicate ;  but  as  yet  there  was  no 
distinction  in  form  between  noun  and  verb,  and  no  fixed  distinction  in  function.  At  a 
later  stage  forms  were  differentiated  in  function  and  —  by  various  processes  of  com- 
position which  cannot  be  fully  traced  —  Inflections  were  developed.  These  served  to 
express  person,  tense,  case,  and  other  grammatical  relations,  and  we  have  true  Parts 
of  Speech. 

Not  until  language  reached  this  last  stage  was  there  any  fixed  limit  to  the  asso- 
ciation of  words,  or  any  rule  prescribing  the  manner  in  which  they  should  be  combined. 
But  gradually,  by  usage,  particular  forms  came  to  be  limited  to  special  functions  (as 
nouns,  verbs,  adjectives),  and  fixed  customs  arose  of  combining  words  into  what  we 
now  call  Sentences.  These  customs  are  in  part  the  result  of  general  laws  or  modes  of 
thought  (logic),  resulting  from  our  habits  of  mind  {General  Grammar);  and  in  part 
are  what  may  be  called  By-Laws,  established  by  custom  in  a  given  language  {Particu- 
lar Grammar),  and  making  what  is  called  the  Syntax  of  that  language. 

In  the  fully  developed  methods  of  expression  to  which  we  are  almost  exclusively 
accustomed,  the  unit  of  expression  is  the  Sentence:  that  is,  the  completed  statement, 
with  its  distinct  Subject  and  Predicate.  Originally  sentences  were  simple.  But  two 
simple  sentence-forms  may  be  used  together,  without  the  grammatical  subordination 
of  either,  to  express  a  more  complex  form  of  thought  than  could  be  denoted  by  one 
alone.  This  is  parataxis  (arrangement  side  by  side).  Since,  however,  the  two  sen- 
tences, independent  in  form,  were  in  fact  used  to  express  parts  of  a  complex  whole 
and  were  therefore  mutually  dependent,  the  sense  of  unity  found  expression  in  con- 
junctions, which  denoted  the  grammatical  subordination  of  the  one  to  the  other.  This 
is  hypotaxis  (arrangement  under,  subordination) .  In  this  way,  through  various  stages 
of  development,  which  correspond  to  our  habitual  modes  of  thought,  there  were  pro- 
duced various  forms  of  complex  sentences.  Thus,  to  express  the  complex  idea  /  beseech 
you  to  pardon  me,  the  two  simple  sentence-forms  quaeso  and  ignoscas  were  used  side  by 
side,  quaeso  ignoscas ;  then  the  feeling  of  grammatical  subordination  found  expression 
in  a  conjunction,  quaeso  ut  ignoscas,  forming  a  complex  sentence.  The  results  of  these 
processes  constitute  the  subject-matter  of  Syntax. 

163 


164  SYNTAX:    THE   SENTENCE  [§§269-272 

THE   SENTENCE 
Kinds  of  Sentences 

269.  A  Sentence  is  a  form  of  words  which  contains  a  State- 
ment, a  Question,  an  Exclamation,  or  a  Command. 

a,  A  sentence  in  the  form  of  a  Statement  is  called  a  Declarative 
Sentence  :  as,  —  canis  currit,  the  dog  runs. 

b,  A  sentence  in  the  form  of  a  Question  is  called  an  Interroga- 
tive Sentence:  as,  —  canisne  currit?  does  the  dog  run? 

c,  A  sentence  in  the  form  of  an  Exclamation  is  called  an  Exclama- 
tory Sentence :  as, — quam  celeriter  currit  canis !  hoivfast  the  dog  runs  ! 

d,  A  sentence  in  the  form  of  a  Command,  an  Exhortation,  or  an 
Entreaty  is  called  an  Imperative  Sentence :  as, —  i,  curre  per  Alpis,  goy 
run  across  the  Alps  ;  currat  canis,  let  the  dog  run: 

Subject  and  Predicate 

270.  Every  sentence  consists  of  a  Subject  and  a  Predicate. 
The  Subject  of  a  sentence  is  the  person  or  thing  spohen  of. 

The  Predicate  is  that  which  is  said  of  the  Subject. 

Thus  in  canis  currit,  the  dog  runs,  canis  is  the  subject,  and  currit  the  predicate. 

271.  The  Subject  of  a  sentence  is  usually  a  Noun  or  Pronoun, 

or  some  w^ord  or  group  of  words  used  as  a  Noun  :  — 

equites  ad  Caesarem  venerunt,  the  cavalry  came  to  Ccesar. 

humanum  est  errare,  to  err  is  human. 

quaeritur  num  mors  malum  sit,  the  question  is  whether  death  is  an  evil. 

a.  But  in  Latin  the  subject  is  often  implied  in  the  termination  of 
the  verb :  — 

sede-mus,  we  sit.  curri-tis,  you  run.  inqui-t,  says  he. 

272.  The  Predicate  of  a  sentence  may  be  a  Verb  (as  in  canis 
currit,  the  dog  runs),  or  it  may  consist  of  some  form  of  sum  and 
a  Noun  or  Adjective  which  describes  or  defines  the  subject  (as  in 
Caesar  consul  erat,  Ccesar  ivas  consul). 

Such  a  noun  or  adjective  is  called  a  Predicate  Noun  or  Adjective, 
and  the  verb  sum  is  called  the  Copula  (i.e.  the  connective). 

Thus  in  the  example  given,  Caesar  is  the  subject,  consul  the  predicate  noun,  and 
erat  the  copula  (see  §  283). 


§§  273,  274]  VERB   AND   OBJECT  165 

Transitive  and  Intransitive  Verbs 

273.  Verbs  are  either  Transitive  or  Intransitive. 

1.  A  Transitive  Verb  has  or  requires  a  direct  object  to  complete 
its  sense  (see  §  274) :  as, —  fratrem  cecidit,  he  slew  his  brother. 

2.  An  Intransitive  Verb  admits  of  no  direct  object  to  complete 
its  sense:  — 

cado,  I  fall  (or  am  falling).         sol  lucet,  tJie  sun  shines  (or  is  shining). 

Note  1.  —  Among  transitive  verbs  Factitive  Verbs  are  sometimes  distinguished 
as  a  separate  class.  These  state  an  act  which  produces  the  thing  expressed  by  the 
word  which  completes  their  sense.  Thus  mensam  fecit,  7ie  made  a  table  (which  was 
not  in  existence  before),  is  distinguished  from  mensam  percussit,  Ae  struck  a  table 
(which  already  existed). 

Note  2.  —  A  transitive  verb  may  often  be  used  absolutely,  i.e.  without  any  object 
expressed:  as, — arat,  he  is  ploughing,  where  the  verb  does  not  cease  to  be  transitive 
because  the  object  is  left  indefinite,  as  we  see  by  adding,  —  quid,  what?  agrum  suum, 
his  land. 

Note  3.  —  Transitive  and  Intransitive  Verbs  are  often  called  Active  and  Neuter 
Verbs  respectively. 

Object 

274.  The  person  or  thing  immediately  affected  by  the  action  of 
a  verb  is  called  the  Direct  Object. 

A  person  or  thing  indirectly  affected  by  the  action  of  a  verb 
is  called  the  Indirect  Object. 

Only  transitive  verbs  can  have  a  Direct  Object ;  but  an  Indirect 

Object  may  be  used  with  both  transitive  and  intransitive  verbs 

(§§362,366):  — 

pater  vocat  filium  (direct  object),  the  father  calls  his  son. 

mihi  (ind.  obj.)  agrum  (dir.  obj.)  ostendit,  he  showed  me  afield. 

mihi  (ind.  obj.)  placet,  it  is  pleasing  to  me. 

Note.  —  The  distinction  between  transitive  and  intransitive  verbs  is  not  a  fixed  dis- 
tinction, for  most  transitive  verbs  may  be  used  intransitively,  and  many  verbs  usually 
intransitive  may  take  a  direct  object  and  so  become  transitive  (§  388.  a). 

a.  With  certain  verbs,  the  Genitive,  Dative,  or  Ablative  is  used 
where  the  English,  from  a  difference  in  meaning,  requires  the  direct 
object  (Objective)  :  — 

hominem  video,  I  see  the  man  (Accusative). 

homini  servio,  I  serve  the  man  (Dative,  see  §  367). 

hominis  misereor,  I  pity  the  man  (Genitive,  see  §  354.  a). 

homine  amico  utor,  I  treat  the  man  as  a  friend  (Ablative,  see  §  410). 


166  SYNTAX:    THE   SENTENCE  [§§274-277 

b.  Many  verbs  transitive  in  Latin  are  rendered  into  English  by  . 
an  intransitive  verb  with,  a  preposition:  — 
petit  aprum,  he  aims  at  the  boar. 
laudem  affectat,  he  strives  after  praise. 
curat  valetudinem,  he  takes  care  of  his  health. 
meum  casum  doluerunt,  they  grieved  at  my  misfortune. 
ridet  nostram  amentiam  (Quinct.  55),  he  laughs  at  our  stupidity. 

275.  When  a  transitive  verb  is  changed  from  the  Active  to  the 
Passive  voice,  the  Direct  Object  becomes  the  Subject  and  is  put 
in  the  Nominative  case  :  — 

Active:     pater  fllium  vocat,  the  father  calls  his  son. 
Passive :  filius  a  patre  vocatur,  the  son  is  called  by  his  father. 
Active :     lunam  et  stellas  videmus,  we  see  the  moon  and  the  stars. 
Passive:  luna  et  stellae  videntur,  the  moon  and  stars  are  seen  (appear). 

Modification 

276.  A  Subject  or  a  Predicate  may  be  modified  by  a  single  word, 
or  by  a  group  of  words  (si  phrase  or  a  clause). 

The  modifying  word  or  group  of  words  may  itself  be  modified  in 
the  same  way. 

a.  A  single  modifying  word  may  be  an  adjective,  an  adverb,  an 
appositive  (§  282),  or  the  oblique  case  of  a  noun. 

Thus  in  the  sentence  vir  fortis  patienter  fert,  a  brave  man  endures  patiently, 
the  adjective  fortis,  brave,  modifies  the  subject  vir,  man,  and  the  adverb  patienter, 
patiently,  modifies  the  predicate  fert,  endures. 

h.  The  modifying  word  is  in  some  cases  said  to  limit  the  word 
to  which  it  belongs. 

Thus  in  the  sentence  pueri  patrem  video,  /  see  the  boy^s  father,  the  genitive 
pueri  limits  patrem  (by  excluding  any  other  father). 

277.  A  Phrase  is  a  group  of  words,  without  subject  or  predicate 
of  its  own,  which  may  be  used  as  an  Adjective  or  an  Adverb. 

Thus  in  the*  sentence  vir  fuit  summa  nobilitate,  he  was  a  man  of  the  highest 
nobility,  the  words  summa  nobilitate,  of  the  highest  nobility,  are  used  for  the 
adjective  nobilis,  noble  (or  nobihssimus,  very  noble),  and  are  called  an  Adjective 
Phrase. 

So  in  the  sentence  magna  celeritate  venit,  he  came  with  great  speed,  the  words 
magna  celeritate,  with  great  speed,  are  used  for  the  adverb  celeriter,  quickly  (or 
celerrime,  very  quickly),  and  are  called  an  Adverbial  Phrase. 


§§  278,  279]  CLAUSES  AND  SENTENCES  167 

Clauses  and  Sentences 

278.  Sentences  are  either  Simple  or  Compound. 

1.  A  sentence  containing  a  single  statement  is  called  a  Simple 
Sentence. 

2.  A  sentence  containing  more  than  one  statement  is  called 
a  Compound  Sentence,  and  each  single  statement  in  it  is  called 
a  Clause. 

a.  If  one  statement  is  simply  added  to  another,  the  clauses  are 
said  to  be  Coordinate.  They  are  usually  connected  by  a  Coordinate 
Conjunction  (§  223.  a)  ;  but  this  is  sometimes  omitted:  — 

divide  et  impera,  divide  and  control.     But,  — 

veni,  vidi,  vici,  I  came^  I  saw,  I  conquered. 

h.  If  one  statement  modifies  another  in  any  way,  the  modifying 
clause  is  said  to  be  Subordinate,  and  the  clause  modified  is  called 
the  Main  Clause. 

This  subordination  is  indicated  by  some  connecting  word,  either 
a  Subordinate  Conjunction  (§  223.  h)  or  a  Relative:  — 
oderint  dum  metuant.  Id  them  hate  so  long  as  they  fear. 
servum  misit  quem  secuin  habebat,  he  sent  the  slave  whom  he  had  with  him. 

A  sentence  containing  one  or  more  subordinate  clauses  is  some- 
times called  Complex. 

Note.  —  A  subordinate  clause  may  itself  be  modified  by  other  subordinate  clauses. 

279.  Subordinate  Clauses  are  of  various  kinds. 

a,  A  clause  introduced  by  a  Eelative  Pronoun  or  Eelative  Adverb 
is  called  a  Eelative  Clause  :  — 

Mosa  profluit  ex  monte  Vosego,  qui  est  in  flnibus  Lingonum  (B.  G.  iv.  10), 
the  Meuse  rises  in  the  Vosges  mountains,  which  are  on  the  borders  of  the 
Lingones. 
For  Relijtive  Pronouns  (or  Relative  Adverbs)  serving  to  connect  independent  sen- 
tences, see  §  308.  /. 

b,  A  clause  introduced  by  an  Adverb  of  Time  is  called  a  Tem- 
poral Clause :  — 

cum  tacent,  clamant  (Cat.  i.  21),  while  they  are  silent,  they  cry  aloud. 

homines  aegri  roorbo  gravl,  cum  iactantur  aestu  febrique,  si  aquam  gelidam 
biberint,  piimo  relevari  videntur  (id.  i.  31),  men  suffering  with  a  severe 
sickness,  lohen  they  are  tossing  with  the  heat  of  fever,  if  they  drink  cold 
water ^  seem  at  first  to  he  relieoed. 


168  SYNTAX:   AGREEMENT  [§§279-281 

c.  A  clause  containing  a  Condition,  introduced  by  si,  if  (or  some 
equivalent  expression),  is  called  a  Conditional  Clause.  A  sentence 
containing  a  conditional  clause  is  called  a  Conditional  Sentence. 

Thus,  si  aquam  gelidam  biberint,  primo  relevari  videntur  (in  6,  above)  is  a  Con- 
ditional Sentence,  and  si  .  .  .  biberint  is  a  Conditional  Clause. 

d,  A  clause  expressing  the  Purpose  of  an  action  is  called  a  Final 
Clause : — 

edo  ut  vivam,  I  eat  to  live  (that  I  may  live). 

misit  legates  qui  dicereut,  he  sent  ambassadors  to  say  (who  should  say). 

c.  A  clause  expressing  the  E-esult  of  an  action  is  called  a  Con- 
secutive Clause :  —  ^ 

tarn  longe  aberam  ut  non  viderem,  I  was  too  far  away  to  see  (so  far  away  that 
I  did  not  see) . 

AGEEEMENT 

280.  A  word  is  said  to  agree  with  another  when  it  is  required 
by  usage  to  be  in  the  same  Gender,  Number,  Case,  or  Person. 

The  following  are  the  general  forms  of  agreement,  sometimes 
called  the  Four  Concords :  — 

1.  The  agreement  of  the  Noun  in  Apposition  or  as  Predicate 
(§§  281-284). 

2.  The  agreement  of  the  Adjective  with  its  Noun  (§  286). 

3.  The  agreement  of  the  Eelative  with  its  Antecedent  (§  305). 

4.  The  agreement  of  the  Einite  Verb  with  its  Subject  (§  316). 
a,  A  word  sometimes  takes  the  gender  or  number,  not  of  the  word 

with  which  it  should  regularly  agree,  but  of  some  other  word  implied 
in  that  word. 

This  use  is  called  Synesis,  or  construciid  ad  sensum  (construction 
according  to  sense). 

AGREEMENT   OF   NOUNS 

281.  A  noun  used  to  describe  another,  and  denoting  the  same 
person  or  thing,  agrees  with  it  in  Case. 

The  descriptive  noun  may  be  either  an  Appositive  (§  282)  or  a 
Predicate  noun  (§  283). 

1  Observe  that  the  classes  defined  in  a-e  are  not  mutually  exclusive,  but  that  a 
single  clause  may  belong  to  several  of  them  at  once.  Thus  a  relative  clause  is 
usually  subordinate,  and  may  be  at  the  same  time  temporal  or  conditional;  and 
subordinate  clauses  may  be  coordinate  with  each  other. 


§282]  APPOSITION  169 

Apposition 

282.  A  noun  used  to  describe  another,  and  standing  in  the  same 
part  of  the  sentence  with  the  noun  described,  is  called  an  Apposi- 
tive,  and  is  said  to  be  in  ajjposition :  — 

externus  timor,  maximum  concordiae  vinculum,  iungebat  animos  (Liv.  ii.  39), 
fear  of  the  foreigner,  the  chief  bond  of  harmony,  united  their  hearts. 
[Here  the  appositive  belongs  to  the  subject.] 

quattuor  hie  primum  omen  equos  vidi  (Aen.  iii.  537),  I  saw  here  four  horses, 
the  first  omen.     [Here  both  nouns  are  in  the  predicate.] 

litteras  Graecas  senex  didici  (Cat.  M.  26),  I  learned  Greek  when  an  old  man. 
[Here  senex,  though  in  apposition  with  the  subject  of  didici,  really  states 
something  further:  viz.,  the  time,  condition,  etc.,  of  the  act  (Predicate 
Apposition).] 

a.  Words  expressing  parts  may  be  in  apposition  with  a  word 
including  the  parts,  or  vice  versa  {Partitive  Apposition) :  — 

Nee  P.  Popilius  neque  Q.  Metellus,  clarissiml  viri  atque  amplissimi,  vim 
tribunlciam  sustinere  potuerunt  (Clu.  95),  neither  Publius  Popilius  nor 
Quintus  Metellus,  [both  of  them]  distinguished  and  honorable  men,  could 
withstand  the  power  of  the  tribunes. 

Gnaeus  et  Publius  Scipiones,  Cneius  and  Publius  Scipio  (the  Scipios). 

b.  An  Adjective  may  be  used  as  an  appositive:  — 

ea  Sex.  Koscium  inopem  recepit  (Rose.  Am.  27),  she  received  Sextus  Boscius 
in  his  poverty  (needy). 

c.  An  -appositive  generally  agrees  with  its  noun  in  Gender  and 
Number  when  it  can  :  — 

sequuntur  natilram,  optimam  dticem  (Lael.  19),  they  follow  nature,  the  best 

guide. 
omnium  doctrlnarum  inventrices  Athenas  (De  Or.  i.  13),  Athens,  discoverer 

of  all  learning. 

Note.  —  But  such  agreement  is  often  impossible :  as,  —  olim  truncus  eram  ficulnus, 
inutile  lignum  (Hor.  S.  i.  8.  1),  I  once  was  a  fig-tree  trunk,  a  useless  log. 

d.  A  common  noun  in  apposition  with  a  Locative  (§  427)  is  put  in 
the  Ablative,  with  or  without  the  preposition  in  :  — 

Antiochiae,  celebri  quondam  urbe  (Arch.  4),  at  Antioch,  once  a  famous  city. 
Albae  constiterunt,  in  urbe  munita  (Phil,  iv,  6),  they  halted  at  Alba,  a  forti- 
fied town. 

For  a  Genitive  in  apposition  with  a  Possessive  Pronoun  or  an  Adjective,  see  §  302.  e. 
For  the  so-called  Appositional  Genitive,  see  §  343.  d. 
For  the  construction  with  nomen  est,  see  §  373.  a. 


170  SYNTAX:   AGREEMENT  [§§283-286 

Predicate  Noun  or  Adjective 

283.  With  sum  and  a  few  other  intransitive  or  passive  verbs,  a 
noun  or  an  adjective  describing  or  defining  the  subject  may  stand  in 
the  predicate.     This  is  called  a  Predicate  Noun  or  Adjective. 

The  verb  sum  is  especially  coninion  in  this  construction,  and  wheK 
so  used  is  called  the  copula  (i.e.  connective). 

Other  verbs  which  take  a  predicate  noun  or  adjective  are  the  so- 
calkd  copulative  verhs  signifying  to  become,  to  be  made,  to  be  named, 
to  appear,  and  the  like. 

284.  A  Predicate  Noun  or  Adjective  after  the  copula  sum  or  a 

copulative  verb  is  in  the  same  case  as  the  Subject :  — 

pacis  semper  auctor  fui  (Lig.  28),  1  have  alvjays  been  an  adviser  of  peace. 
quae  pertinacia  quibusdam,  eadem  alils  constantia  videri  potest  (]\Iarc.  31), 

what  may  seem  obstinacy  to  some,  may  seem  to  others  consistency. 
eius  mortis  sedetis  ultores  (Mil,  79),  you  sit  as  avengers  of  his  death. 
habeatur  vir  egregius  Paulus  (Cat.  iv.  21),  let  Paulus  be  regarded  as  an 

extraordinary  man. 
ego  patronus  exstiti  (Rose.  Am.  5),  I  have  come  forward  as  an  advocate. 
dicit  non  omnis  bonos  esse  beatds,  he  says  that  not  all  good  men  are  happy. 

a,  A  predicate  noun  referring  to  two  or  more  singular  nouns  is 
in  the  plural :  — 

consules  creantur  Caesar  et  Servilius  (B.  C.  iii.  1),  CcBsar  and  Servilius  are 
elected  consuls. 

b.  Sum  in  the  sense  of  exist  makes  a  complete  predicate  without  a 
predicate  noun  or  adjective.     It  is  then  called  the  substantive  verb :  — 

sunt  viri  fortes,  there  are  (exist)  brave  men.     [Cf .  vixere  fortes  ante  Agamem- 
nona  (Hor.  Od.  iv.  9.  25),  brave  men  lived  before  Agamemnon.] 
For  Predicate  Accusative  and  Predicate  Ablative,  see  §§  392,  415.  n. 

AGREEMENT   OF   ADJECTIVES 
Attributive  and  Predicate  Adjectives 

285.  Adjectives  are  either  Attributive  or  Predicate. 

1.  An  Attributive  Adjective  simply  qualifies  its  noun  without 
the  intervention  of  a  verb  or  participle,  expressed  or  implied:  as, 
— bonus  imperator,  a  good  commander;  stellae  lucidae,  bright  stars;- 
verbum  Graecum,  a  Greek  zvord. 


§§  285,  286]  AGREEMENT  OF  ADJECTIVES  171 

2.  All  other  adjectives  are  called  Predicate  Adjectives :  — 
stellae  lucidae  erant,  the  stars  were  bright. 
sit  Sclpio  clarus  (Cat.  iv.  21),  let  Scipio  be  illustrious. 
homines  mitis  reddidit  (In v.  i.  2),  has  rendered  men  mild. 
tria  praedia  CapitonI  propria  traduntur  (Rose.  Am.  21),  three  farms  are 

handed  over  to  Capita  as  his  own. 
consilium  ceperunt  plenum  sceleris   (id.  28),  they  formed  a  plan  full  of 
villany. 
Note.  —  A  predicate  adjective  maybe  used  with  sum  or  a  copulative  verb  (§  28.3) ;  it 
may  have  the  construction  of  a  predicate  accusative  after  a  verb  of  naming,  calling,  or 
the  like  (§  393.  n.)  ;  or  it  may  be  used  in  apposition  like  a  noun  (§  282.  6). 

Rules  of  Agreement 

286.  Adjectives,  Adjective  Pronouns,  and  Participles  agree 
with  their  nouns  in  Gender^  Number.,  and  Case  :  — 
vir  fortis,  a  brave  man. 
ilia  mulier,  that  ivoman. 
urbium  magnarum,  of  great  cities. 
cum  ducentis  militibus,  with  two  hundred  soldiers. 
imperator  victus  est,  the  general  was  beaten. 
secutae  sunt  tempestates,  storms  followed. 

Note.  —  All  rules  for  the  agreement  of  adjectives  apply  also  to  adjective  pronouns 
and  to  participles. 

a.  With  two  or  more  nouns  the  adjective  is  regularly  plural,  but 
often  agrees  with  the  nearest  (especially  when  attributive)  :  — 

Nisus  et  Euryalus  primi  (Aen.  v.  294),  Nisus  and  Euryalus  first. 
Caesaris  omni  et  gratia  et  opibus  fruor  (Fam.  i.  9.  21),  I  enjoy  all  Caesar'' s  favor 
and  resources. 

Note.  —  An  adjective  referring  to  two  nouns  connected  by  the  preposition  cum  is 
occasionally  plural  (synesis,  §  280.  a):  as,  —  luba  cum  Labieno  capti  (B.  Afr.  52),  Juba 
and  Labienus  were  taken. 

b.  A  collective  noun  may  take  an  adjective  of  a  different  gender 
and  number  agreeing  with  the  gender  and  number  of  the  individuals 
implied  (synesis,  §  280.  a):  — 

pars  certare  parati  (Aen.  v.  108),  a  part  ready  to  contend. 

coloniae  aliquot  deductae,  Prisci  Latin!  appellati  (Liv.  i.  3),  several  colonies 

were  planted  (led  out)  [of  men]  called  Old  Latins. 
multitudo  convict!  sunt  (Tac.  Ann.  xv.  44),  a  multitude  were  convicted. 
magna  pars  raptae  (id.  i.  9),  a  large  part  [of  the  women]  were  seized. 

Note.  —  A  superlative  in  the  predicate  rarely  takes  the  gender  of  a  partitive  geni- 
tive by  which  it  is  limited:  as,  —  velocissimum  animalium  delphinus  est  (Plin.  N.  H. 
ix.  20),  the  dolphin  is  the  swiftest  [creature]  of  creatures. 


172  SYNTAX:   ADJECTIVES  [§§287,288 

287.  One  adjective  may  belong  in  sense  to  two  or  more  nouns 
of  different  genders.     In  such  cases,  — 

1.  An  Attributive  Adjective  agrees  with,  the  nearest  noun:  — 
multae  operae  ac  laboris,  of  much  trouble  and  toil. 

vita  moresque  mei,  my  life  and  character. 

si  res,  si  vir,  si  tempus  ullum  dignum  fuit  (Mil.  19),  if  any  thing,  if  any 
man,  if  any  time  was  Jit. 

2.  A  Predicate  Adjective  may  agree  with  the  nearest  noun,  if  the 
nouns  form  one  connected  idea :  — 

f actus  est  strepitus  et  admurmuratio  (Verr.  i.  45),  a  noise  of  assent  was  made 
(noise  and  murmur). 
Note.  —This  is  only  when  the  copula  agrees  with  the  nearest  subject  (§  317.  c). 

3.  But  generally,  a  Predicate  Adjective  will  be  masculine,  if  nouns 
of  different  genders  mean  living  beings;  neuter,  if  tilings  without 
life :  — 

uxor  delude  ac  liberi  amplexi  (Li v.  ii.  40),  then  his  wife  and  children  embraced 
him. 

labor  (m.)  voluptasque  (f.)  societate  quadam  inter  se  natural!  sunt  iuncta  (n.) 
(id.  V.  4),  labor  and  delight  are  bound  together  by  a  certain  natural  alli- 
ance. 

4.  If  nouns  of  different  genders  include  both  living  beings  and 
things  without  life,  a  Predicate  Adjective  is  sometimes  masculine  (or 
feminine),  sometimes  neuter,  and  sometimes  agrees  in  gender  with 
the  nearest  if  that  is  plural :  — 

rex  regiaque  classis  una  profecti  (Liv.  xxi.  50),  the  king  and  the  royal  fleet  set 

out  together. 
natura  inimica  sunt  libera  civitas  et  rex  (id.  xliv.  24),  by  nature  a  free  state 

and  a  king  are  hostile. 
legates  sortesqne  oraculi  exspectandas  (id.  v.  15),  that  the  ambassadors  and 

the  replies  of  the  oracle  shoidd  be  waited  for. 

a.  Two  or  more  abstract  nouns  of  the  same  gender  may  have  a 
Predicate  Adjective  in  the  neuter  plural  (cf.  §  289.  c):  — 

stultitia  et  temeritas  et  iniustitia  .  .  .  suntfugienda  (Fin.  iii.  S9),  folly,  rash- 
ness, and  injustice  are  [things]  to  be  shunned. 

Adjectives  used  Substantively 

288.  Adjectives  are  often  used  as  Nouns  {suhstantivehj),  the 
masculine  usually  to  denote  men  ov  people  in  general  of  that  kind, 
the  feminine  women,  and  the  neuter  things :  — 


§§288,289]  ADJECTIVES    USED   SUBSTANTIVELY  173 

omnes,  all  men  (everybody).  omnia,  all  things  (everything), 

maiores,  ancestors.  minores,  descendants. 

Romani,  Romans.  barbari,  barbarians. 

liberta,  a  freediooman.  Sabinae,  the  Sabine  wives. 

sapiens,  a  sage  (philosopher).  amicus,  a  friend. 

boni,  the  good  (good  people).  bona,  goods,  property. 

Note.  —  The  plural  of  adjectives,  pronouns,  and  participles  is  very  common  in  this 
nse.  The  singular  is  comparatively  rare  except  in  the  neuter  (§  289.  a,  c)  and  in  words 
that  have  become  practically  nouns. 

a.  Certain  adjectives  have  become  practically  nouns,  and  are  often 
modified  by  other  adjectives  or  by  the  possessive  genitive :  — 

tuus  vicinus  proximus,  Tjour  next-door  neighbor. 
propinqui  ceterl,  his  other  relatives. 
mens  aequalis,  a  man  of  my  own  age. 

§ius  familiaris  Catilina  (Har.  Resp.  5),  his  intimate  friend  Catiline. 
Leptae  nostri  familiarissimus  (Fam.  ix.  13.  2),  a  very  close  friend  of  our  friend 
Lepta. 

b.  When  ambiguity  would  arise  from  the  substantive  use  of  an 
adjective,  a  noun  must  be  added :  — 

boni,  the  good  ;  omnia,  everything  (all  things) ;  but,  — 
potentia  omnium  rerum,  power  over  everything. 

c.  Many  adjectives  are  used  substantively  either  in  the  singular 
or  the  plural,  with  the  added  meaning  of  some  noun  which  is  under- 
stood from  constant  association :  — 

Africus  [ventus],  the  southwest  wind;  lanuarius  [mensis],  January;  vitu- 
lina  [caro],  veal  (calf's  flesh) ;  fera  [bestia],  a  wild  beast;  patria  [terra], 
the  fatherland ;  Gallia  [terra],  GoM  (the  land  of  the  Galli) ;  hiberna 
[castra],  winter  quarters ;  triremis  [navis],  a  three-banked  galley,  trireme; 
argentarius  [faber],  a  silversmith;  regia  [domus],  the  palace;  Latinae 
[feriae],  the  Latin  festival. 

Note.  —  These  adjectives  are  specific  in  meaning,  not  generic  like  those  in  §  288. 
They  include  the  names  of  winds  and  months  (§  31). 
For  Nouns  used  as  Adjectives,  see  §  321.  c. 
For  Adverbs  used  like  Adjectives,  see  §  321.  d. 

289.  Neuter  Adjectives  are  used  substantively  in  the  following 
special  senses :  — 

a.  The  neuter  singular  may  denote  either  a  single  object  or  an 
abstract  quality :  — 

rapto  vivere,  to  live  by  plunder.  in  arido,  on  dry  ground. 

honestum,  an  honorable  act,  or  virtue  (as  a  quality). 

opus  est  maturato,  there  is  need  of  haste.     [Cf.  impersonal  passives,  §  208.  d.] 


174  SYNTAX :   ADJECTIVES  .  [§§  289-291 

b.  The  neuter  plural  is  used  to  signify  objects  in  general  having 
the  quality  denoted,  and  hence  may  stand  for  the  abstract  idea :  — 

honesta,  honorable  deeds  (in  general).        praeterita,  the  past  (lit.,  bygones'), 
onines  fortia  laudant,  all  men  praise  bravery  (brave  things). 

c.  A  neuter  adjective  may  be  used  as  an  appositive  or  predicate 
noun  with  a  noun  of  different  gender  (cf.  §  287.  a) :  — 

triste  lupus  stabulls  (Eel.  iii.  80),  the  wolf  [is]  a  grievous  thing  for  the  fold. 
varium  et  mutabile  semper  femina  (Aen.  iv.  569),  woman  is  ever  a  changing 

and  fickle  thing. 
malum  milii  videtur  esse  mors  (Tusc.  i.  9),  death  seems  to  me  to  be  an  evil. 

d.  A  neuter  adjective  may  be  used  as  an  attributive  or  a  predicate 
adjective  with  an  infinitive  or  a  substantive  clause :  — 

istuc  ipsum  non  esse  (Tusc.  i.  12),  that  very  "  not  to  be.''"' 

humanum  est  errare,  to  err  is  human. 

aliud  est  errare  Caesarem  nolle,  aliud  nolle  misererl  (Lig.  16),  it  is  one  tJiing 

to  be  umvilling  that  CcBsar  should  err,  another  to  be  unwilling  that  he 

should  pity. 

Adjectives  with  Adverbial  Force 

290.  An  adjective,  agreeing  with  the  subject  or  object,  is  often 

used  to  qualify  the  action  of  the  verb,  and  so  has  the  force  of  an 

adverb :  — 

primus  venit,  he  ivas  the  first  to  come  (came  first). 

nullus  dubito,  I  no  way  doubt. 

laeti  audiere,  they  were  glad  to  hear. 

erat  Romae  frequens  (Rose.  Am.  16),  he  ivas  often  at  Rome. 

serus  in  caelum  redeas  (Hor.  Od.  i.  2.  45),  mayst  thou  return  late  to  heaven. 

Comparatives  and  Superlatives 

291.  Besides  their  regular  signification  (as  in  English),  the 
forms  of  comparison  are  used  as  follows :  — 

a.  The  Comparative  denotes  a  considerable  or  excessive  degree  of 
a  quality:  as,  —  brevior,  rather  short ;  audacior,  too  bold. 

b.  The  Superlative  (of  eminence)  often  denotes  a  very  high  degree 
of  a  quality  without  implying  a  distinct  comparison :  as,  —  mons 
altissimus,  a  very  high  mountain. 

Note.  —  The  Superlative  of  Eminence  is  much  used  in  complimentary  references 
to  persons  and  may  often  be  translated  by  the  simple  positive. 


§§  291-293]  COMPARATIVES  AND   SUPERLATIVES  175 

c.  With  quam,  vel,  or  iinus  the  Superlative  denotes  the  highest  pos- 
sible degree : — 

quam  plurimi,  as  many  as  possible. 

quam  maxime  potest  (maxime  quam  potest),  as  much  as  can  be. 

vel  minimus,  the  very  least. 

yiv  unus  doctissimus,  the  one  most  learned  man. 

Note  1.  —  A  high  degree  of  a  quality  is  also  denoted  by  such  adverbs  as  admodum, 
valde,  very,  or  by  per  or  prae  in  composition  (§  267.  d.  1):  as,  — valde  malus,  veiy  bad  = 
pessimus;  permagnus,  very  great;  praealtus,  very  high  (or  deep). 

Note  2.  —  A  low  degree  of  a  quality  is  indicated  by  sub  in  composition :  as,  —  sub- 
riisticus,  rather  clownish ,  or  by  minus,  not  very ;  minime,  not  at  all ;  parum,  not  enough ; 
non  satis,  not  much. 

Note  3.  —  The  comparative  maiores  (for  miiores  natii,  greater  by  birth)  has  the  spe- 
cial signification  of  ancestors ;  so  minores  often  means  descendants. 

For  the  Superlative  with  quisque,  see  §  313.  b.  For  the  construction  of  a  substantive 
after  a  Comparative,  see  §§  406,  407  ;  for  that  of  a  clause,  see  §  535.  c,  571.  a.  For  the 
Ablative  of  Degree  of  Difference  with  a  Comparative  (mult5  etc.),  see  §  414. 

292.  When  two  qualities  of  an  object  are  compared,  both  adjec- 
tives are  in  the  Comparative  :  — 

longior  quam  latior  acies  erat  (Liv.  xxvii.  48),  the  line  was  longer  than  it  was 

broad  (or,  rather  long  than  broad). 
verior  quam  gratior  (id.  xxii.  38),  more  true  than  agreeable. 

Note.  —  So  also  with  adverbs:  as, — libentius  quam  verius  (Mil.  78),  with  mort 
freedom  than  truth. 

a.  Where  magis  is  used,  both  adjectives  are  in  the  positive:  — 
disertus  magis  quam  sapiens  (Att.  x.  1.  4),  eloquent  rather  than  wise. 
clari  magis  quam  honesti  (lug.  8),  more  renowned  than  honorable. 

Note.  —  A  comparative  and  a  positive,  or  even  two  positives,  are  sometimes  con- 
nected by  quam.    This  use  is  rarer  and  less  elegant  than  those  before  noticed :  — 

Claris  maioribus  quam  vetustis  (Tac.  Ann.  iv.  61),  of  a  family  moj^e  famous  than 

old. 
vehementius  quam  caute  (Tac.  Agr.  4),  with  more  fury  than  good  heed. 

293.  Superlatives  (and  more  rarely  Comparatives)  denoting 

order  and  succession  —  also  medius,  [ceterus],  reliquus  —  usually 

designate  not  what  object.,  but  what  part  of  it,  is  meant :  — 

summus  mons,  the  top  of  the  hill. 

in  ultima  platea,  at  the  end  of  the  place. 

prior  actio,  the  earlier  part  of  an  action. 

reliqui  captlvi,  the  rest  of  the  prisoners. 

in  colle  medio  (B.  G.  i.  24),  halfway  up  the  hill  (on  the  middle  of  the  hill). 

inter  ceteram  planitiem  (lug.  92),  in  a  region  elsewhere  level. 

Note.  —  A  similar  use  is  found  iu  sera  (multa)  nocte,  late  at  night,  and  the  like.  But 
medium  viae,  the  middle  of  the  way ;  multum  diei,  ?HWc/i  of  the  day,  also  occur. 


176  SYNTAX:    PRONOUNS  [§§294,296 


PRONOUNS 

294.  A  Pronoun  indicates  some  person  or  thing  without  either  naming  or  describ- 
ing it.  Pronouns  are  derived  from  a  distinct  class  of  roots,  which  seem  to  have  denoted 
only  ideas  of  place  and  direction  (§  228.  2),  and  from  which  nouns  or  verbs  can  very 
rarely  be  formed.  They  may  therefore  stand  for  Nouns  when  the  person  or  thing, 
being  already  present  to  the  senses  or  imagination,  needs  only  to  be  pointed  out,  not 
7iamed. 

Some  pronouns  indicate  the  object  in  itself,  without  reference  to  its  class,  and  have 
no  distinction  of  gender.  These  are  Personal  Pronouns.  They  stand  syntactically 
for  Nouns,  and  have  the  same  construction  as  nouns. 

Other  pronouns  designate  a  particular  object  of  a  class,  and  take  the  gender  of  the 
individuals  of  that  class.  These  are  called  Adjective  Pronouns.  They  stand  for 
Adjectives,  and  have  the  same  construction  as  adjectives. 

Others  are  used  in  both  ways ;  and,  though  called  adjective  pronouns,  may  also  be 
treated  as  personal,  taking,  however,  the  gender  of  the  object  indicated. 

In  accordance  with  their  meanings  and  uses,  Pronouns  are  classified  as  follows :  — 
Personal  Pronouns  (§  295).  Interrogative  Pronouns  (§  333). 

Demonstrative  Pronouns  (§296).  Relative  Pronouns  (§303). 

Reflexive  Pronouns  (§  299).  Indefinite  Pronouns  (§  309). 

Possessive  Pronouns  (§302). 

Personal  Pronouns 

295.  The  Personal  Pronouns  have,  in  general,  the  same  con- 
structions as  nouns. 

a.  The  personal  pronouns  are  not  expressed  as  subjects,  except  for 
distinction  or  emphasis  :  — 

te  voco,  /  call  you.     But,  — 

quis  me  vocat  ?  ego  te  voco,  who  is  calling  me?  I  (emphatic)  am  calling  you. 

b.  The  personal  pronouns  have  ^wo  forms  for  the  genitive  plural, 
that  in  -um  being  used  partitively  (§  346),  and  that  in  -i  oftenest 
objectively  (§  348)  :  — 

m§,ior  vestrum,  the  elder  of  you. 

habetis  ducem  memorem  vestri,  oblitum  sul  (Cat.  iv.  19),  you  have  a  leader 

who  thinks  (is  mindful)  of  you  and  forgets  (is  forgetful  of)  himself. 
pars  nostrum,  apart  (i.e.  some)  of  us. 

Note  1.  —  The  genitives  nostrum,  vestrum,  are  occasionally  used  objectively  (§  348): 
as,  —  cupidus  vestrum  (Verr.  iii.  224:),  fond  of  you ;  custos  vestrum  (Cat.  iii.  29),  the  guar- 
dian of  you  (your  guardian). 

Note  2.  — "  One  of  themselves  "  is  expressed  by  unus  ex  suis  or  ipsis  (rarely  ex  se), 
or  iinus  suorum. 

c.  The  Latin  has  no  personal  pronouns  of  the  third  person  except 
the  reflexive  se.  The  want  is  supplied  by  a  Demonstrative  or  Rela- 
tive (§§  296.  2,  308./). 


§§  296,  297]  DEMONSTRATIVE   PRONOUNS  177 

Demonstrative  Pronouns 

296.  Demonstrative  Pronouns  are  used  either  adjectively  or 
substantively. 

1.  As  adjectives,  they  follow  the  rules  for  the  agreement  of  adjec- 
tives and  are  called  Adjective  Pronouns  or  Pronominal  Adjectives 
(§§286,287):  — 

hoc  proelio  facto,  after  this  battle  was  fought  (this  battle  having  been  fought). 

eodem  proelio,  in  the  same  battle. 

ex  eis  aedificils,  out  of  those  buildings. 

2.  As  sabstantives,  they  are  equivalent  to  personal  pronouns.  This 
use  is  regular  in  the  oblique  cases,  especially  of  is  :  — 

Caesar  et  exercitus  eius,  Caisar  and  his  army  (not  suus).     [But,  Caesar 

exercitum  suum  dimisit,  CoBsar  disbanded  his  [own]  army.] 
SI  obsides  ab  eis  dentur  (B,  G.  i.  14),  if  hostages  should  be  given  ^y  them 

(persons  just  spoken  of). 
hi  sunt  extra  provinciam  trans  Rhodanum  primi  (id.  i.  10),  they  (those  just 

mentioned)  are  the  first  [inhabitants]  across  the  Rhone. 
ille  minimum  propter  adulescentiam  poterat  (id.  i.  20),  he  (emphatic)  had 

very  little  power,  on  account  of  his  youth. 

a.  An  adjective  pronoun  usually  agrees  with  an  appositive  or 
predicate  noun,  if  there  be  one,  rather  than  with  the  word  to  which 
it  refers  (cf.  §  306):  — 

hie  locus  est  tinus  quo  perfugiant ;  hie  portus,  haec  arx'  haec  ara  sociorum 
(Verr.  v.  126),  this  is  the  only  place  to  which  they  can  flee  for  refuge;  this 
is  the  haven.,  this  the  citadel,  this  the  altar  of  the  allies. 

rerum  caput  hoc  erat,  hie  fons  (Hor.  Ep.  i.  17.  45),  this  was  the  head  of  things, 
this  the  source. 

earn  sapientiam  interpretantur  quam  adhiic  mortalis  nemo  est  consecutus 
[for  id  .  .  .  quod]  (Lael.  18),  they  explain  that  [thing]  to  be  wisdom  which 
no  man  ever  yet  attained. 

297.  The  main  uses  of  hie,  ille,  iste,  and  is  are  the  following:  — 

a.  Hie  is  used  of  what  is  near  the  sx^eaker  (in  time,  place,  or 
thought).     It  is  hence  called  the  demonstrative  of  the  first  j)er son. 

It  is  sometimes  used  of  the  speaker  himself;  sometimes  for  "the 
latter"  of  two  persons  or  things  mentioned  in  speech  or  writing; 
more  rarely  for  "  the  former,"  when  that,  though  more  remote  on  the 
written  page,  is  nearer  the  speaker  in  time,  place,  or  thought.  Often 
it  refers  to  that  which  has  just  been  mentioned. 


178  SYNTAX:    PRONOUNS  [§§297,298 

b.  Ille  is  used  of  what  is  remote  (in  time,  etc.) ;  and  is  hence  called 
the  demonstrative  of  the  third  ijerson. 

It  is  sometimes  used  to  mean  "  the  former '' ;  also  (usually  follow- 
ing its  noun)  of  what  is  famous  or  well-known ;  often  (especially  the 
neuter  illud)  to  mean  ''  the  following." 

c.  Iste  is  used  of  what  is  between  the  two  others  in  remoteness : 
often  in  allusion  to  the  person  addressed,  —  hence  called  the  demon- 
strative of  the  second  person. 

It  especially  refers  to  one's  opponent  (in  court,  etc.),  and  fre- 
quently implies  antagonism  or  contempt. 

d.  Is  is  a  weaker  demonstrative  than  the  others  and  is  especially 
common  as  a  personal  pronoun.  It  does  not  denote  any  special  object, 
but  refers  to  one  just  mentioned,  or  to  be  afterwards  explained  by  a 
relative.     Often  it  is  merely  a  correlative  to  the  relative  qui :  — 

venit  mihi  obviam  tuus  puer,  is  mihi  litteras  abs  te  reddidit  (Att.  ii.  1.  1), 

your  hoy  met  me,  he  delivered  to  me  a  letter  from  you. 
eum  quern,  one  whom. 
eum  consulem  qui  non  dubitet  (Cat.  iv.  24),  a  consul  who  will  not  hesitate. 

e.  The  pronouns  hie,  ille,  and  is  are  used  to  point  in  either  direction, 
back  to  something  just  mentioned  or  forward  to  something  about  to 
be  mentioned. 

The  neuter  forms  often  refer  to  a  clause,  phrase,  or  idea  :  — 
est  illud  quidem  vel  maximum,  animum  videre  (Tusc.  1.  52),  that  is  in  truth 
a  very  great  thing,  —  to  see  the  soul. 

f.  The  demonstratives  are  sometimes  used  as  pronouns  of  refer- 
ence^ to  indicate  with  emphasis  a  noun  or  phrase  just  mentioned :  — 

nullam  virtus  aliam  mercedem  deslderat  praeter  banc  laudis  (Arch.  28), 
virtue  wants  no  other  reward  except  that  [just  mentioned]  of  praise. 
Note.  —  But  the  ordinary  English  use  of  that  of  is  hardly  known  in  Latin.    Com- 
monly the  genitive  construction  is  continued  without  a  pronoun,  or  some  other  con- 
struction is  preferred :  — 

cum  el  Siraonides  artem  memoriae  poUiceretur :  obllvionis,  inquit,  mallem  (Fin.  ii. 
104),  ivhen  Simonides  promised  him  the  art  of  memory,  "/  should  prefer," 
said  he,  "  [that]  of  forgetfulness." 
Caesaris  exercitus  Pompeian5s  ad  Pharsalum  vicit,  the  army  of  Csdsar  defeated 
that  of  Pompey  (the  Pompeians)  at  Pharsalus. 

298.   The  main  uses  of  idem  and  ipse  are  as  follows :  — 

a.  When  a  quality  or  act  is  ascribed  with  emphasis  to  a  person 

or  thing  already  named,  is  or  idem  (often  with  the  concessive  quidem) 

is  used  to  indicate  that  person  or  thiner :  — 


§  298]  DEMONSTRATIVE   PRONOUNS  179 

per  unum  servum  et  eum  ex  gladiatorio  ludo  (Att.  i.  16.  5),  by  means  of  a 
single  slave,  and  that  too  one  from  the  gladiatorial  school. 

vincula,  et  ea  sempiterua  (Cat.  iv.  7),  imprisonment,  and  that  perpetual. 

Ti.  Gracchus  regnum  occupare  conatus  est,  vel  regnavit  is  quidem  paucos 
mensis  (Lael.  41),  Tiberius  Gracchus  tried  to  usurp  royal  power,  or 
rather  he  actually  reigned  a  few  months. 

Note.  —  So  rarely  with  ille :  as,  —  nunc  dextra  ingeminans  ictus,  nunc  ille  sinistra 
(Aen.  V.  457),  now  dealing  redoubled  blows  with  his  right  hand,  now  (he)  with  his  left. 
[In  imitation  of  the  Homeric  6  7e:  cf.  Aen.  v.  334;  ix.  796.] 

b.  Idem,  the  same,  is  often  used  where  the  English  requires  an 
adverb  or  adverbial  phrase  (also,  too,  yet,  at  the  same  time):  — 

oratio  splendida  et  grandis  et  eadem  in  primis  faceta  (Brut.  273),  an  oration, 

brilliant,  able,  and  very  witty  too. 
cum  [haec]  dicat,  negat  idem  esse  in  Deo  gratiam  (N.  D.  i.  121),  when  he 

says  this,  he  denies  also  that  there  is  mercy  with  God  (he,  the  same  man). 

Note.  —  This  is  really  the  same  use  as  in  a  above,  but  in  this  case  the  pronoun 
cannot  be  represented  by  a  pronoun  in  English. 

c.  The  intensive  ipse,  self,  is  used  with  any  of  the  other  pronouns, 
with  a  noun,  or  with  a  temporal  adverb  for  the  sake  of  emphasis  :  — 

turpe  mihi  ipsi  videbatur  (Phil.  i.  9),  even  to  me  (to  me  myself)  it  seemed 

disgraceful. 
id  ipsum,  that  very  thing ;  quod  ipsum,  which  of  itself  alone. 
in  eum  ipsum  locum,  to  that  very  place. 
tum  ipsum  (Off.  ii.  60),  at  that  very  time. 

Note  1.  —  The  emphasis  of  ipse  is  often  expressed  in  English  hjjust,  very,  mere,  etc. 

Note  2.  —  In  English,  the  pronouns  himself  etc.  are  used  both  intensively  (as,  he 
will  come  himself)  and  reflexively  (as,  he  will  kill  himself) :  in  Latin  the  former  would 
be  translated  by  ipse,  the  latter  by  se  or  sese. 

d.  Ipse  is  often  used  alone,  substantively,  as  follows :  — 

1.  As  an  emphatic  pronoun  of  the  third  person  :  — ■ 

idque  rei  publicae  praeclarum,  ipsis  gloriosum  (Phil.  ii.  27),  and  this  was 

splendid  for  the  state,  glorious  for  themselves. 
omnes  boni  quantum  in  ipsis  fuit  (id.  ii.  29),  all  good  men  so  far  as  was  in 

their  power  (in  themselves). 
di  capiti  ipsius  generique  reservent  (Aen.  viii.  484),  may  the  gods  hold  in 

reserve  [such  a  fate]  to  fall  on  his  own  and  his  son-in-law's  head. 

2.  To  emphasize  an  omitted  subject  of  the  first  or  second  person :  — 
vobiscum  ipsi  recordamini  (Phil.  ii.  1),  remember  in  your  own  minds  (your- 
selves with  yourselves). 

3.  To  distinguish  the  principal  personage  from  subordinate  persons :  — 
ipse  dixit  (cf.  avrbs  €<pa),  he  (the  Master)  said  it. 

Nomentanus  erat  super  ipsum  (Hor.  S.  ii.  8.  23),  Nomentanus  was  above  [the 
host]  himself  [at  table]. 


180  SYNTAX:    PRONOUNS  [§§298-300 

e.  Ipse  is  often  (is  rarely)  used  instead  of  a  reflexive  (see  §  300.  h). 

f.  Ipse  usually  agrees  with  the  subject,  even  when  the  real  empha- 
sis in  English  is  on  a  reflexive  in  the  predicate  :  — 

me  ipse  consolor  (Lael.  10),  I  console  myself.  [Not  me  ipsum,  as  the  Eng- 
lish would  lead  us  to  expect.] 

Reflexive  Pronouns 

299.  The  Reflexive  Pronoun  (se),  and  usually  its  corresponding 

possessive  (suus),  are  used  in  the  predicate  to  refer  to  the  subject 

of  the  sentence  or  clause  :  — 

se  ex  navi  proiecit  (B.  G.  iv.  25),  he  threw  himself  from  the  ship. 
Dumnorigem  ad  se  vocat  (id.  i.  20),  he  calls  Dumnorlx  to  him. 
sese  castris  tenebaut  (id.  iii.  24),  they  kept  themselves  in  camp. 
contemni  se  putant  (Cat.  M.  65),  they  think  they  are  despised. 
Caesar  suas  copias  subdiicit  (B.  G.  i.  22),  Ccissar  leads  up  his  troops. 
Caesar  statuit  sibi  Rhenum  esse  transeuudum  (id.  iv.  16),  Ccesar  decided  that 
he  must  cross  the  Rhine  (the  Rhine  must  be  crossed  by  himself). 

a,  For  reflexives  of  the  first  and  second  persons  the  oblique  cases 
of  the  personal  pronouns  (mei,  tui,  etc.)  and  the  corresponding  pos- 
ses sives  (meus,  tuus,  etc.)  are  used  :  — 

morti  me  obtuli  (Mil.  94),  I  have  exposed  myself  to  death. 

hinc  te  reglnae  ad  limina  perfer  (Aen.  i.  389),  do  you  go  (bear  yourself) 

hence  to  the  queen^s  threshold. 
quid  est  quod  tantis  nos  in  laboribus  exerceamus  (Arch.  28),  what  reason  -'s 

there  why  we  should  exert  ourselves  in  so  great  toils  ? 
singulis  vobis  novenos  ex  turmis  manipulisque  vestri  similes  eligite  (Liv. 

xxi.  54),  for  each  of  you  pick  out  from  the  squadrons  and  maniples  nine 

like  yourselves. 

300.  In  a  subordinate  clause  of  a  complex  sentence  there  is  a 
double  use  of  Reflexives. 

1.  The  reflexive  may  always  be  used  to  refer  to  the  subject  of  its 
own  clause  (Direct  Reflexive) :  — 

iudicari  potest  quantum  habeat  in  se  boni  constantia  (B,  G.  i.  40),  it  can  be 
determined  how  much  good  firmness  possesses  (has  in  itself). 

[Caesar]  noluit  eum  locum  vacare,  ne  GermanI  e  suls  finibus  translrent 
(id.  i.  28),  Ccesar  did  not  wish  this  place  to  lie  vacant,  for  fear  the  Ger- 
mans wc  'Id  cj^oss  over  from  their  territories. 

si  qua  significatio  virtfltis  eluceat  ad  quara  se  similis  animus  adplicet  et 
adiungat  (Lael.  48),  if  any  sign  of  virtue  shine  forth  to  which  a  similar 
disposition  may  attach  itself. 


§300]  REFLEXIVE   PRONOUNS  181 

2.  If  the  subordinate  clause  expresses  the  words  or  thought  of  the 
subject  of  the  main  clause,  the  reflexive  is  regularly  used  to  refer  to 
that  subject  (Indirect  Reflexive)  :  — 

petienmt  ut  sibi  liceret  (B.  G.  1.  30),  they  begged  that  it  might  he  allowed 

them  (the  petitioners). 
Iccius  nuntium  mittit,  nisi  subsidium  sibi  submittatur  (id.  ii.  6),  Iccius  sends 

a  message  that  unless  relief  be  furnished  him,  etc. 
decima  legio  ei  gratias  egit,  quod  de  se  optimum  itidicium  fecisset  (id.  i.  41), 

the  tenth  legion  thanked  hhn  because  [they  said]  he  had  expressed  a  high 

opinion  of  them. 
si  obsides  ab  eis  (the  Helvetians)  sibi  (Csesar,  who  is  the  speaker)  dentur,  se 

(C£esar)  cum  eis  pacem  esse  facturum  (id.  i.  14),  [Caesar  said  that]  if 

hostages  were  given  him  by  them  he  would  make  peace  with  them.  ■ 

Note.  —  Sometimes  the  person  or  thing  to  which  the  reflexive  refers  is  not  the 
grammatical  subject  of  the  main  clause,  though  it  is  in  effect  the  subject  of  discourse : 
Thus, — cum  ipsi  deo  nihil  minus  gratum  futurum  sit  quam  non  omnibus  patere  ad  se 
placandum  viam  (Legg.  ii.25),  since  to  God  himself  nothing  will  he  less  pleasing  than 
that  the  way  to  appease  him  should  not  he  open  to  all  men. 

a.  If  the  subordinate  clause  does  not  express  the  words  or  thought 
of  the  main  subj  ect,  the  reflexive  is  not  regularly  used,  though  it  is 
occasionally  found :  — 

sunt  ita  multi  ut  eos  career  capere  non  possit  (Cat.  ii.  22),  they  are  so  many 
that  the  prison  cannot  hold  them.  [Here  se  could  not  be  used ;  so  also 
in  the  example  following.] 

ibi  in  proximis  villis  ita  bipartite  fuerunt,  ut  Tiberis  inter  eos  et  pons  inter- 
esset  (id.  iii.  5),  there  they  stationed  themselves  in  the  nearest  farm- 
houses, in  two  divisions,  in  such  a  manner  that  the  Tiber  and  the  bridge 
were  between  them  (the  divisions). 

non  fuit  eo  contentus  quod  ei  praeter  spem  acciderat  (Mpjiil.  25),  he  was  not 
content  with  that  which  had  happened  to  him  beyond  his  hope. 

Compare ;  qui  fit,  Maecenas,  ut  nemo,  quam  sibi  sortem  seu  ratio  dederit 
seu  fors  obiecerit,  ilia  contentus  vivat  (Hor.  S.  i.  1.  1),  how  comes  it, 
Mcecenas,  that  nobody  lives  contented  with  that  lot  which  choice  has 
assigned  him  or  chance  has  thrown  in  his  way  ?  [Here  sibi  is  used  to 
put  the  thought  into  the  mind  of  the  discontented  man.] 

5.  Ipse  is  often  (is  rarely)  used  instead  of  an  indirect  reflexive, 
either  to  avoid  ambiguity  or  from  carelessness  ;  and  in  later  writers 
is  sometimes  found  instead  of  the  direct  reflexive :  — 

cur  de  sua  virtute  aut  de  ipsius  diligentia  desperarent  (B.  G.  i.  40),  why 

■     (he  asked)  should  they  despair  of  their  own  courage  or  his  diligence  ? 
omnia  aut  ipsos  aut  hostes  populates  (Q.  C.  iii.  5.  6),  [they  said  that]  either 
they  themselves  or  the  enemy  had  laid  all  waste.     [Direct  reflexive.  ] 


182  SYNTAX:  PRONOUNS  [§§  300,  301 

qui  s6  ex  his  minus  timidos  existimari  volebant,  non  se  hostem  vererl,  sed 
angustias  itineris  et  magnitudinem  silvaruni  quae  intercederent  inter 
ipsos  (tlie  persons  referred  to  by  se  above)  atque  Ariovistum  .  .  .  timers 
dicebant  (B.  G.  i.  39),  those  of  them  who  wished  to  he  thought  less  timid 
said  they  did  not  fear  the  enemy,  but  were  afraid  of  the  narrows  and  the 
vast  extent  of  the  forests  which  were  between  themselves  and  Ariovistus. 

audistis  ntiper  dicere  legatos  Tyndaritanos  Mercurium  qui  sacris  anuiver-. 
sariis  apud  eos  coleretur  esse  sublatum  (Verr.  iv.  84),  you  have  just  heard 
the  ambassadors  from  Tyndaris  say  that  the  statue  of  Mercury  which  was 
worshipped  with  annual  rites  among  them  was  taken  away.  [Here  Cicero 
wavers  between  apud  eos  colebatur,  a  remark  of  bis  own,  and  apud  se 
coleretur,  the  words  of  the  ambassadors.  e5s  does  not  strictly  refer  to 
the  ambassadors,  but  to  the  people  —  the  TyndaritanL] 

301.  Special  uses  of  the  Reflexive  are  the  following :  — 

a.  The  reflexive  in  a  subordinate  clause  sometimes  refers  to  the 
subject  of  a  suppressed  main  clause  :  — 

Paetus  omnis  libros  quos  frater  suus  reliquisset  mihi  donavit  (Att.  ii.  1), 
Pcetus  gave  me  all  the  books  which  (as  he  said  in  the  act  of  donation) 
his  brother  had  left  him. 

b.  The  reflexive  may  refer  to  any  noun  or  pronoun  in  its  own  clause 
which  is  so  emphasized  as  to  become  the  subject  of  discourse:  — 

Socratem  Gives  sul  interf  ecerunt,  Socrates  was  put  to  death  by  his  own  fellow- 
citizens. 

qui  poterat  salus  sua  cuiquam  non  probari  (Mil.  81),  how  can  any  one  fail 
to  approve  his  own  safety  ?  [In  this  and  the  preceding  example  the 
emphasis  is  preserved  in  English  by  the  change  of  voice.] 

hunc  si  secGti  erunt  sui  comites  (Cat.  ii.  10),  this  man,  if  his  companions 
follow  him. 

Note.  —  Occasionally  the  clause  to  which  the  reflexive  really  belongs  is  absorbed : 
as,  —  studeo  sanare  sibi  ipsos  (Cat.  ii.  17),  /  am  anxious  to  cure  these  men  for  their  oion 
benefit  (i.e.  ut  sani  sibi  sint), 

c.  Suus  is  used  for  one's  own  as  emphatically  opposed  to  that  of 
others,  in  any  part  of  the  sentence  and  with  reference  to  any  word 
in  it :  — 

suis  flammis  delete  Fidenas  (Liv.  iv.  33),  destroy  Fidenm  loith  its  own  fires 
(the  fires  kindled  by  that  city,  figuratively).     [Cf.  Cat.  i.  32.] 

d.  The  reflexive  may  depend  upon  a  verbal  noun  or  adjective:  — 
sui  laus,  self-praise. 

habetis  ducem  memo  rem  vestri,  oblitum  sui  (Cat.  iv.  19),  7/ou  have  a  leader 

mindful  of  you,  forgetful  of  himself. 
perditi  homines  cum  sui  similibus  servis  (Phil.  1.  5),  abandoned  men  with 

slaves  like  themselves. 


§§  301,  302j  POSSESSIVE   PRONOUNS  183 

e.  The  reflexive  may  refer  to  the  subject  implied  in  an  infinitive 
or  verbal  abstract  used  indefinitely  :  — 

contentum  suis  rebus  esse  maximae  sunt  divitiae  (Par.  51),  the  greatest 

wealth  is  to  be  content  with  one''s  own. 
cui  proposita  sit  conservatio  sui  (Fin.  v.  37),  one  whose  aim  is  self-preservation. 

f.  Inter  se  (nos,  vos),  among  themselves  (ourselves,  yourselves),  is 
regularly  used  to  express  reciprocal  action  or  relation :  — 

inter  se  confligunt  (Cat.  i.  25),  contend  with  each  other. 
inter  se  continentur  (Arch.  2),  are  joined  to  each  other. 

Possessive  Pronouns 

302.  The  Possessive  Pronouns  are  derivative  adjectives,  which 
take  the  gender,  number,  and  case  of  the  noun  to  which  they 
belong.,  not  those  of  the  possessor :  — 

haec  ornamenta  sunt  mea  (Val.  iv.  4),  these  are  my  jewels,     [mea  is  neuter 

plural,  though  the  speaker  is  a  woman.] 
mei  sunt  ordines,  mea  discriptio  (Cat.  M.  59),  mine  are  the  rows,  mine  the 

arrangement,     [mea  is  feminine,  though  the  speaker  is  Cyrus.] 
multa  in  nostro  collegio  praeclara  (id.  64),  [there  are]  many  fine  things  in 

our  college,     [nostro  is  neuter  singular,  though  men  are  referred  to.] 
GermanI  suas  copias  castris  edtixerunt  (B.  G.  i.  51),  the  Germans  led  their 
troops  out  of  the  camp. 

a.  To  express  possession  and  similar  ideas  the  possessive  pro- 
nouns are  regularly  used,  not  the  genitive  of  the  personal  or  refiexive 
pronouns  (§  343.  a) :  — 

domus  mea,  my  house.     [Not  domus  mei.] 
pater  noster,  our  father.     [Not  pater  nostri.] 
patrimonium  tuum,  your  inheritance.     [Not  tui.] 

Note  1.  —  Exceptions  are  rare  in  classic  Latin,  common  in  later  writers.  For 
the  use  of  a  possessive  pronoun  instead  of  an  Objective  Genitive,  see  §  348.  a. 

Note  2.  —  The  Interrogative  Possessive  cuius,  -a,  -um,  occurs  in  poetry  and  early 
Latin:  as,  —  cuium  pecus  (Eel.  iii.  1) ,  whose  flock  ?  The  genitive  cuius  is  generally  used 
instead. 

b.  The  possessives  have  often  the  acquired  meaning  of  peculiar  to, 
favorable  or  propitious  towards,  the  person  or  thing  spoken  of  :  — 

[petere]  ut  sua  dementia  ac  mansuetudine  utatur  (B.  G.  ii.  14),  they  asked 
(they  said)  that  he  would  shoio  his  [wonted]  clemency  and  humanity. 

ignorant!  quem  portum  petat  nullus  suus  ventus  est  (Sen.  Ep.  71.  3),  to 
him  who  knows  not  what  port  he  is  bound  to,  no  wind  is  fair  (his  own). 

tempore  tuo  pugnasti  (Liv.  xxxviii.  45.  10),  did  you  fight  at  a  fit  time? 

Note.  —  This  use  is  merely  a  natural  development  of  the  meaning  of  the  possess- 
ive, and  the  pronoun  may  often  be  rendered  literally. 


184  SYNTAX:    PRONOUNS  [§§302,303 

c.  The  possessives  are  regularly  omitted  (like  other  pronouns) 
when  they  are  plainly  implied  in  the  context :  — 

socium  fraudavit,  he  cheated  his  imrtner.     [socium  suum  would  be  distinctive, 
his  partner  (and  not  another's) ;  suum  socium,  emphatic,  his  own  partner.  ] 

d.  Possessive  pronouns  and  adjectives  impl3dng  possession  are 
oiten  used  substantively  to  denote  some  special  class  or  relation  :  — 

nostri,  our  countrymen^  or  men  of  our  party. 

suos  continebat  (B.  G.  i.  15),  he  held  his  men  in  check. 

flamma  extrema  meorum  (Aen.  ii.  431),  last  flames  of  my  countrymen. 

SuUani,  the  veterans  of  Sulla''s  army;  Pompeiani,  the  partisans  of  Pompey. 

Note.  —  There  is  no  reason  to  suppose  an  .ellipsis  here.  The  adjective  becomes 
a  noun  like  other  adjectives  (see  §  288). 

e.  A  possessive  pronoun  or  an  adjective  implying  possession  may 
take  an  appositive  in  the  genitive  case  agreeing  in  gender,  number, 
and  case  with  an  implied  noun  or  pronoun  :  — 

mea  solius  causa  (Ter.  Heaut.  129),  for  my  sake  only. 
in  nostro  omnium  fletu  (Mil.  92),  amid  the  tears  of  us  all. 
ex  Anniana  Milonis  domo  (Att.  iv.  3.  3),  out  of  Annius  MiWs  house.    [Equiva- 
lent to  ex  Anni  Mil5nis  domo.] 
nostra  omnium  patria,  the  country  of  us  all. 
suum  ipsius  regnum,  his  own  kingdom. 
For  the  special  reflexive  use  of  the  possessive  suus,  see  §§  299,  300. 

Relative  Pronouns 

303.  A  Relative  Pronoun  agrees  with  some  word  expressed  or  implied  either  in 
its  own  clause,  or  (ofteu)  in  the  antecedent  (demonstrative)  clause.  In  the  fullest  con- 
struction the  antecedent  is  expressed  in  both  clauses,  with  more  commonly  a  corre- 
sponding demonstrative  to  which  the  relative  refers :  as,  —  iter  in  ea  loca  facere  coepit, 
quibus  in  locis  esse  Germanos  andiebat  (B.  G.  iv.  7),  he  began  to  march  into  those 
PLACES  in  which  places.  Ae  heard  the  Germans  were.  But  one  of  these  nouns  is  com- 
monly omitted. 

The  antecedent  is  in  Latin  very  frequently  (rarely  in  English)  found  in  the  relative 
clause,  but  more  commonly  in  the  antecedent  clause. 

Thus  relatives  serve  two  uses  at  the  same  time :  — 

1.  As  Nouns  (or  Adjectives)  in  their  own  clause:  as,  —  ei  qui  Alesiae  obsldebantur 
(B.  G.  vii.  77),  those  ivho  xoere  besieged  at  Alesia. 

2.  As  Connectives :  as,  —  T.  Balventius,  qui  superiore  anno  primum  pllum  duxerat 
(id.  V.  35),  Titus  Balventius,  who  the  year  before  had  been  a  centurion  of  the  first  rank. 

When  the  antecedent  is  in  a  different  sentence,  the  relative  is  often  equivalent 
to  a  demonstrative  with  a  conjunction :  as,  —  quae  cum  ita  sint  (=et  cum  ea  ita  sint), 
[and]  since  this  is  so. 

The  subordinating  force  did  not  belong  to  the  relative  originally,  but  was  developed 
from  an  interrogative  or  indefinite  meaning  specialized  by  use.  But  the  subordinat- 
ing and  tlie  later  connective  force  were  acquired  by  qui  at  such  an  early  period  that 
the  steps  of  the  process  cannot  now  be  traced. 


§§304-306]  RELATIVE   PRONOUNS  185 

304.  A  Relative  Pronoun  indicates  a  relation  between  its  own 
clause  and  some  substantive.  This  substantive  is  called  the  Ante- 
cedent of  the  relative. 

Thus,  in  the  sentence  — 
eum  nihil  delectabat  quod  fas  esset  (Mil.  43),  nothing  pleased  him  which  was 
rights 
the  relative  quod  connects  its  antecedent  nihil  with  the  predicate  fas 
esset,  indicating  a  relation  betAveen  the  two. 

305.  A  Relative  agrees  with  its  Antecedent  in  Grender  and 
Number;  but  its  Case  depends  on  its  construction  in  the  clause 
in  which  it  stands :  — 

ea  dies  quam  constituerat  venit  (B.  G.  i.  8),  that  day  which  he  had  appointed 

came. 
pontem  qui  erat  ad  Genavam  iubet  rescindi  (id.  i.  7),  he  orders  the  bridge 

vjhich  was  near  Geneva  to  be  cut  down. 
AduatucI,  de  quibus  supra  dixiinus,  domum  reverterunt  (id,  ii.  29),  the 

Aduatuci,  of  whom  we  have  spoken  above,  returned  home. 

Note.  —  This  rule  applies  to  all  relative  words  so  far  as  they  are  variable  in  form: 
as,  qualis,  quantus,  quicumque,  etc. 

a.  If  a  relative  has  two  or  more  antecedents,  it  follows  the  rules 
for  the  agreement  of  predicate  adjectives  (§§  286,  287^ :  — 

filiurn  et  filiam,  quos  valde  dilexit,  uno  tempore  amisit,  he  lost  at  the  same 

time  a  son  and  a  daughter  whom  he  dearly  loved. 
grandes  natu  matres  et  parvull  liberi,  quorum  iitrorumque  aetas  misericor- 
diam  nostram  requirit  (Verr.  v.  129),  aged  matrons  and  little  children, 
whose  time  of  life  in  each  case  demands  our  compassion. 
otium  atque  divitiae,  quae  prima  mortales  putant  (Sail.  Cat.  36),  idleness  and 

wealth,  lohich  men  count  the  first  (objects  of  desire), 
eae  fruges  et  fructus  quos  terra  gignit  (N.  D.  ii.  37),  those  fruits  and  crops 
which  the  earth  produces. 
For  the  Person  of  the  verb  agreeing  with  the  Relative,  see  §  316.  a. 

306.  A  Relative  generally  agrees  in  gender  and  number  with  an 
appositive  or  predicate  noun  in  its  own  clause,  rather  than  with 
an  antecedent  of  different  gender  or  number  (cf.  §  296.  a):  — 

mare  etiam  quern  Neptimum  esse  dicebas  (N.  D.  iii.  62),  the  sea,  too,  which 

you  said  was  Neptune.     [Not  quod.] 
Th6bae  ipsae,  quod  Boeotiae  caput  est  (Liv.  xlii.  44),  even  Thebes,  luhich  is 

the  chief  city  of  Bceotia.     [Not  quae.] 

Note.  —  This  rule  is  occasionally  violated :  as,  —  flumen  quod  appellatur  Tamesis 
(B.  G.  V.  11),  a  river  which  is  called  the  Thames. 


186  SYNTAX:    PRONOUNS  [§§306,807 

a,  A  relative  occasionally  agrees  with  its  antecedent  in  case  (by 

attraction)  :  — 

SI  aliquid  agas  e5rum  quorum  consuesti  (Fam.  v.  14),  if  you  should  do  some- 
thing of  what  you  are  used  to  do.     [For  eorum  quae.] 
Note.  —  Occasionally  the  antecedent  is  attracted  into  the  case  of  the  relative:  — 
urbem  quam  statuo  vestra  est  (Aen.  i.  573),  the  city  which  I  am  founding  is  yours. 
Naucratem,  quern  con  venire  volul,  in  navi  non  erat  (PI.  Am.  1009),  Naucrates, 
ivhom  I  loished  to  meet,  was  not  on  hoai-d  the  ship. 

h,  A  relative  may  agree  in  gender  and  number  with  an  implied 
antecedent :  — 

quartum  genus  ...  qui  in  vetere  aere  alieno  vacillant  (Cat.  ii.  21),  a  fourth 

class,  who  are  staggering  under  old  debts. 
unus  ex  eo  nuniero  qui  paratl  erant  (lug.  35),  one  of  the  number  [of  those] 

who  were  ready. 
coniuravere  paucl,  de  qua  [i.e.  coniuratione]  dicam  (Sail.  Cat.  18),  a  few 
have  conspired,  of  which  [conspiracy]  I  will  speak. 

Note.  —  So  regularly  when  the  antecedent  is  implied  in  a  possessive  pronoun :  as, 
—  nostra  acta,  quos  tyrannos  vocas  (Vat.  29),  the  deeds  of  iis,  whom  you  call  tyrants. 
[Here  quos  agrees  with  the  nostrum  (genitive  plural)  implied  in  nostra.] 

Antecedent  of  the  Relative 

307.  The  Antecedent  Noun  sometimes  appears  in  both  clauses  ; 
but  usually  only  in  the  one  that  precedes.  Sometimes  it  is 
wholly  omitted. 

a.  The  antecedent  noun  may  be  repeated  in  the  relative  clause  :  — 
loci  natiira  erat  haec  quem  locum  nostri  delegerant  (B.  G.  ii.  18),  the  nature 

of  the  ground  which  our  men  had  chosen  was  this. 

b.  The  antecedent  noun  may  appear  only  in  the  relative  clause, 
agreeing  with  the  relative  in  case  :  — 

quas  res  in  consulatii  nostro  gessimus  attigit  hic  versibus  (Arch.  28),  he  has 
touched  in  verse  the  things  which  I  did  in  my  consulship. 

quae  prima  innocentis  mihi  defensio  est  oblata  suscepi  (Sull.  92),  I  under- 
took the  first  defence  of  an  innocent  man  that  was  offered  me. 

Note. — In  this  case  the  relative  clause  usually  comes  first  (cf.  §  308.  d)  and  a 
demonstrative  usually  stands  in  the  antecedent  clause :  — 

quae  pars  civitatis  calamitatem  populo  Romano  intulerat,  ea  princeps  poenas  per- 

solvit  (B.  G.  i.  12),  that  part  of  the  state  which  had  brought  disaster  on  the 

Roman  people  was  the  first  to  pay  the  penalty. 
quae  gratia  currum  fuit  vivis,  eadem  sequitur  (Aen.  vi.  653),  the  same  pleasure 

that  they  took  in  chariots  in  their  lifetime  follows  them  (after  death). 
qui  fit  ut  nemo,  quam  sibi  sortem  ratio  demerit,  ilia  contentus  vivat  (cf .  Hor.  S.  i. 

1. 1),  horo  does  it  happen  that  no  one  lives  contented  with  the  lot  which  choice 

has  assigned  him? 


§§  307,  308]  RELATIVE   PRONOUNS  187 

c.  The  antecedent  may  be  omitted,  especially  if  it  is  indefinite  : 

qui  decimae  legionis  aquilam  ferebat  (B.  G.  iv.  25),  [the  man]  who  bore  the 

eagle  of  the  tenth  legion. 
qui  cognoscerent  misit  (id.  i.  21),  he  sent  [men]  to  reconnoitre. 

d.  The  phrase  id  quod  or  quae  res  may  be  used  (instead  of  quod 
alone)  to  refer  to  a  group  of  words  or  an  idea :  — 

[obtrectatum  est]  Gablnio  dicam  anne  Pompeio  ?  an  utrlque  —  id  quod  est 
verius?  (Manil.  57),  an  affront  has  been  offered  — shall  I  say  to  Gabinius 
or  to  Pompey  f  or  —  which  is  truer  —  to  both  f 

multum  sunt  in  venationibus,  quae  res  vires  alit  (B.  G.  iv.  1),  they  spend 
much  time  in  hunting,  which  [practice]  increases  their  strength. 

Note.  —  But  quod  alone  often  occurs :  as,  —  Cassius  noster,  quod  mihi  magflae  volup- 
tati  fult,  hostem  reiecerat  (Fam.  ii.  10),  our  friend  Cassius  —  which  was  a  great  satis- 
faction to  me  —  had  driven  hack  the  enemy. 

e.  The  antecedent  noun,  when  in  apposition  with  the  main  clause, 
or  with  some  word  of  it,  is  put  in  the  relative  clause :  — 

firm!  [amici],  cuius  generis  est  magna  penuria  (Lael.  62),  steadfast  friends, 
a  class  of  which  there  is  great  lack  (of  which  class  there  is,  etc.). 

/.  A  predicate  adj  ective  (especially  a  superlative)  belonging  to  the 
antecedent  may  stand  in  the  relative  clause :  — 

vasa  ea  quae  pulcherrima  apud  eum  viderat  (Yerr.  iv.  63) ,  those  most  beauti- 
ful vessels  which  he  had  seen  at  his  house.  [Nearly  equivalent  to  the 
vessels  of  which  he  had  seen  some  very  beautiful  ones.  ] 

Special  Uses  of  the  Relative 

308.  In  the  use  of  Relatives,  the  following  points  are  to  be 
observed :  — 

a.  The  relative  is  never  omitted  in  Latin,  as  it  often  is  in  Eng- 
lish :  — 

liber  quem  mihi  dedisti,  the  book  you  gave  me. 

is  sum  qui  semper  fui,  I  am  the  same  man  I  always  was. 

eo  in  loco  est  de  quo  tibi  loctitus  sum,  he  is  in  the  place  I  told  you  of. 

&.  When  two  relative  clauses  are  connected  by  a  copulative  con- 
junction, a  relative  pronoun  sometimes  stands  in  the  first  and  a 
demonstrative  in  the  last :  — 

erat  profectus  obviam  legionibus  Macedonicis  quattuor,  quas  sibi  conciliare 
pecunia  cogitabat  easque  ad  urbem  adducere  (Fam.  xii.  23.  2),  he  had 
set  out  to  meet  four  legions  from  Macedonia,  which  he  thought  to  vnn  over 
to  himself  by  a  gift  of  money  and  to  lead  (them)  to  the  city. 


188  SYNTAX:    PRONOUNS  [§  308 

c.  A  relative  clause  in  Latin  often  takes  tlie  place  of  some  other 
construction  in  English,  —  particularly  of  a  participle,  an  appositive, 
or  a  noun  of  agency  :  — 

leges  quae  nunc  sunt,  the  existing  laws  (the  laws  which  now  exist). 

Caesar  qui  Galliam  vicit,  Ccesar  the  conqueror  of  Gaul. 

iusta  gloria  qui  est  fructus  virtutis  (Pison.  57),  true  glory  [which  is]  tJie  fruit 

of  virtue. 
ills  qui  petit,  the  plaintiff  {he  who  sues), 
qui  .legit,  a  reader  (one  who  reads). 

d.  In  formal  or  emphatic  discourse,  the  relative  clause  usually 
comes  first,  often  containing  the  antecedent  noun  (cf.  §  307.  b) :  — 

quae  pars  civitatis  Helvetiae  insignem  calamitatem  populo  Romano  intulerat, 

ea  princeps  poenas  persolvit  (B.  G.  i.  12),  the  portion  of  the  Helvetian 

state  which  had  brought  a  serious  disaster  on  the  Roman  people  was  the 

first  to  pay  the  penalty. 

Note.  —  In  colloquial  language,  the  relative  clause  in  such  cases  often  contains  a 

redundant  demonstrative  pronoun  which  logically  belongs  in  the  antecedent  clause: 

as,  —  ille  qui  consul te  cavet,  diiitiue  uti  bene  licet  partum  bene  (Plant.  Rud.  1240) , 

he  who  is  on  his  guard,  he  may  long  enjoy  what  he  ?ias  well  obtained. 

e.  The  relative  with  an  abstract  noun  may  be  used  in  a  parenthet- 
ical clause  to  characterize  a  person^  like  the  English  such :  — 

quae  vestra  prudentia  est  (Gael.  45),  such  is  your  loisdom.  [Equivalent  to 
pr5  vestra  prudentia.] 

audisses  comoedos  vel  lectorem  vel  lyristen,  vel,  quae  mea  liberalitas,  onines 
(Plin.  Ep.  i.  15),  you  would  have  listened  to  comedians,  or  a  reader,  or  a 
lyre-player,  or — such  is  my  liberality  —  to  all  of  them. 

/.  A  relative  pronoun  (or  adverb)  often  stands  at  the  beginning  of 
an  independent  sentence  or  clause,  serving  to  connect  it  with  the 
sentence  or  clause  that  precedes  :  — 

Caesar  statuit  exspectandam  classem;   quae  ubi  convenit  (B.  G.  iii.  14), 
Coesar  decided  that  he  must  wait  for  the  fleet;  and  when  this  had  come 
together,  etc. 
quae  qui  audiebant,  and  those  who  heard  this  (which  things), 
quae  cum  ita  sint,  and  since  this  is  so. 

quorum  quod  simile  factum  (Cat.  iv.  13),  lohat  deed  of  theirs  like  this? 
quo  cum  venisset,  and  when  he  had  come  there  (whither  when  he  had  come). 

Note.  —  This  arrangement  is  common  even  when  another  relative  or  an  interrog- 
ative follows.  The  relative  may  usually  be  translated  by  an  English  demonstrative, 
with  or  without  a7id. 

g.  A  relative  adverb  is  regularly  used  in  referring  to  an  antecedent 
in  the  Locative  case ;  so,  often,  to  express  any  relation  of  place  instead 
of  the  formal  relative  pronoun  :  — 


§§308-310]  INDEFINITE   PRONOUNS  189 

mortuus  Cfimis  qu5  se  contulerat  (Liv,  ii.  21),  having  died  at  Cumm,  whither 
he  had  retired.     [Here  in  quam  urbem  might  be  used,  but  not  in  quas.] 

locus  quo  aditus  noii  erat,  a  place  to  which  (whither)  there  was  no  access. 

regna  unde  genus  ducis  (Aen.  v.  801),  the  kingdom  from  which  you  derive 
your  race. 

unde  petitur,  the  defendant  (he  from  whom  something  is  demanded). 

h.  The  relatives  qui,  qualis,  quantus,  quot,  etc.  are  often  rendered 

simply  by  as  in  English :  — 

idem  quod  semper,  the  same  as  always. 

cum  esset  talis  qualem  te  esse  video  (Mur.  32),  since  he  was  such  a  man  as  1 

see  you  are. 
tanta  dimicatio  quanta  numquam  fait  (Att.  vii.  1.  2),  such  a  fight  as  never 

was  before. 
tot  mala  quot  sidera  (Ov.  Tr.  i.  5.  47),  as  many  troubles  as  stars  in  the  sky. 

i.  The  general  construction  of  relatives  is  found  in  clauses  intro- 
duced by  relative  adverbs :  as,  ubi,  quo,  unde,  cum,  quare. 

Indefinite  Pronouns 

309.  The  Indefinite  Pronouns  are  used  to  indicate  that  some 
person  or  thing  is  meant,  without  designating  what  one. 

310.  Quis,  quispiam,  aliquis,  quidam,  are  particular  indefinites^  mean- 
ing some.,  a  certain^  any.  Of  these,  quis,  ayiy  one,  is  least  definite, 
and  quidam,  a  certain  one.,  most  definite  ;  aliquis  and  quispiam,  some 
one.,  stand  between  the  two :  — 

dixerit  quis  (quispiam),  some  one  may  say. 

aliqui  philosophi  ita  putant,  some  philosophers  think  so.     [quidam  would  mean 

certain  persons  defined  to  the  speaker's  mind,  though  not  named.] 
habitant  hie  quaedam  mulieres  pauperculae  (Ter.  Ad.  647),  some  poor  women 

live  here  [i.e.  some  women  he  knows  of;  some  women  or  other  would 

be  aliquae  or  nescio  quae]. 

a.  The  indefinite  quis  is  rare  except  in  the  combinations  si  quis,  if 
any ;  nisi  quis,  if  om.y  .  .  .  not ;  ne  quis,  lest  any,  in  order  that  none  ; 
num  quis  (ecquis),  ivhether  any  ;  and  in  relative  clauses. 

b.  The  compounds  quispiam  and  aliquis  are  often  used  instead  of 
quis  after  si,  nisi,  ne,  and  num,  and  are  rather  more  emphatic :  — 

quid  sT  hoc  quispiam  voluit  dens  (Ter.  Eun.  875),  what  if  some  god  had 

desired  this  f 
nisi  alicui  suoruui  negotium  daret  (Nep.  Dion.  8.  2),  unless  he  should  employ 

some  one  of  his  friends. 
cavebat  Pompeius  omnia,  ne  aliquid  vos  timeretis  (Mil.  66),  Pompey  took 

every  precaution,  so  that  you  might  have  no  fear 


190  SYNTAX:    PRONOUNS  [§§311-313 

311.  In  a,  2? articular  negative  aliquis  (aliqui),  some  one  (some)^  is 
regularly  used,  where  in  a  universal  negative  quisquam,  aiit/  one, 
or  ullus,  any,  would  be  required :  — 

iustitia  numquam  nocet  cuiquam  (Fin.  i.  50),  justice  never  does  harm  to  any- 
body,    [alicui  would  mean  to  somebody  who  possesses  it.] 

non  sine  aliquo  metu,  not  without  some  fear.  But,  —  sine  ullo  metii,  without 
any  fear. 

cum  aliquid  non  habeas  (Tusc.  i.  88),  when  there  is  something  you  have  not. 

Note,  — The  same  distinction  holds  between  quis  and  aliquis  on  the  one  hand,  and 
quisquam  (ullus)  on  the  other,  in  conditional  and  other  sentences  when  a  negative  is 
expressed  or  suggested :  — 

si  quisquam,  ille  sapiens  fuit  (Lael.  9),  if  any  man  was  (ever)  a  sage,  he  was. 
dum  praesidia  iilla  fuerunt  (Rose.  Am.  126),  ivhile  there  were  any  armed  forces. 
si  quid  in  te  peccavi  (Att.  iii.  15.  4),  if  I  have  done  wrong  towards  you  [in  any 
particular  case  (see  §  310)]. 

312.  Quivis  or  quilibet  {any  one  you  will),  quisquam,  and  the  cor- 
responding adjective  ullus,  any  at  all,  are  general  indefinites. 

Quivis  and  quilibet  are  used  chiefly  in  affirmative  clauses,  quisquam 
and  iillus  in  clauses  where  a  universal  negative  is  expressed  or  sug- 
gested :  — 

non  cuivis  homini  contingit  adire  Corinthum  (Hor.  Ep.  1.  17.  36),  it  is  not  every 

man''s  luck  to  go  to  Corinth.     [n5n  cuiquam  would  mean  not  any  ??mn's.] 

quemlibet  mode  aliquem  (Acad.  ii.  132),  anybody  you  will,  provided  it  be 

somebody. 
si  quisquam  est  timidus,  is  ego  sum  (Fam.  vi.  14.  1),  if  any  man  is  timorous, 

I  am  he. 
SI  tempus  est  iillum  iiire  hominis  necandi  (Mil.  9),  if  there  is  any  occasion 
whatever  when  homicide  is  justifiable. 
Note.  —  The  use  of  the  indefinites  is  very  various,  and  must  be  learned  from  the 
Lexicon  and  from  practice.    The  choice  among  them  may  depend  merely  on  the  point 
of  view  of  the  speaker,  so  that  they  are  often  practically  interchangeable.    The  differ- 
ences are  (with  few  exceptions)  those  of  logic,  not  of  syntax. 

313.  The  distributives  quisque  {every),  uterque  {each  of  two),  and 
unus  quisque  {every  single  one)  are  used  in  general  assertions :  — 

bonus  liber  melior  est  quisque  quo  maior  (Plin.  Ep.  i.  20.  4),  the  larger  a 

good  book  is,  the  better  (each  good  book  is  better  in  proportion,  etc.). 
ambo  exercitus  suas  quisque  abeunt  domos(Liv.  ii.   7.   1),  both  armies  go 

away,  every  man  to  his  home. 
uterque  utrique  erat  exercitus  in  conspectu.  (B.  G.  vii.  35),  each  army  was 

in  sight  of  the  other  (each  to  each), 
poniteante  oculos  unumquemque  regum  (Par.  i.  11),  set  before  your  eyes  each 

of  the  kings. 


§§  313,  314]  INDEFINITE   PRONOUNS  191 

a, .  Quisque  regularly  stands  in  a  dependent  clause,  if  there  is  one:  — 

quo  quisque  est  sollertior,  hoc  docet  iracundius  (Rose.  Com.  31),  the  keener- 

witted  a  man  is,  the  more  impatiently  he  teaches. 

Note.  —  Quisque  is  generally  postpositive  i :  as,  suum  cuique,  to  every  man  his  own. 

&.  Quisque  is  idiomatically  used  with  superlatives  and  with  ordinal 

numerals :  — 

nobilissimus  quisque,  all  the  noblest  (one  after  the  other  in  the  order  of  their 

nobility).  2 
primo  quoque  tempore  (Rose.  Am.  36),  at  the  very  first  opportunity. 
antlquissimum  quodque  tempus  (B.  G.  i.  45),  the  most  ancient  times. 
deeimus  quisque  (id.  v.  52),  one  in  ten. 

Note  1.  — Two  superlatives  with  quisque  imply  a  proportion :  as,  —  sapientissimus 
quisque  aequissimo  animo  moritur  (Cat.  M.  83),  the  wisest  men  die  with  the  greatest 
equanimity. 

Note  2.  —  Quotus  quisque  has  the  signification  of  how  many,  pray?  often  in  a  dis- 
paraging sense  {how  few) :  — 

quotus  enim  quisque  disertus?  quotus  quisque  iuris  peritus  est  (Plane.  62),  for  how 

few  are  eloquent!  how  few  are  learned  in  the  law  I 
quotus  enim  istud  quisque  fecisset  (Lig.  26), /or  how  many  would  have  done  this? 
[i.e.  scarcely  anybody  would  have  done  it]. 

314.  Nemo,  no  one,  is  used  of  persons  only  — 

1.  As  a  substantive  :  — 
neminem  acctisat,  he  accuses  no  one. 

2.  As  an  adjective  pronoun  instead  of  nullus  :  — 

vir  nemo  bonus  (Legg.  ii.  41),  no  good  man. 

Note. — Even  when  used  as  a  substantive,  nemo  may  take  a  noun  in  apposition; 
as,  —  nemo  scriptor,  nobody  [who  is]  a  writer. 

a,  Nullus,  no,  is  commonly  an  adjective;  but  in  the  genitive  and 
ablative  singular  it  is  regularly  used  instead  of  the  corresponding 
cases  of  nemo,  and  in  the  plural  it  may  be  either  an  adjective  or  a 
substantive :  — 

niillum  mittitur  telum  (B.  C.  ii.  13),  not  a  missile  is  thrown. 

niillo  hoste  prohibente  (B.  G.  iii.  6),  without  opposition  from  the  enemy. 

nullius  insector  calamitatem  (Phil.  ii.  98),  I  persecute  the  misfortune  of  no  one. 

niillo  adiuvante  (id.  x.  4),  with  the  help  of  no  one  (no  one  helping). 

nulli  erant  praedones  (Flace.  28),  there  were  no  pirates. 

nuUi  eximentur  (Pison.  94),  none  shall  be  taken  away. 
For  non  nemo,  non  nullus  (non  nulli),  see  §  326.  a. 

1  Tliat  is,  it  does  not  stand  first  in  its  clause. 

2  As,  in  taking  things  one  by  one  off  a  pile,  each  thing  is  uppermost  when  you 
take  it. 


192  SYNTAX:    PRONOUNS  [§315 

Alius  and  Alter 

315.  Alius  means  simply  other^  another  (of  an  indefinite  num- 
ber); alter,  the  other  (of  two),  often  tiie  second  in  a  seiies ; ,  ceteri 
and  reliqui,  all  the  rest,  the  others  ;  alteruter,  one  of  the  two :  —  ■ 
propterea  quod  aliud  iter  haberent  nullum  (B.  G.  i.  7),  because  (as  they 

said)  they  had  no  other  way. 
uni  epistulae  respond!,  venio  ad  alteram  (Fam.  ii.  17.  6),  one  letter  I  have 

answered,  I  come  to  the  other. 
alterum  genus  (Cat.  ii.  19),  the  second  class. 
iecissem  ipse  me  potius  in  profundum  ut  ceteros  conservarem  (Sest.  45),  I 

should  have  rather  thrown  myself  into  the  deep  to  save  the  rest. 
Servilius  consul,  reliquique  magistratus  (B.  C.  iii.  21),  Servilius  the  consul 

and  the  rest  of  the  magistrates. 
cum  sit  necesse  alterum  utrum  vincere  (Fam.  vi.  3),  since  it  must  be  that  one 
of  the  two  should  prevail. 
Note.  — Alter  is  often  used,  especially  with  negatives,  in  reference  to  an  indefinite 
number  where  one  is  opposed  to  all  the  rest  taken  singly :  — 

dum  ne  sit  te  ditior  alter  (Hor.  S.  i.  1.  40),  so  long  as  another  is  not  richer  than 
you  (lit.  the  other,  there  being  at  the  moment  only  two  persons  considered) . 
non  ut  magis  alter,  amicus  (id.  i.  5.  33),  afnend  such  that  no  other  is  mo7'e  so. 

a.  The  expressions  alter  .  .  .  alter,  the  one  .  .  .  the  other,  alius  .  .  . 
alius,  one  .  .  .  another,  may  be  used  in  pairs  to  denote  eitlier  division 
of  a  group  or  reciprocity  of  action  :  — 

alteri  dimicaut,  alter!  victorem  timent  (Fam.  vi.  3),  one  party  fights,  the 

other  fears  the  victor. 
alteram  alteri  praesidio  esse  iusserat  (B.  C.  iii.  89),  he  had  ordered  each  (of 

the  two  legions)  to  support  the  other. 
alii  gladiis  adoriuntur,  alii  fragmentis  saeptorum  (Sest.  79),  some  make  an 

attack  with  swords,  others  loith  fragments  of  the  railings. 
alius  ex  alio  causam  quaerit  (B.  G.  vi.  87),  they  ask  each  other  the  reason. 
alius  alium  percontamur  (PI.  Stich.  370),  we  keep  asking  each  other. 

b.  Alius  and  alter  are  often  used  to  express  one  as  well  as  another 
(the  other^  of  the  objects  referred  to:  — 

alter  consulum,  one  of  the  [two]  consuls. 

aliud  est  maledlcere,  aliud  accusare  (Gael.  6),  it  is  one  thing  to  slander, 
another  to  accuse. 

c.  Alius  repeated  in  another  case,  or  with  an  adverb  from  the  same 
stem,  expresses  briefly  a  double  statement :  — 

alius  aliud  petit,  one  man  seeks  one  thing,  another  another  (another  seeks 

another  thing), 
iussit  alios  alibi  fodere  (Liv.  xliv.  33),  he  ordered  different  persons  to  dig  in 

different  places. 
alii  alio  loco  resistebant  (B.  C.  ii.  39),  some  halted  in  on^  place,  some  in  another. 


§§  316,  317]  VERB  AND    SUBJECT  193 

VERBS 
Agreement  of  Verb  and  Subject 

316.  A  Finite  Verb  agrees  with  its  Subject  in  Number  and  Per- 
son :  — 

ego  statuo,  I  resolve.  senatus  decrevit,  the  senate  ordered. 

silent  leges  inter  arma  (Mil.  11),  the  laws  are  dumb  in  time  of  war. 

Note.  —  In  verb-forms  containing  a  participle,  the  participle  agrees  with  the  sub- 
ject in  gender  and  number  (§  286):  — 

oratio  est  habita,  the  plea  was  delivered.        bellum  exortum  est,  a  war  arose. 

a,  A  verb  having  a  relative  as  its  subject  takes  the  person  of  the 
expressed  or  implied  antecedent :  — 

adsum  qui  feci  (Aen.  ix.  427),  here  am  I  who  did  it.  , 

tu,  qui  scis,  omnem  diligentiam  adhibebis  (Att.  v.  2.  3),  you,  who  know^ 

will  use  all  diligence. 
videte  quam  despiciamur  omnes  qui  sumus  e  mfmicipiis  (Phil.  iii.  15),  see 

how  all  of  us  are  scorned  who  are  from  the  free  towns. 

h.  A  verb  sometimes  agrees  in  number  (and  a  participle  in  the  verb- 
form  in  number  and  gender)  with  an  appositive  or  predicate  noun  :  — 

amantium  irae  amoris  integratio  est  (Ter.  And.  555),  the  quarrels  of  lovers 

are  the  renewal  of  love. 
non  omnis  error  stultitia  dicenda  est  (Div.  ii.  90),  not  everij  error  should  he 

called  folly. 
Corinthus  lumen  Graeciae  exstinctum  est  (cf.  Manil.  11),  Corinth^  the  light 

of  Greece.,  is  put  out. 

Double  or  Collective  Subject 

317.  Two  or  more  Singular  Subjects  take  a  verb  in  the  Plural: 

pater  et  avus  mortui  sunt,  his  father  and  grandfather  are  dead. 

Note.  —  So  rarely  (by  synesis,  §  280.  a)  when  to  a  singular  subject  is  attached  an 
ablative  with  cum:  as,  — dux 'cum  aliquot  principibus  capiuntur  (Liv.  xxi.  60),  the 
general  and  several  leading  men  are  taken. 

a.  When  subjects  are  of  different  perso?is,  the  verb  is  usually  in 
the  first  person  rather  than  the  seco7id,  and  in  the  seco7id  rather  than 
the  third :  — 

si  tu  et  Tullia  valetis  ego  et  Cicer5  valemus  (Fam.  xiv.  5),  if  you  and  Tullia 
are  well,  Cicero  and  I  are  well.  [Notice  that  the  first  person  is  also 
first  in  order,  not  last,  as  by  courtesy  in  English.] 

Note.  —  In  case  of  different  genders  a  participle  in  a  verb-form  follows  the  rule  for 
predicate  adjectives  (see  §  287.  2-4). 


194  SYNTAX:    VERBS  [§317 

h.  If  the  subjects  are  connected  by  disjunctives  (§  223.  a),  or  if 
they  are  considered  as  a  single  whole,  the  verb  is  usually  singular :  — 

quern  neque  fides  neque  ius  iurandum  neque  ilium  misericordia  repressit 

(Ter,  Ad.  306),  not  faith,  nor  oath,  nay,  nor  mercy,  checked  him. 
senatus  populusque  Romanus  intellegit  (Fain.  v.  8),  the  Roman  senate  and 

people  understand.     [But,  neque  Caesar  neque  ego  habiti  essemus  (id. 

xi.  20),  neither  Ccesar  nor  I  should  have  been  considered.] 
fama  et  vita  innocentis  defenditur  (Rose.  Am.  16),  the  reputation  and  life  of  an 

innocent  man  are  defended. 
est  in  eo  virtus  et  probitas  et  summum  ofiBcium  summaque  observantia  (Fam. 

xiii.  28  a.  2),  in  him  are  to  be  found  worth,  uprightness,  the  highest  sense 

of  duty,  and  the  greatest  devotion. 

Note.  —  So  almost  always  when  the  subjects  are  abstract  nouns. 

c.  When  a  verb  belongs  to  two  or  more  subjects  separately,  it  often 
agrees  with  one  and  is  understood  with  the  others  :  — 

intercedit  M.  Antonius  Q.  Cassius  tribuni  plebis  (B.  C.  i.  2),  Mark  Antony 
and  Quintus  Cassius,  tribunes  of  the  people,  interpose. 

hoc  mihi  et  Peripatetic!  et  vetus  Academia  concedit  (Acad.  ii.  113),  this  both 
the  Peripatetic  philosophers  and  the  Old  Academy  grant  me. 

d.  A  collective  noun  commonly  takes  a  verb  in  the  singular ;  but 
the  plural  is  often  found  with  collective  nouns  when  individuals  are 
thought  of  (§  280.  a) :  — 

(1)  senatus  haec  intellegit  (Cat.  i.  2),  the  senate  is  aware  of  this. 

ad  hlberna  exercitus  redit  (Liv.  xxi,  22),  the  army  returns  to  winter-quarters. 
plebes  a  patribus  secessit  (Sail.  Cat.  33),  the  plebs  seceded  from  the  patricians. 

(2)  pars  praedas  agebant  (lug.  32),  apart  brought  in  booty. 

cum  tanta  multitudo  lapides  conicerent  (B.  G.  ii.  6),  when  such  a  crowd  were 
throwing  stones. 

Note  1.  — The  point  of  view  may  change  in  the  course  of  a  sentence :  as,  —  equita- 
tum  omnem  .  .  .  quern  habebat  praemittit,  qui  videant  (B.  G.  i.  15),  he  sent  ahead  all 
the  cavab^y  he  had,  to  see  (who  should  see) . 

Note  2.  —  The  singular  of  a  noun  regularly  denoting  an  individual  is  sometimes 
used  collectively  to  denote  a  group :  as,  Poenus,  the  Carthaginians;  miles,  the  soldiery; 
eques,  the  cavalry. 

e.  Quisque,  each,  and  unus  quisque,  every  single  one,  have  very  often 
a  plural  verb,  but  may  be  considered  as  in  partitive  apposition  with  a 
plural  subject  implied  (cf.  §  282.  a):  — 

sibi  quisque  habeant  quod  suum  est  (PI.  Cure.  180),  let  every  one  keep  his 
own  (let  them  keep  every  man  his  own). 

Note. — So  also  uterque,  eacA  (o/it«o),  and  the  reciprocal  phrases  alius  .  .  .  alium, 
alter  .  .  .  alterum  (§315.  a). 


§§  818,  319]  OMISSION   OF  SUBJECT  OR  VERB  196 

Omission  of  Subject  or  Verb 

318.  The  Subject  of  the  Verb  is  sometimes  omitted  :  — 

a.  A  Personal  pronoun,  as  subject,  is  usually  omitted  unless  em- 
phatic :  — 

loquor,  I  speak.     But,  ego  loquor,  it  is  I  that  speak. 

6.  An  indefinite  subject  is  often  omitted:  —  crederes,  you  would 
have  supposed  ;  putamus,  we  (people)  think  ;  dicunt,  ferunt,  perhibent, 
they  say. 

c,  A  passive  verb  is  often  used  impersonally  without  a  subject  ex- 
pressed or  understood  (§  208.  d)i  — 

diu  atque  acriter  pugnatum  est  (B.  G.  i.  26),  they  fought  long  and  vigorously. 

319.  The  verb  is  sometimes  omitted :  — 

a,  Dico,  facio,  ago,  and  other  common  verbs  are  often  omitted  in 
familiar  phrases :  — 

quorsum  haec  [spectant],  what  does  this  aim  at? 

ex  ungue  leonem  [cognosces],  you  will  know  a  lion  by  his  claw. 

quid  multa,  what  need  of  many  words  ?  (why  should  I  say  much  ?) 

quid  ?  quod,  what  of  this,  that  .  .  .  ?  (what  shall  I  say  of  this,  that  .  .  .  ?) 

[A  form  of  transition,] 
Aeolus  haec  contra  (Aen.  i.  76),  ^olus  thus  [spoke]  in  reply. 
turn  Cotta  [inquit],  then  said  Cotta. 
di  meliSra  [duint]  1  (Cat.  M.  47),  Heaven  forfend  (may  the  gods  grant  better 

things) ! 
unde  [venis]  et  quo  [tendis]  ?  (Hor.  S.  ii.  4.  1),  where  from  and  whither 

hound?    [Cf.  id.  i.  9.  62  for  the  full  form.] 

h.  The  copula  sum  is  very  commonly  omitted  in  the  present  indica- 
tive and  present  infinitive,  rarely  (except  by  late  authors)  in  the  sub- 
junctive :  — 

tu  coniunx  (Aen.  iv.  113),  you  [are]  his  wife. 

quid  ergo  ?  audacissimus  ego  ex  omnibus  (Rose.  Am.  2),  what  then  ?  am  I 
the  boldest  of  all  ? 

omnia  praeclara  rara  (Lael.  79),  all  the  best  things  are  rare. 

potest  incidere  saepe  contentio  et  comparatio  de  duobus  honestis  utrum 
honestius  (Off.  i.  152),  there  may  often  occur  a  comparison  of  two 
honorable  actions,  as  to  which  is  the  more  honorable.  [Here,  if  any 
copula  were  expressed,  it  would  be  sit,  but  the  direct  question  would 
be  complete  without  any.] 

accipe  quae  peragenda  prius  (Aen,  vi,  136),  hear  what  is  first  to  be  accon^ 
plished.     [Direct  s  quae  peragenda  prius  ?] 


196  syntax;  particles  [§§320,321 

Particles 
Adverbs 

320.  The  proper  function  of  Adverbs,  as  petrified  case-forms,  is  to  modify  Verbs : 
as,  —  celeriter  ire,  to  go  with  speed.  It  is  from  this  use  that  they  derive  their  name 
(adverbium,  from  ad,  to,  and  verbum,  verb;  see  §  241.  6).  They  also  modify  adjectives, 
showing  in  what  manner  or  degree  the  quality  described  is  manifested:  as,  splendide 
mendax,  gloriously  false.  More  rarely  they  modify  other  adverbs:  as,  nimis  graviter, 
too  severely.  Many  adverbs,  especially  relative  adverbs,  serve  as  connectives,  and 
are  hardly  to  be  distinguished  from  conjunctions  (see  §  20.  g.  n.).i 

321.  Adverbs  are  used  to  modify  Verbs,  Adjectives,  and  other 
Adverbs. 

a.  A  Demonstrative  or  Kelative  adverb  is  often  equivalent  to  the 

corresponding  Pronoun  with  a  preposition  (see  §  308.  ff) :  — 

eo  [  =  in  ea]  imponit  vasa  (lug.  75),  upon  them  (thither,  thereon,  on  the 

l»easts)  he  puts  the  camp-utensils. 
eo  mllites  imponere  (B.  G.  i.  42),  to  put  soldiers  upon  them  (the  horses), 
apud  eos  quo  [  =  ad  quos]  se  contulit  (Verr,  iv.  38),  among  those  to  whom 

(whither)  he  resorted. 
qui  eum  necasset  unde  [  =  quo]  ipse  natus  esset  (Rose.  Am.  71),  one  who  should 

have  killed  his  own  father  (him  whence  he  had  his  birth). 
o  condiei5nes  miseras  administrandarum  provinciarum  ubi  [  —  in  quibus] 

severitas  periculosa  est  (Flacc.  87),  O  !  wretched  terms  of  managing  the 

provinces,  where  strictness  is  dangerous. 

b.  The  participles  dictum  and  factum^  when  used  as  nouns,  are  regu- 
larly modified  by  adverbs  rather  than  by  adjectives  ;  so  occasionally 
other  perfect  participles  :  — 

praeclare  facta  (Nep.  Timoth.  1),  glorious  deeds  (things  gloriously  done), 
multa  facete  dicta  (Off.  i.  104),  many  witty  sayings. 

c.  A  noun  is  sometimes  used  as  an  adjective,  and  may  then  be  modi- 
fied by  an  adverb  :  — 

victor  exercitus,  the  victorious  army. 

admodum  puer,  quite  a  hoy  (young). 

magis  vir,  more  of  a  man  (more  manly). 

populum  late  r6gem  (Aen.  i.  21),  a  people  ruling  far  and  ivide. 

Note.  —  Very  rarely  adverbs  are  used  with  nouns  which  have  no  adjective  force 
but  which  contain  a  verbal  idea:  — 

hinc  abitio  (Plaut.  Rud.  503),  a  going  away  from  here. 

quid  cogitem  de  obviam  itione  (Att.  xiii.  50),  what  I  think  about  going  to  meet 
(him).     [Pei-haps  felt  as  a  compound.] 

'  For  the  derivation  and  classification  of  adrerbs,  see  §§  214-217. 


§§  321,  322]  ADVERBS  197 

d,  A  few  adverbs  appear  to  be  used  like  adjectives.  Such  are 
obviam,  palam,  sometimes  contra^  and  occasionally  others :  — 

fit  obviam  Clodio  (Mil.  29),  he  falls  in  with  (becomes  in  the  way  of)  Clodius. 

[Cf.  the  adjective  obvius  :  as,  —  si  ille  obvius  ei  futurus  non  erat  (id.  47), 

if  he  was  not  likely  to  fall  in  with  hi^n.] 
haec  commemoro  quae  sunt  palam  (Pison.  11),  I  mention  these  facts,  which 

are  well-known. 
alia  probfibilia,  contra  alia  dicimus  (Off.  ii.  7),  we  call  some  things  probable, 

others  the  opposite  (not  probable).     [In  this  use,  contra  contradicts  a 

previous  adjective,  and  so  in  a  manner  repeats  it.] 
eri  semper  lenitas  (Ter.  And.  175),  my  master'' s  constant  (always)  gentleness. 

[An  imitation  of  a  Greek  construction.] 

Note.  —  In  some  cases  one  can  hardly  say  whether  the  adverb  is  treated  as  an 
adjective  modifying  the  noun,  or  the  noun  modified  is  treated  as  an  adjective  (as  in 
c  above). 

For  propius,  pridie,  palam,  and  other  adverbs  used  as  prepositions,  see  §  432. 

322.  The  following  adverbs  require  special  notice :  — 

a,  Etiam  (et  lam),  also,  even,  is  stronger  than  quoque,  also,  and 
usually  precedes  the  emphatic  word,  while  quoque  follows  it :  — 

non  verbis  solum  sed  etiam  vl  (Verr.  ii.  64),  not  only  by  words,  but  also  by 

force. 
hoc  quoque  maleficium  (Rose.  Am.  117),  this  crime  too. 

b.  Nunc  ^  means  definitely  now,  in  the  immediate  present,  and  is 
rarely  used  of  the  immediate  past. 

lam  means  now,  already,  at  length,  presently,  and  includes  a  refer- 
ence to  previous  time  through  which  the  state  of  things  described  has 
been  or  will  be  reached.  It  may  be  used  of  any  time.  With  nega- 
tives iam  means  (no)  longer. 

Turn,  then,  is  correlative  to  cum,  when,  and  may  be  used  of  any 
time.  Tunc,  then,  at  that  tiine,  is  a  strengthened  form  of  tum 
(ftum-ce,  cf .  nunc)  :  — 

ut  iam  antea  dixi,  as  I  have  already  said  before. 

si  iam  satis  aetatis  atque  roboris  haberet  (Kosc".  Am.  149),  if  he  had  attained 
a  suitable  age  and  strength  (lit.  if  he  now  had,  as  he  will  have  by  and  by), 
non  est  iam  lenitati  locus,  there  is  no  longer  room  for  mercy. 
quod  iam  erat  mstitutum,  which  had  come  to  be  a  practice  (had  now  been 

established), 
nunc  quideni  deleta  est,  tunc  florebat  (Lael.  13),  noio  ('tis  true)  she  [Greece] 

is  ruined,  then  she  was  in  her  glory. 
tum  cum  regnabat,  at  the  time  when  he  reigned. 

1  For  fnum-ce  ;  cf.  tunc  (for  ftum-ce). 


198  SYNTAX:    PARTICLES  [§§322,323 

c,  Certo  means  certainly^  certe  (usually)  at  least,  at  any  rate:  — 
certo  scio,  I  know  for  a  certainty ;  ego  certe,  I  at  least. 

d,  Primum  means  first  {first  in  order,  or  for  the  first  time),  and 
implies  a  series  of  events  or  acts.  Primo  means  at  first,  as  opposed 
to  afterwards,  giving  prominence  merely  to  the  difference  of  time :  — 

hoc  primum  sentio,  this  I  hold  in  the  first  place. 

aedis  prim5  ruere  rebamur,  at  first  we  thought  the  house  was  falling. 

Note.  —  In  enumerations,  primum  (or  primo)  is  often  followed  by  deinde,  secondly,  in 
the  next  place,  or  by  turn,  thent  or  by  both  in  succession.  Deinde  may  be  several  times 
repeated  {secondly^  thirdly,  etc.).  The  series  is  often  closed  by  denique  or  postremo, 
lastly ,  finally .  Thus, — primum  de  genere  belli,  deinde  de  magnitudine,  turn  de  im- 
peratore  deligendo  (Manil.  6),  first  of  the  kind  of  war,  next  of  its  magnitude,  then  of 
the  choice  of  a  commander. 

e,  Quidem,  indeed,  gives  emphasis,  and  often  has  a  concessive  mean- 
ing, especially  when  followed  by  sed,  autem,  etc.  i  — 

hoc  quidem  videre  licet  (Lael.  54),  this  surely  one  may  see.     [Emphatic] 
[securitas]  specie  quidem  blanda,  sed  reapse  multis  locis  repudianda  (id.  47), 

[tranquillity)  in  appearance.,  "'tis  true,  attractive,  but  in  reality  to  be 

rejected  for  many  reasons.     [Concessive.] 

/.  Ne  .  .  .  quidem  means  not  even  or  not  .  .  .  either.  The  emphatic 
word  or  words  must  stand  between  ne  and  quidem :  ■ — 

sed  ne  lugurtha  quidem  quietus  erat  (lug.  51),  but  Jugurtha  was  not  quiet 

either. 
ego  autem  ne  irasci  possum  quidem  lis  quos  valdS  am5  (Att.  li.  19.  1),  but  1 

cannot  even  get  angry  with  those  whom  I  love  very  much. 

Note.  —  Equidem  has  the  same  senses  as  quidem,  but  is  in  Cicero  confined  to  the 
first  person.    Thus,  —  equidem  adprobabo  (Fam.  11.  3.  2),  I  for  my  part  shall  approve. 


CONJUNCTIONS  i 

323.  Copulative  and  Disjunctive  Conjunctions  connect  similar 

constructions,  and  are  regularly  follovred  by  the  same  case  or  mood 

that  precedes  them:  — 

scriptum  senatui  et  populo  (Cat.  iii.  10),  written  to  the  senate  and  people. 
ut  eas  [partis]  sauares  et  confirmares  (Mil.  68),  that  you  might  cure  and 

strengthen  those  parts. 
neque  niea  prudentia  neque  hiimanls  cSnsiliis  frStus  (Cat.  ii.  29),  relying 

neither  on  my  own  foresight  nor  07i  human  wisdom. 

1  For  the  classification  of  conjunctions,  see  §§  223,  224. 


§  323]  CONJUNCTIONS  199 

a.  Conjunctions  of  Comparison  (as  ut,  quam,  tamquam,  quasi)  also 
commonly  connect  similar  constructions :  — 

bis  igitm-  quam  physicis  potius  credendum  existimas  (Div.  ii.  37),  do  you 
think  these  are  more  to  be  trusted  than  the  natural  philosophers? 

hominem  callidiorem  vidi  neminem  quam  Phormionem  (Ter.  Pli.  591),  a 
shrewder  man  I  never  saw  than  Phormio  (cf.  §  407). 

ut  non  omne  vinuin  sic  non  omnis  natura  vetustate  coacescit  (Cat.  M.  65), 
as  every  wine  does  not  sour  with  age,  so  [does]  not  every  nature. 

in  me  quasi  in  tyrannum  (Phil.  xiv.  15),  against  me  as  against  a  tyrant. 

b.  Two  or  more  coordinate  words,  phrases,  or  sentences  are  often 
put  together  without  the  use  of  conjunctions  (Asyndeton,  §  601.  c) : 

omnes  di,  homines,  all  gods  and  men. 

summi,  medil,  infimi,  the  highest,  the  middle  class,  and  the  lowest. 
iOra,  leges,  agios,  libertatem  nobis  reliquerunt  (B.  G.  vii.  77),  they  have  left 
us  our  rights,  our  laws,  our  fields,  our  liberty. 

c.  lo  Where  there  are  more  than  two  coordinate  words  etc.,  a  con- 
Junction,  if  used,  is  ordinarily  used  with  all  (or  all  except  the  first) :  — 

aut  aere  alieno  aut  magnitiidine  tributorum  aut  iniuria  potentiorum  (B.  G. 

vi.  13),  by  debt,  excessive  taxation,  or  oppression  on  the  part  of  the 

powerful. 
at  sunt  morosi  et  anxii  et  iracundi  et  difficiles  senes  (Cat.  M.  65),  but  (you 

say)  old  men  are  capricious,  solicitous,  choleric,  and  fussy. 

2.  But  words  are  often  so  divided  into  groups  fchat  the  members 
of  the  groups  omit  the  conjunction  (or  express  it),  while  the  groups 
themselves  express  the  conjunction  (or  omit  it) :  — 

propudium  illud  et  portentum,  L.  Ant5nius  insigne  odium  omnium  homi- 
num  (Phil.  xiv.  8),  that  wretch  and  monster,  Lucius  Antonius,  the  abomi- 
nation of  all  men. 

utrumque  egit  graviter,  auctoritate  et  offensione  animi  non  acerba  (Lael. 
77),  ^  acted  in  both  cases  with  dignity,  without  loss  of  authority  and 
with  no  bitterness  of  feeling. 

3.  The  enclitic  -que  is  sometimes  used  with  the  last  member  of  a 
series,  even  when  there  is  nO  grouping  apparent :  — 

voce  voltu  motuque  (Brut.  110),  by  voice,  expression,  and  gesture. 
ctiram  consilium  vigilantiamque  (Phil.  vii.  20),  care,  wisdom,  and  vigilance. 
quorum  auctoritatem  dignitatem  voluntatemque  defenderas  (Fam,  i.  7.  2), 
whose  dignity,  honor,  and  loishes  you  had  defended. 

d.  Two  adjectives  belonging  to  the  same  noun  are  regularly  con 
nected  by  a  conjunction  ^  — 

multae  et  graves  causae,  many  weighty  reasons. 

vir  liber  ac  fortis  (Rep.  ii.  34),  a  free  and  brave  man. 


200  SYNTAX-   PARTICLES  [§§323,324 

e.  Often  the  same  conjunction  is  repeated  in  two  coordinate  clauses  • 
et .  .  .  et  (-que  .  -  -  -que),  hotk  .  .  .  and. 
aut .  .  .  aut,  eithtr  .  .  .  or. 

vel .  .  .  vel,  either  .  .  .  or.     [Examples  m  §  324.  e.] 
sive  (seu)  .  .  .  sive  (seu),  whether  .  .  .  or.     [Examples  in  §824./.] 

/.  Many  adverbs  are  similarly  used  in  pairs,  as  conjimctions,  partly 
or  wholly  losing  their  adverbial  force  :  — 

nunc  .  .  .  nunc,  turn  .  .  .  turn,  iam  ,     .  iam,  now  ,  ..  =  now 

modo  .  .  .  modo,  now  .  .  .  now. 

simul  .  .  .  simul,  at  the  same  time  .  ,  .  at  the  same  time. 

qua  .  .  .  qua,  now  .  .  .  now,  both  .  .  .  and,  alike  [this]  and  [that], 

modo  ait  modo  negat  (Ter.  Eun.  714),  noio  he  says  yes,  now  no. 

simul  gratias  agit,  simul  gratulatur  (Q.  C.  vi.  7c  16),  he  thanks  him  and  at 

the  same  time  congratulates  him. 
erumpunt  saepe  vitia  amicorum  turn  in  ipsos  amicos  turn  in  alienOs  (Laei. 

76),  the.  faults  of  friends  sometimes  break  out,  now  against  their  friends 

themselves,  now  against  strangers. 
qua  marls  qua  feminas  (PL  Mil.  1113),  both  males  and  females. 

g.  Certain  relative  and  demonstrative  adverbs  are  used  correlar 
tively  as  conjunctions:  — 

ut  (rel.)  .  .  .  ita,  s!c  (dem.),  as  {while)  .  .  .  so  (yet). 

tarn  (dem.)  .  .  .  quam  (rel.),  so  (as)  ...  as. 

cum  (rel.)  .  .  .  turn  (dem.),  while  .  o  .  so  also;  not  only  .  .  .  but  also. 

324.  The  following  Conjunctions  require  notice :  — 

a.  Et,  and,  simply  connects  words  or  clauses ;  -que  covibines  more 
closely  into  one  connected  whole,  -que  is  always  enclitic  to  the  word 
connected  or  to  the  first  or  second  of  two  or  more  words  connected : 

cum  coniugibus  et  liberls,  with  [their]  wives  and  children. 

ferro  Ignique,  with  fire  and  sword.     [Not  as  separate  things,  but  as  the 

combined  means  of  devastation.] 
aqua  et  ignl  interdictus,  forbidden  the  use  of  water  and  fire.     [In  a  legal 

formula,  where  they  are  considered  separately.] 

b,  Atque  (ac),  and,  adds  with  some  emphasis  or  with  some  implied 
reflection  on  the  word  added.  Hence  it  is  often  equivalent  to  and  so. 
and  yet,  and  besides,  and  then.  But  these  distinctions  depend  very 
much  upon  the  feeling  of  the  speaker,  and  are  often  untranslatable :  — 

omnia  honesta  atque  inhonesta,  everything  honorable  and  dishonorable  (too, 

without  the  slightest  distinction), 
iisus  atque  disciplina,  practice  and  theory  beside  (the  more  Important  or  less 

expected). 
atque  ego  credo,  and  yet  I  believe  (for  my  part). 


§  324]  CONJUNCTIONS  201 

c,  Atque  (ac),  in  the  sense  of  as,  than,  is  also  used  after  words  of 
comparison  and  likeness  :  — 

simul  atque,  as  soon  as. 

non  secus  (uon  aliter)  ac  si,  not  otherwise  tJian  if. 
pro  eo  ac  debui,  as  was  my  duty  (in  accordance  as  I  ought), 
aeque  ac  tu,  as  much  as  you. 

baud  minus  ac  iussi  f  aciuiit,  they  do  just  as  they  are  ordered* 
For  and  not,  see  §  328.  a. 

d,  Sed  and  the  more  emphatic  verum  or  vero,  hut,  are  used  to  intro- 
duce something  in  opposition  to  what  precedes,  especially  after  iiQ^d,- 
tives  (not  this  .  .  .  but  something  else).  At  (old  form  ast)  introduces 
with  emphasis  a  new  point  in  an  argument,  but  is  also  used  like  the 
others ;  sometimes  it  means  at  least.  At  enim  is  almost  always  used 
to  introduce  a  supposed  objection  which  is  presently  to  be  overthrown. 
At  is  more  rarely  used  alone  in  this  sense. 

Autem,  however,  now,  is  the  weakest  of  the  adversatives,  and  often 
marks  a  mere  transition  and  has  hardly  any  adversative  force  percep- 
tible. Atqui,  ho2vever,  now,  sometimes  introduces  an  objection  and 
sometimes  a  fresh  step  in  the  reasoning.  Quod  si,  hut  if,  and  if,  now  if, 
is  used  to  continue  an  argument. 

Note.  —  Et,  -que,  and  atque  (ac)  are  sometimes  used  where  the  English  idiom  would 
suggest  but,  especially  when  a  negative  clause  is  followed  by  an  affirmative  clause 
continuing  the  same  thought:  as,  —  impetum  hostes  ferre  non  potuerunt  ac  terga 
verterunt  (B.  G.  iv.  35),  the  enemy  could  not  stand  the  onset,  but  turned  their  backs. 

e,  Aut,  or,  excludes  the  alternative ;  vel  (an  old  imperative  of  volo) 
and  -ve  give  a  choice  between  two  alternatives.  But  this  distinction 
is  not  always  observed  :  — 

sed  quis  ego  sum  aut  quae  est  in  me  facultas  (Lael.  17),  but  who  am  I  or 

what  special  capacity  have  I  f     [Here  vel  could  not  be  used,  because  in 

fact  a  negative  is  implied  and  both  alternatives  are  excluded.] 
aut  bibat  aut  abeat  (Tusc.  v.  118),  let  him  drink  or  (if  he  won't  do  that,  then 

let  him)  quit.    [Here  vel  would  mean,  let  him  do  either  as  he  chooses.] 
vita  talis  fuit  vel  fortuna  vel  gloria  (Lael.  12),  his  life  was  such  either  in 

respect  to  fortune  or  fame  (whichever  way  you  look  at  it), 
si  propinquos  habeant  imbecilliores  vel  animo  vel  fortuna  (id.  70),  if  they 

have  relatives  beneath  them  either  in  spirit  or  in  fortune  (in  either  respect, 

for  example,  or  in  both). 
aut  deorum  aut  regum  filii  (id.  70),  sons  either  of  gods  or  of  kings.     [Here 

one  case  would  exclude  the  other.]   . 
implicati  vel  usfi  diuturno  vel  etiam  officiis  (id.   85),  entangled  either  by 

close  intimacy  or  even  by  obligations.     [Here  the  second  case  might 

exclude  the  first.] 


202  SYNTAX:    THE   SENTENCE  [§324 

/.  Sive  (seu)  is  properly  used  in  disjunctive  conditions  (if  either . . . 
or  if),  but  also  with,  alternative  words  and  clauses,  especially  with 
two  names  for  the  same  thing  :  — 

sive  inridens  sive  quod  ita  putaret  (De  Or.  i.  91),  either  laughingly  or  because 

he  really  thought  so. 
sive  deae  seu  sint  volucres  (Aen.  iii.  262),  whether  they  (the  Harpies)  are 
goddesses  or  birds. 

g,  Vel,  even^  for  instance,  is  often  used  as  an  intensive  particle  with 
no  alternative  force  :  as,  —  vel  minimus,  the  very  least. 

h.  Nam  and  namque,  for,  usually  introduce  a  real  reason,  formally 
expressed,  for  a  previous  statement;  enim  (always  postpositive),  a 
less  important  explanatory  circumstance  put  in  by  the  way ;  etenim 
{for,  you  see  ;  for,  you  know  ;  for,  mind  you)  and  its  negative  neque 
enim  introduce  something  self-evident  or  needing  no  proof. 

(ea  vita)  quae  est  sola  vita  nominanda.  nam  dum  sumus  incliisi  in  his 
compagibus  corporis,  mtinere  quodam  necessitatis  et  gravi  opere  per- 
fungimur;  est  enim  animus  caelestis,  etc.  (Cat.  M.  77),  (that  life) 
which  alone  deserves  to  be  called  life ;  for  so  long  as  we  are  confined  by 
the  body'^s  frame,  we  perform  a  sort  of  necessary  function  and  heavy 
task.  For  the  soul  is  from  heaven. 
harum  trium  sententiarum  ntilli  prorsus  adsentlor.  nee  enim  ilia  prima 
vera  est  (Lael.  57),  for  of  course  that  first  one  isn''t  true. 

i.  Ergo,  therefore,  is  used  of  things  proved  formally,  but  often  has 
a  weakened  force.  Igitur,  then,  accordingly,  is  weaker  than  ergo  and 
is  used  in  passing  from  one  stage  of  an  argument  to  another.  Itaque, 
therefore,  accordingly,  and  so,  is  used  in  proofs  or  inferences  from  the 
nature  of  things  rather  than  in  formal  logical  proof.  All  of  these  are 
often  used  merely  to  resume  a  train  of  thought  broken  by  a  digression 
or  parenthesis.  Idcirco,  for  this  reaso7i,  on  this  account,  is  regularly 
followed  (or  preceded)  by  a  correlative  (as,  quia,  quod,  si,  ut,  ne),  and 
refers  to  the  special  point  introduced  by  the  correlative. 

malum  mihi  videtur  esse  mors,  est  miserum  igitur,  quoniam  malum,  certe. 
ergo  et  ei  quibus  evenit  iam  ut  morerentur  et  ei  quibus  eventiirum  est 
miseri.  mihi  ita  videtur.  nemo  ergo  non  miser.  (Tusc.  i.  9.)  Death 
seems  to  me  to  be  an  evil.  '•It  is  wretched,  then,  since  it  is  an  evil. '  Certainly. 
'  Therefore,  all  those  who  have  already  died  and  who  are  to  die  hereafter  are 
wretched.''  So  it  appears  to  me.  '  There  is  no  one,  therefore,  who  is  not 
wretched. ' 

quia  natura  mutari  non  potest,  idcirco  verae  amicitiae  sempiternae  sunt 
(Lael.  32),  because  nature  cannot  be  changed,  for  this  reason  true  friend- 
ships are  eternal. 


§§324-326]  NEGATIVE   PARTICLES  203 

j,  Autem,  enim,  and  vero  are  postpositive  ^;  so  generally  igitur  and 
often  tamen. 

Jc,  Two  conjunctions  of  similar  meaning  are  often  used  together 
for  the  sake  of  emphasis  or  to  bind  a  sentence  more  closely  to  what 
precedes :  as,  at  vero,  but  in  truth,  hut  surely,  still,  hoivever;  itaque 
ergo,  accordingly  then;  namque,  for ;  et-enim,  for,  you  see,  for  of 
course  (§  324.  A). 

For  Conjunctions  introducing  Subordinate  Clauses,  see  Syntax. 

Negative  Particles  ^ 

325.  In  the  use  of  the  Negative  Particles,  the  following  points 
are  to  be  observed :  — 

326.  Two  negatives  are  equivalent  to  an  affirmative :  — 

nemo  non  audiet,  every  one  will  hear  (nobody  will  not  hear). 
n5n  possum  non  confiterl  (Fam.  ix.  14.  1),  I  must  confess. 
ut  .  .  .  ne  non  timere  quidem  sine  aliquo  timore  possimus  (Mil.  2),  so  that  we 
cannot  even  be  relieved  of  fear  without  some  fear. 

a.  Many  compounds  or  phrases  of  which  non  is  the  first  part  express 
an  indefinite  affirmative  :  — 

non  ntillus,  some;  non  niilll  (=aliqui),  some  few. 
non  nihil  (=  aliquid),  something. 
non  nemo  (=  aliquot),  sundry  persons. 
non  uumquam  (=  aliquotiens),  sometimes. 

h.  Two  negatives  of  which  the  second  is  non  (belonging  to  the 
predicate)  express  a  univei^sal  affirmative  :  — 

nemo  non,  nullus  non,  nobody  [does]  not.,  i.e.  everybody  [does].     [Of.  non 

nemo,  not  nobody,  i.e.  somebody.] 
nihil  non,  everything.     [Cf.  non  nihil,  something.] 
numquam  non,  never  not,  i.e.  always.     [Cf.  non  numquam,  sometimes.] 

c.  A  statement  is  often  made  emphatic  by  denying  its  contrary 
(Litotes,  §  641) :  —         • 

non  semel  ( =  saepissime) ,  often  enough  (not  once  only). 

non  haec  sine  numine  divom  eveniunt  (Aen.  ii.  777),  these  things  do  not 

occur  ivithout  the  will  of  the  gods. 
haec  non  nimis  exquiro  (Att.  vii.  18.  3),  not  very  much,  i.e.  very  little. 

Note.  —  Compare  non  nullus,  non  nemo,  etc.,  in  a  above. 

1  That  is,  they  do  not  stand  first  in  their  clause. 

2  For  a  list  of  Negative  Particles,  see  §  217.  e. 


204  SYNTAX:   PARTICLES  [§§327-329 

327.  A  general  negation  is  not  destroyed  — 

1.  By  a  following  ne  .  .  .  quidem,  not  even,  or  non  modo,  not  only :  — 
numquam  tu  non  modo  otium,  sed  ne  bellum  quidem  nisi  nefarium  coneuplsti 

(Cat.  i.  25),  not  only  have  you  never  desired  repose,  hut  you  ham  never 
desired  any  war  except  one  which  was  infamous. 

2.  By  succeeding  negatives  each,  introducing  a  separate  subordi- 
nate member :  — 

eaque  nesciebant  nee  ubi  nee  qualia  essent  (Tusc.  iii.  4),  they  knew  not  where 
or  of  what  kind  these  things  were. 

3.  By  neque  introducing  a  coordinate  member :  — 

nequeo  satis  mirari  neque  conicere  (Ter.  Eun.  547),  I  cannot  wonder  enough 

nor  conjecture. 

328.  The  negative  is  frequently  joined  with  a  conjunction  or 
with  an  indefinite  pronoun  or  adverb.  Hence  the  forms  of  nega- 
tion in  Latin  differ  from  those  in  English  in  many  expressions :  — 

nulli  (neutri)  credo  (not  non  credo  ulli),  I  do  not  believe  either  (I  believe 

neither). 
sine  uUo  periculo  (less  commonly  cum  nuUo),  with  no  danger  (without  any 

danger). 
nihil  umquam  audlvl  iticundius,  I  never  heard  anything  more  amusing. 
Cf.  neg5  haec  esse  vera  (not  dico  non  esse),  I  say  this  is  not  true  (I  deny,  etc.). 

a.  In  the  second  of  two  connected  ideas,  and  not  is  regularly  ex- 
pressed by  neque  (nee),  not  by  et  nOn :  — 

hostes  terga  verterunt,  neque  prius  fugere  destiterunt  (B.  G.  1.  53),  the  enemy 
turned  and  fled,  and  did  not  stop  fleeing  until,  etc. 

Note.  —  Similarly  nee  quisquam  is  regularly  used  for  et  nemo;  neque  Sllus  for  et 
nuUus;  nee  umquam  for  et  numquam;  neve  (neu),  for  et  ne. 

329.  The  particle  immo,  nai/,  is  used  to  contradict  some  part  of 
a  preceding  statement  or  question,  or  its  form  ;  in  the  latter  case, 
the  same  statement  is  often  repeated  in  a  stronger  form,  so  that 
immo  becomes  nearly  equivalent  to  yes  {nay  but^  nay  rather):  — 

causa  igitur  non  bona  est?  immo  optima  (Att.  ix.  7.  4),  is  the  cause  then  not 
a  good  one  ?  on  the  contrary,  the  best. 

a.  Minus,  less  (especially  with  si,  if,  quo,  in  order  that),  and  minimS, 
least,  often  have  a  negative  force :  — 

si  minus  possunt,  if  they  cannot.     [For  quo  minus,  see  §  558.  6.] 
audacissimus  ego  ex  omnibus?  minime  (Rose.  Am.  2),  am,  I  the  boldest  of 
tJiem  all  ?  by  no  means  (not  at  all) . 


§§330-332]  FORMS  OF  INTERROGATION  205 

QUESTIONS 
Forms  of  Interrogation 

330.  Questions  are  either  Direct  or  Indirect. 

1.  A  Direct  Question  gives  the  exact  words  of  the  speaker  :  — 
quid  est  ?  what  is  it  f  ubi  sum  ?  where  am  I? 

2.  An  Indirect  Question  gives  the  substance  of  the  question,  adapted 
to  the  form  of  the  sentence  in  which  it  is  quoted.  It  depends  on  a  verb 
or  other  expression  of  asking,  doubting,  knoiving,  or  the  like  :  — 

rogavit  quid  esset,  he  asked  what  it  was.     [Direct :  quid  est,  what  is  it  ?] 
nescio  ubi  sim,  I  know  not  where  I  am.     [Direct :  ubi  sum,  lohere  am  If] 

331.  Questions  in  Latin  are  introduced  by  special  interrogative 
words,  and  are  not  distinguished  by  the  order  of  words,  as  in 
English.! 

Note.  —  The  form  of  Indirect  Questions  (in  English  introduced  by  whether,  or  by 
an  interrogative  pronoun  or  adverb)  is  in  Latin  the  same  as  that  of  Direct ;  the  differ- 
ence being  only  in  the  verb,  which  in  indirect  questions  is  regularly  in  the  Subjunc- 
tive (§574). 

332.  A  question  of  simple  fact,  requiring  the  answer  7/es  or  no, 

is  formed  by  adding  the  enclitic  -ne  to  the  emphatic  word :  — 

tune  id  veritus  es  (Q.  Fr.  i.  8.  1),  did  you /ear  that  ? 

hicine  vir  usquam  nisi  in  patria  morietur  (Mil.  104),  shall  this  man  die  any- 

where  hut  in  his  native  land  ? 
is  tibi  mortemne  videtur  aut  dolorem  timers  (Tusc.  v.  88),  does  he  seem  to 

you  to  fear  death  or  pain  ? 

a.  The  interrogative  particle  -ne  is  sometimes  omitted :  — 
patera  tua  consilia  non  sentis  (Cat.  i.  1),  do  you  not  see  that  your  schemes  are 

manifest  f  (you  do  not  see,  eh  ?) 
Note.  —  In  such  cases,  as  no  sign  of  interrogation  appears,  it  is  often  doubtful 
whether  the  sentence  is  a  question  or  an  ironical  statement. 

b.  When  the  enclitic  -ne  is  added  to  a  negative  word,  as  in  nonne, 
an  affirmative  answer  is  expected.  The  particle  num  suggests  a  nega- 
tive answer :  — 

nonne  animadvertis  (N.  D.  iii.  89),  do  you  not  observe? 
num  dubium  est  (Rose.  Am.  107),  there  is  no  doubt,  is  there? 

Note.  —In  Indirect  Questions  num  commonly  loses  its  peculiar  force  and  means 
simply  whether. 

1  For  a  list  of  Interrogative  Particles,  see  §  217.  d. 


206  SYNTAX:    QUESTIONS  [§§332-335 

c.  The  particle  -ne  often  when  added  to  the  verb,  less  commonly 
when  added  to  some  other  word,  has  the  force  of  nonne :  — 

meministine  me  in  senatu  dicere  (Cat.  i.  7),  don^t  you  remember  my  saying 

in  the  Senate  ? 
rectene  interpreter  sententiam  tuam  (Tusc.  iii.  87),  do  I  not  rightly  interpret 
your  meaning? 
Note  1.  — This  was  evidently  the  original  meaning  of  -ne ;  but  in  most  cases  the 
negative  force  was  lost  and  -ne  was  used  merely  to  express  a  question.    So  the  English 
interrogative  no  ?  shades  off  into  eh  ? 

Note  2.  —  The  enclitic  -ne  is  sometimes  added  to  other  interrogative  words :  as, 
utrumne,  whether?  anne,  or;  quantane  (Hor.  S.  ii.  3.  2>H),how  hig?  quone  malo  (id.  ii.  3. 
295),  hy  what  curse? 

333.  A  question  concerning  some  special  circumstance  is  formed 
by  prefixing  to  the  sentence  an  interrogative  pronoun  or  adverb 
as  in  English  (§  152) :  — 

quid  exspectas  (Cat.  ii.  18),  what  are  you  looking  forward  to? 

quo  igitur  haec  spectant  (Fam.  vi.  6.  11),  whither  then  is  all  this  tending? 

icare,  ubi  es  (Ov.  M.  viii.  232),  Icarus,  where  are  you? 

quod  vectigal  vobis  ttitum  fuit  ?    quem  socium  defendistis  ?    cui  praesidio 

classibus  vestris  fuistis  ?   (Manil.  32),  what  revenue  has  been  safe  for  you  ? 

what  ally  have  you  defended  ?  whom  have  you  guarded  with  your  fleets  ? 
Note.  —  A  question  of  this  form  becomes  an  exclamation  by  changing  the  tone  of 
the  voice:  as, — 

qualis  vir  erat !    what  a  man  he  was  ! 

quot  calamitates  passi  sumus!  how  many  misfortunes  we  have  suffered! 

quo  studio  consentiunt  (Cat.  iv.  15),  with  what  zeal  they  unite! 

a.  The  particles  -nam  (enclitic)  and  tandem  may  be  added  to  inter- 
rogative pronouns  and  adverbs  for  the  sake  of  emphasis :  — 
quisnam  est,  pray  who  is  it  ?     [quis  tandem  est  ?  would  be  stronger.  ] 
ubinam  gentium  sumus  (Cat.  i.  9),  where  in  the  world  are  we? 
in  qua  tandem  urbe  hoc  disputant  (Mil.  7),  in  what  city,  pray,  do  they  main- 
tain this  ? 
Note  —  Tandem  is  sometimes  added  to  verbs:  — 
ain  tandem  (Fam.  ix.  21),  you  donH  say  so!  (say  you  so,  pray?) 
itane  tandem  uxorem  duxit  Antipho  (Ter.  Ph.  231),  so  then,  eh?  Antipho's  got 
mairied. 

Double  Questions 

334.  A  Double  or  Alternative  Question  is  an  inquiry  as  to 
which  of  two  or  more  supposed  cases  is  the  true  one. 

335.  In  Double  or  Alternative  Questions,  utrum  ,or  -ne,  whether, 
stands  in  the  first  member ;  an,  anne,  o?-,  annon,  necne,  or  not^  in  the 
second ;  and  usually  an  in  the  third,  if  there  be  one :  — 


§335]  DOUBLE   QUESTIONS  207 

utrum  nescis,  an  pro  nihilo  id  putas  (Fam.  x.  26),  is  it  that  you  donH  know, 

or  do  you  think  nothing  of  it  ? 
vosne  L.  Domitium  an  vos  Domitius  desemit  (B.  C.  ii.  32),  did  you  desert 

Lucius  Domitius,  or  did  Domitius  desert  yon  ? 
quaero  servosne  an  liberos  (Rose.  Am.  74),  1  ask  whether  slaves  or  free. 
utrum  hostem  an  vos  an  fortunam  utriusque  populi  ignoratis  (Liv.  xxi.  10), 

is  it  the  enemy,  or  yourselves,  or  the  fortune  of  the  two  peoples,  that  you 

do  not  know  f 

Note.  —  Anne  for  an  is  rare.  Necne  is  rare  in  direct  questions,  but  in  indirect  ques- 
tions it  is  commoner  ttian  annon.    In  poetry  -ne  .  .  .  -ne  sometimes  occurs. 

a.  The  interrogative  particle  is  often  omitted  in  the  first  mem- 
ber ;  in  which  case  an  or  -ne  (anne,  necne)  may  stand  in  the  second:  — 

Gabinio  dicam  anne  Pompeio  an  utrique  (Manil.  57),  shall  I  say  to  Gahinius, 

or  to  Pompey,  or  to  both  f 
sunt  haec  tua  verba  necne  (Tusc.  iii.  41),  are  these  your  words  or  not? 
quaesivi  a  Catillna  in  conventu  apud  M.  Laecam  fuisset  necne  (Cat.  ii.  13), 

I  asked  Catiline  whether  he  had  been  at  the  meeting  at  Marcus  L(Bca''s 

or  not. 

b.  Sometimes  the  first  member  is  omitted  or  implied,  and  an  (anne) 
alone  asks  the  question,  —  usually  with  indignation  or  surprise :  — 

an  tu  miseros  putas  illos  (Tusc.  i.  13),  what !  do  you  think  thosemen  wretched  ? 

an  iste  umquam  de  se  bonam  spem  habuisset,  nisi  de  vobis  malam  opinionem 
animo  imbibisset  (Verr.  i.  42),  would  he  ever  have  had  good  hopes  about 
himself  unless  he  had  conceived  an  evil  opinion  of  you  ? 

c.  Sometimes  the  second  member  is  omitted  or  implied,  and  utrum 
may  ask  a  question  to  which  there  is  no  alternative :  — 

utrum  est  in  clarissimls  civibus  is,  quern  .  .  .  (Flacc.  45),  is  he  among  the 
noblest  citizens,  whom,  etc.? 

d.  The  following  table  exhibits  the  various  forms  of  alternative 

questions :  — 

utrum  ...  an  ...  an 

utrum  .  .   .  annon  (necne,  see  §  33&  h.) 

...  an  (anne) 

-ne        ...  an 

.  .  .  -ne,  necne 

-ne        .  .  .  necne 

-ne        ...  -ne 

Note.  —  From  double  {alternative)  questions  must  be  distinguished  those  which  are 
in  themselves  single,  but  of  which  some  detail  is  alternative.  These  have  the  common 
disjunctive  particles  aut  or  vel  (-ve).  Thus,  —  quaero  num  iniuste  aut  improbe  fecerit 
(Off.  iii.  54),  I  ask  whether  he  acted  unjustly  or  even  dishonestly.  Here  there  is  no 
double"  question.  The  only  inquiry  is  whether  the  man  did  either  of  the  two  things 
supposed,  not  which  of  the  two  he  did. 


208  SYNTAX:    QUESTIONS  [§§336,337 

Question  and  Answer 

336.  There  is  no  one  Latin  word  in  common  use  meaning  sim- 
ply yes  or  no.  In  answering  a  question  affirmatively^  the  verb  or 
some  other  emphatic  word  is  generally  repeated ;  in  answering 
negatively^  the  verb,  etc.,  with  non  or  a  similar  negative :  — 

valetne,  is  he  well?  valet,  yes  (he  is  well). 

eratne  tecum,  was  he  with  youf  non  erat,  no  (he  was  not). 

num  quidnain  novi?  there  is  nothing  new,  is  there?  nihil  sane,  oh!  nothing. 

a.  An  intensive  or  negative  particle,  a  phrase,  or  a  clause  is  some^ 
times  used  to  answer  a  direct  question  :  — 

1.  For  YES  :  — 

vero,  in  truths  true,  no  doubt,  yes.        ita  vero,  ce^-tainly  (so  in  truth),  etc. 

etiam,  even  so,  yes,  etc.  sane  quidem,  yes,  no  doubt,  etc. 

ita,  so,  true,  etc.  ita  est,  it  is  so,  true,  etc. 

sane,  surely,  no  doubt,  doubtless,  etc. 

certe,  certainly,  unquestionably,  etc. 

factum,  true,  iVs  a  fact,  youWe  right,  etc.  (lit.,  it  was  done). 

2.  For  NO  :  — 

non,  not  so.  null5  mods,  by  no  means. 

minime,  not  at  all  (lit.,  in  the  smallest  degree,  cf.  §  329.  a). 

minime  vero,  no,  not  by  any  means;  oh!  no,  etc. 

non  quidem,  why,  no;  certainly  not,  etc. 

non  hercle  v6ro,  why,  gracious,  no !  (certainly  not,  by  Hercules  I) 

Examples  are :  — 
quidnam?  an  laudati5nes?  ita,  why,  what?  is  it  eulogies?  just  so. 
aut  etiam  aut  non  respondere  (Acad.  ii.  104),  to  answer  (categorically)  ijes  or  no- 
estue  ut  fertur  forma?  sane  (Ter.  Eun.  361),  is  she  as  handsome  as  they 

say  she  is  ?  (is  her  heauty  as  it  is  said  ?)  oh!  yes. 
miser  ergo  Archelaus?  certe  si  iniustus  (Tusc.  v.  35),  was  Archelaus  wretched 

then  ?  certainly,  if  he  was  unjust. 
an  haec  contemnitis  ?  minime  (De  Or.  ii.  295),  do  you  despise  these  things  f  not 

at  all. 
volucribusne  et  ferls?  minime  vero  (Tusc.  i.  104),  to  the  birds  and  beasts? 

why,  of  course  not. 
ex  tui  animi  sententia  tu  uxorem  habes  ?  non  hercle,  ex  mei  animi  sententia 

(De  Or.  ii.  260),  Lord!  no,  etc. 

337.  In  answering  a  double  question,  one  member  of  the  alterna- 
tive, or  some  part  of  it,  must  be  repeated :  — 

vidisti  an  de  audita  nuntias?  — egomet  vidi  (Plant.  Merc.  902),  did  you  see 
it  or  are  you  repeating  something  you  have  heard?  — I  saw  it  myself. 


§838]  CONSTRUCTION  OF  CASES  209 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  CASES 

338.  The  Cases  of  nouns  express  their  relations  to  other  words  in  the  sentence. 
The  most  primitive  way  of  expressing  such  relations  was  by  mere  juxtaposition  of  uuin- 
flected  forms.  From  this  arose  in  time  composition,  i.e.  the  growing  together  of  steins, 
by  means  of  which  a  complex  expression  arises  with  its  parts  mutually  dependent. 
Thus  such  a  complex  as  armi-gero-  came  to  mean  amn-hearing ;  fidi-cen-,  playing  on  the 
lyre.  Later,  Cases  were  formed  by  means  of  suffixes  expressing  more  definitely  such 
relations,  and  Syntax  began.  But  the  primitive  method  of  composition  still  continues 
to  hold  an  important  place  even  m  the  most  highly  developed  languages. 

Originally  the  Indo-European  family  of  languages,  to  which  Latin  belongs,  had  at 
least  seven  case-forms,  besides  the  Vocative.  But  in  Latin  the  Locative  and  the  Instru- 
mental were  lost  i  except  in  a  few  words  (where  they  remained  without  being  recog- 
nized as  cases),  and  their  functions  were  divided  among  the  other  cases. 

The  Nominative,  Accusative,  and  Vocative  express  the  simplest  and  perhaps  the 
earliest  case-relations.  The  Nominative  is  the  case  of  the  Subject,  and  generally  ends 
in  -s.  The  Vocative,  usually  without  a  termination,  or  like  the  Nominative  (§  38.  a) ^ 
perhaps  never  had  a  suftix  of  its  own.2  The  Accusative,  most  frequently  formed  by  the 
sufidx  -m,  originally  connected  the  noun  loosely  with  the  verb-idea,  not  necessarily 
expressed  by  a  verb  proper,  but  as  well  by  a  noun  or  an  adjective  (see  §  386). 

The  Genitive  appears  to  have  expressed  a  great  variety  of  relations  and  to  have 
had  no  single  primitive  meaning  ;  and  the  same  may  be  true  of  the  Dative. 

The  other  cases  perhaps  at  first  expressed  relations  of  place  or  direction  (to,  from, 
AT,  with),  though  this  is  not  clear  in  all  instances.  The  earlier  meanings,  however, 
have  become  confused  with  each  other,  and  in  many  instances  the  cases  are  no  longer 
distinguishable  in  meaning  or  in  form.  Thus  the  Locative  was  for  the  most  part  lost 
from  its  confusion  with  the  Dative  and  Ablative ;  and  its  function  was  often  performed 
by  the  Ablative,  which  is  freely  used  to  express  the  place  where  (§  421),  To  indicate 
the  case-relations  —  especially  those  of  place  —  more  precisely,  Prepositions  (originally 
adverbs)  gradually  came  into  use.  The  case-endings,  thus  losing  something  of  their 
significance,  were  less  distinctly  pronounced  as  time  went  on  (see  §  36, phonetic  decay), 
and  prepositions  have  finally  superseded  them  in  the  modern  languages  derived  from 
Latin.  But  in  Latin  a  large  and  various  body  of  relations  was  still  expressed  by  ease- 
forms.  It  is  to  be  noticed  that  in  their  literal  use  cases  tended  to  adopt  the  preposition, 
and  in  fheiv  figurative  uses  to  retain  the  old  construction.  (See  Ablative  of  Separation, 
§§402-404;  Ablative  of  Place  and  Time,  §421  If.) 

The  word  casus,  case,  is  a  translation  of  the  Greek  tttwo-is,  a  falling  aioay  (from  the 
erect  position).  The  term  irrQais  was  originally  applied  to  the  Oblique  Cases  (§  35.  g), 
to  mark  them  as  variations  from  the  Nominative  which  was  called  6p6i^,  erect  (casus 
rectus).  The  later  name  Noyninative  (casus  nomindtivus)  is  from  nomino,  and  means 
the  naming  case.  The  other  case-names  (except  Ablative)  are  of  Greek  origin.  The 
name  Genitive  (casus  genetivus)  is  a  translation  of  yepiK-^  [vrQa-is],  from  y^vos  (class), 
and  refers  to  the  class  to  which  a  thing  belongs.  Dative  (casus  datlvus,  from  do)  is 
translated  from  ^otlkti,  and  means  the  case  of  giving.  Accusative  (accusdtlvus,  from 
acciiso)  is  a  mistranslation  of  alrtariK-n  (the  case  of  causing),  from  alria,  cause,  and 
meant  to  the  Romans  the  case  of  accusing.  The  name  Vocative  (vocdtivus,  from  voco) 
is  translated  from  KXrjTiK-^  (the  case  of  calling).  The  name  Ablative  (abldtivus,  from 
ablatus,  aufero)  means  taking  from.    This  case  the  Greek  had  lost. 

1  Some  of  the  endings,  however,  which  in  Latin  are  assigned  to  the  dative  and 
ablative  are  doubtless  of  locative  or  instrumental  origin  (see  p.  34,  footnote). 
*  The  e-vocative  of  the  second  declension  is  a  form  of  the  stem  (§  45.  c). 


210  SYNTAX:    CONSTRUCTION  OF  CASES  [§§389-341 

NOMINATIVE   CASE 

339.  The  Subject  of  a  finite  verb  is  in  the  Nominative :  — 
Caesar  Ehenum  transire  decreverat  (B.  G.  iv.  17),  CcBsar  had  determined  to 

cross  the  Rhine. 
For  the  omission  of  a  pronominal  subject,  see  §  295.^. 

a.  The  nominative  may  be  used  in  exclamations :  — 
en  dextra  fidesque  (Aen.  iv.  597),  lo,  the  faith  and  plighted  wo7xl ! 
ecce  tuae  litterae  de  Varrone  (Att.  xiii.  16),  lo  and  behold,  your  letters  about 
Varro ! 

Note.  —  But  the  accusative  is  more  common  (§  397.  d). 

VOCATIVE   CASE 

340.  The  Vocative  is  the  case  of  direct  address :  — 

Tiberine  pater,  t6,  sancte,  precor  (Liv.  ii.  10),  0  father  Tiber,  thee,  holy  one, 

I  pray. 
res  omnis  mihi  tecum  erit,  Hortensi  (Verr.  i.  33),  my  whole  attention  will  be 

devoted  to  you,  Hortensius. 

a.  A  noun  in  the  nominative  in  apposition  with  the  subject  of 
the  imperative  mood  is  sometimes  used  instead  of  the  vocative :  — 

audi  tu,  populus  Albanus  (Liv.  i.  24),  hear,  thou  people  of  Alba. 

b.  The  vocative  of  an  adjective  is  sometimes  used  in  poetry  instead 
of  the  nominative,  where  the  verb  is  in  the  second  person  :  — • 

quo  moriture  ruis  (Aen.  x.  811),  whither  art  thou  rushing  to  thy  doom? 
censorem  trabeate  salutas  (Pers.  iii.  29),  robed  you  salute  the  censor. 

c.  The  vocative  macte  is  used  as  a  predicate  in  the  phrase  macte 
esto  (virtu te),  success  attend  your  (valor) :  — 

iuberem  te  macte  virtiite  esse  (Liv.  ii.  12),  I  should  bid  you  go  on  and  prosper 

in  your  valor. 
macte  nova  virtute  puer  (Aen.  ix.  641),  success  attend  your  valor,  boy! 

Note.  —  As  the  original  quantity  of  the  final  e  in  macte  is  not  determinable,  it  may 
be  that  the  word  was  an  adverb,  as  in  bene  est  and  the  like. 

GENITIVE   CASE 

341.  The  Genitive  is  regularly  used  to  express  the  relation  of 
one  noun  to  another.  Hence  it  is  sometimes  called  the  adjective 
case,  to  distinguish  it  from  the  Dative  and  the  Ablative,  which 
may  be  called  adverbial  cases. 


I.   Genitive  with  Nouns: 


§§341-343]  POSSESSIVE   GENITIVE  211 

The  uses  of  the  Genitive  may  be  classified  as  follows :  — 

1.  Of  Possession  (§343). 

2.  Of  Material  (§  344). 

3.  Of  Quality  (§  345). 

4.  Of  the  Whole,  after  words  designating  a  Part 
(Partitive,  §  346). 

5.  With  Nouns  of  Action  and  Feeling  (§  348). 

II.   Genitive  with  Adjectives:      (  J"  ^f  f  ^^^f^^  Adjectives  (or  Verbals)  (§  349). 
[  2.  Of  Specification  (later  use)  (§  349.  d). 

m.  Genitive  with  Verts:  (  l'  9,1  Mem«7,  Feeling  etc.  (§§  350,  351  384) 

\  2.  Of  Accusing,  etc.  (Charge  or  Penalty)  (§  3o2). 

GENITIVE  WITH  NOUNS 

342.  A  noun  used  to  limit  or  define  another,  and  not  meaning 
the  same  person  or  thing,  is  put  in  the  Genitive. 

This  relation  is  most  frequently  expressed  in  English  by  the  prepo- 
sition of,  sometimes  by  the  English  genitive  (or  possessive)  case :  — 

libri  Ciceronis,  the  books  of  Cicero,  or  Cicero''s  books. 
inimici  Caesaris,  C(jesar''s  enemies,  or  the  enemies  of  CcBsar. 
talentum  auri,  a  talent  of  gold. 
vir  summae  virtutis,  a  man  of  the  greatest  courage. 

But  observe  the  following  equivalents :  — 

vacatio  laboris,  a  respite  from  toil. 

petitio  consulatus,  candidacy  for  the  consulship. 

regnum  civitatis,  royal  power  over  the  state. 

Possessive  Genitive 

343.  The  Possessive  Genitive  denotes  the  person  or  thing  to 
which  an  object,  quality,  feeling,  or  action  belongs: — . 

Alexandri  canis,  Alexander's  dog. 

potentia  Pompei  (Sail.  Cat.  19),  Pompey''s  power. 

Ariovisti  mors  (B.  G.  v.  29),  the  death  of  Ariovistus. 

perditorum  temeritas  (Mil.  22),  the  recklessness  of  desperate  men. 
Note  1. — The  Possessive  Genitive  may  denote  (1)  the  actual  owner  (as  in  Alex- 
ander's dog)  or  author  (as  in  Cicero's  writings),  or  (2)  the  person  or  thing  that  possesses 
some  feeling  or  quality  or  does  some  act  (as  in  Cicero's  eloquence,  the  strength  of  the 
bridge,  Catiline's  evil  deeds).  In  the  latter  use  it  is  sometimes  called  the  Subjective 
Genitive ;  but  this  term  properly  includes  the  possessive  genitive  and  several  other 
genitive  constructions  (nearly  all,  in  fact,  except  the  Objective  Genitive,  §  347). 
Note  2.  —  The  noun  limited  is  understood  in  a  few  expressions :  — 

ad  Castoris  [aedes]  (Quinct.  17),  at  the  [temple]  of  Castor.     [Of.  St.  Paul's.] 

Flaccus  Claudi,  Flaccus  [slave]  of  Claudius. 

Hectoris  Andromache  (Aen.  iii.  319),  Hector's  [wife]  Andromache. 


212  SYNTAX:    CONSTRUCTION  OF  CASES  [§343 

a.  For  the  genitive  of  possession  a  possessive  or  derivative  adjec- 
tive is  often  used,  —  regularly  for  the  possessive  genitive  of  the  per- 
sonal pronouns  (§  302.  a) :  — 

liber  meus,  my  book.     [Not  liber  mei.] 

aUena  pericula,  other  men's  dangers.     [But  also  aliorum.] 

Sullana  tempora,  the  times  of  Sulla.     [Oftener  Sullae.  J 

b.  The  possessive  genitive  often  stands  in  the  predicate,  connected    . 

with  its  noun  by  a  verb  (Fredicate  Genitive) :  — 

haec  doraus  est  patris  mei,  this  house  is  my  father'' s. 

iam  me  Pompei  totum  esse  scis  (Fam.  ii.  13),  you  know  I  am  now  all  for  Pom- 

pey  (all  Pompey's). 
summa  laus  et  tua  et  Bruti  est  (Fam.  xii.  4.  2),  the  highest  praise  is  due  both 

to  you  and  to  Brutus  (is  both  yours  and  Brutus's). 
compendi  facere,  to  save  (make  of  saving), 
lucri  facere,  to  get  the  benefit  of  (make  of  profit). 

Note. — These  genitives  bear  the  same  relation  to  the  examples  in  §  343  that  a 
predicate  noun  hears  to  an  appositive  (§§  282,  283). 

c.  An  infinitive  or  a  clause,  when  used  as  a  noun,  is  often  limited 
by  a  genitive  in  the  predicate  :  — 

neque  sui  iudici  [erat]  discernere  (B.  C.  i.  35),  nor  was  it  for  his  judgment  to 

decide  (nor  did  it  belong  to  his  judgment), 
cuiusvis  hominis  est  errare  (Phil.  xii.  5),  it  is  any  man's  [liability]  to  err. 
negavit  moris  esse  Graecorum,  ut  in  convlvio  virorum  accumberent  mulieres 

(Verr.  ii.  1.  66)^  he  said  it  was  not  the  custom  of  the  Greeks  for  women  to 

appear  as  guests  (recline)  at  the  banquets  of  men. 
sed  timidi  est  optare  necem  (Ov.  M.  iv.  115),  but  His  the  coward's  part  to 

wish  for  death. 
stulti  erat  sperare,  suadere  impudentis  (Phil.  ii.  23),  it  vms  folly  (the  part  of 

a  fool)  to  hope,  effrontery  to  urge. 
sapientis  est  pauca  loqui,  it  is  wise  (the  part  of  a  wise  man)  to  say  little. 
[Not  sapiens  (neuter)  est,  etc.] 

Note  1.  —  This  construction  is  regnlar  with  adjectives  of  the  third  declension 
instead  of  the  neuter  nominative  (see  the  last  two  examples). 

Note  2.  —  A  derivative  or  possessive  adjective  may  be  used  for  the  genitire  in  this 
construction,  and  must  be  used  for  the  genitive  of  a  personal  pronoun:  — 
mentiri  non  est  meum  [not  mei],  it  is  not  for  me  to  lie. 
humanum  [for  hominis]  est  errare,  it  is  man^s  nature  to  err  (to  err  is  human). 

d.  A  limiting  genitive  is  sometimes  used  instead  of  a  noun  in  appo- 
sition {Appositional  Genitive)  (§  282) :  — 

nomen  insaniae  (for  nomen  insania),  the  word  madness. 

oppidum  Antiochiae  (for  oppidum  Antiochia,  the  regular  form),  the  city  of 
Antioch. 


§§344-346]  PARTITIVE   GENITIVE  213 

Genitive  of  Material 

344.  The  Genitive  may  denote  the  Substance  or  Material  of 
which  a  thing  consists  (cf.  §  403):  — 

taleutum  ami,  a  talent  of  gold.  flumina  lactis,  rivers  of  milk. 

Genitive  of  Quality 

345.  The  Genitive  is  used  to  denote  Quality,  but  only  when 
the  quality  is  modified  by  an  adjective :  — 

vir  summae  virtutis,  a  man  of  the  highest  courage.     [But  not  vir  virtutis.] 
magnae  est  deliberationis,  it  is  an  affair  of  great  deliberation. 
magni  formica  laboris  (Hor.  S.  i.  1.  33),  the  ant  [a  creature]  of  great  toil. 
ille  autem  sui  iudici  (Nep.  Att.  9),  but  he  [a  man]  of  independent  (liis  own) 
judgment. 

Note.  —  Compare  Ablative  of  Quality  (§  415) .  lu  expressions  of  quality,  the  geni- 
tive or  the  ablative  may  often  be  used  indifferently :  as,  praestanti  prudentia  vir,  a 
man  of  surpassing  wisdom ;  maximi  animi  homo,  a  man  of  the  greatest  courage.  In 
classic  prose,  however,  the  genitive  of  quality  is  much  less  common  than  the  abla- 
tive; it  is  practically  confined  to  expressions  of  measure  or  number,  to  a  phrase  with 
eius,  and  to  nouns  modified  by  magnus,  maximus,  summus,  or  tantus.  In  general  the 
Genitive  is  used  rather  of  essential,  the  Ablative  of  special  or  incidental  characteristics. 

a.  The  genitive  of  quality  is  found  in  the  adjective  phrases  eius 
modi,  cuius  modi  (equivalent  to  talis,  such  ;  qualis,  of  what  sort):  — 

eius  modi  sunt  tempestates  consecutae,  uti  (B.  G.  iii.  29),  such  storms  fol- 
lowed, that,  etc. 

b.  The  genitive  of  quality,  with  numerals,  is  used  to  define  meas- 
ures of  length,  depth,  etc.  (Genitive  of  Measure):  — 

fossa  trium  pedum,  a  trench  of  three  feet  [in  depth], 
mtirus  sedecim  pedum,  a  wall  of  sixteen  feet  [high]. 
For  the  Genitive  of  Quality  used  to  express  indefinite  value,  see  §  417. 

Partitive  Genitive 

346.  Words  denoting  a  Part  are  followed  by  the  Genitive  of 
the  Whole  to  which  the  part  belongs. 

a.  Partitive  words,  followed  by  the  genitive,  are  — 
1.  Nouns  or  Pronouns  (cf.  also  3  below)  :  — 

pars  militum,  part  of  the  soldiers,     quis  nostrum,  which  of  us  f 

nihil  erat  reliqui,  there  was  nothing  left. 

nemo  eorum  (B.  G.  vii.  66),  not  a  man  of  them. 

magnam  partem  eorum  interiecerunt  (id.  ii.  23) ,  they  killed  a  large  part  of  them. 


214  SYNTAX:    CONSTRUCTION   OF   CASES  [§346 

2.  Numerals,  Comparatives,  Superlatives,  and  Pronominal  words  like 
alius,  alter,  nuUus,  etc.:  — 

tinus  tribunorum,  one  of  the  tribunes  (see  c  below). 

sapientum  octavus  (Hor.  S.  ii.  3.  29G),  the  eighth  of  the  wise  men. 

milia  passuum  sescenta  (B.  G.  iv.  3),  six  hundred  miles  (thousands  of  paces). 

m§,ior  fratrum,  the  elder  of  the  brothers. 

animalium  fortiora,  the  stronger  [of]  animals. 

Sueborum  gens  est  longe  maxima  et  bellicosissima  Germanorum  omnium 

(B.  G.  iv.  1),  the  tribe  of  the  Suevi  is  far  the  largest  and  most  warlike  of 

all  the  Germans. 
alter  consulum,  one  of  the  [two]  consuls. 
naila  earum  (B.G.  iv.  28),  not  one  of  them  (the  ships). 

3.  Neuter  Adjectives  and  Pronouns,  used  as  nouns :  — 
tantum  spati,  so  much  [of]  space. 

aliquid  nummorum,  a  few  pence  (something  of  coins), 

id  loci  (or  locorum),  that  spot  of  ground;  id  temporis,  at  that  time  (§  397.  a). 

plana  urbis,  the  level  parts  of  the  town. 

quid  novi,  ivhat  news  1  (what  of  new  ?) 

paulum  frumenti  (B.  C.  i.  78),  a  Utile  grain. 

plus  doldris  (B.  G.  i.  20),  more  grief. 

sui  aliquid  timoris  (B.  C.  ii.  29),  some  fear  of  his  own  (something  of  his  own  fear). 
Note  1.  —  In  classic  prose  neuter  adjectives  (not  pronominal)  seldom  take  a  parti- 
tive genitive,  except  miiltum,  tantum,  quantum,  and  similar  words. 

Note  2.  —  The  genitive  of  adjectives  of  the-  third  declension  is  rarely  used  parti- 
tively :  — nihil  novi  (genitive) ,  nothing  new ;  but,  —  nihil  memorabile  (nominative) ,  noth- 
ing worth  mention  (not  nihil  memorabilis). 

4.  Adverbs,  especially  those  of  Quantity  and  of  Place :  — 
parum  oti,  not  much  ease  (too  little  of  ease). 

satis  pecuniae,  money  enough  (enough  of  money). 

plurimum  totlus  Galliae  equitatti  valet  (B.  G.  v.  3),  is  strongest,  of  all  Gaul 

in  cavalry. 
ubinam  gentium  sumus  (Cat.  i.  9),  where  in  the  loorld  are  we  (where  of 

nations)  ? 
ubicumque  terrarum  et  gentium  (Verr.  v.  143),  wherever  in  the  whole  world. 
res  erat  eo  iam  loci  ut  (Sest.  68),  the  business  had  now  reached  such  a  point 

that^  etc. 
eo  miseriarum  (lug.  14.  3),  to  that  [pitch]  of  misery. 
inde  loci,  next  in  order  (thence  of  place).     [Poetical.] 

6.  The  poets  and  later  writers  often  use  the  partitive  genitive 
after  adjectives,  instead  of  a  noun  in  its  proper  case :  — 

sequimur  te,  sancte  deorum  ( Aen.  iv.  570),  we  folloiv  thee,  0  holy  deity.     [For 

sancte  deus  (§  49.  g.  n.)] 
nigrae  lanarum  (Plin.  H.  N.  viii.  193),  black  wools.     [For  nigrae  lanae.] 
expediti  militum  (Li v.  xxx.  9),  ligM,-armed  soldiers.     [For  expediti  milites.] 
hominum  cunctos  (Ov.  M.  iv.  631),  all  men.     [For  cunctos  homines ;  cf.  e.] 


§§346-348]  •  OBJECTIVE   GENITIVE  215 

c,  Cardinal  numerals  (except  milia)  regularly  take  the  Ablative 
with  e  (ex)  or  de  instead  of  the  Partitive  Genitive.  So  also  quidam, 
a  certain  one,  commonly,  and  other  words  occasionally  :  — 

unus  ex  tribunis,  one  of  the  tribunes.     [But  also,  unus  tribunorum  (cf.  a.  2).] 

minumus  ex  iliis  (lug,  11),  the  youngest  of  them. 

medius  ex  tribus  (ib.),  the  middle  one  of  the  three. 

quidam  ex  militibus,  certain  of  the  soldiers. 

unus  de  maltis  (Fin.  ii.  66),  one  of  the  many. 

pauci  de  nostris  cadunt  (B.  G.  i.  15),  a  few  of  our  men  fall. 

hominem  de  comitibus  meis,  a  man  of  my  companions. 

d,  TJterque,  both  (properly  each),  and  quisque,  each,  with  Nouns 
are  regularly  used  as  adjectives  in  agreement,  but  with  Pronouns 
ta.ke  a  partitive  genitive  :  — • 

uterque  consul,  both  the  consuls;  but,  uterque  nostrum,  both  of  us. 
unus  quisque  vestrum,  each  one  of  you. 
utraque  castra,  both  camps. 

e,  Numbers  and  words  of  quantity  including  the  whole  of  any 
thing  take  a  case  in  agreement,  and  not  the  partitive  genitive.  So 
also  words  denoting  a  part  when  only  that  part  is  thought  of  :  — 

nos  omnes,  all  of  us  (we  all).     [Not  omnes  nostrum.] 

quot  sunt  hostes,  how  many  of  the  enemy  are  there  f 

cave  inimicos,  qui  multi  sunt,  beware  of  your  enemies.,  who  are  many. 

multi  milites,  many  of  the  soldiers. 

nemo  Romanus,  not  one  Roman. 

Objective  Genitive 

347.  The  Objective  Genitive  is  used  with  Nouns,  Adjectives, 
and  Verbs. 

348.  Nouns  of  action,  agency,  smd  feeling  govern  the  Genitive 

of  the  Object :  — 

caritas  tui,  affection  for  you.  desiderium  oti,  longing  for  rest. 

vacatio  muneris,  relief  from  duty.  gratia  benefici,  gratitude  for  kindness. 

f uga  malorum,  refuge  from  disaster.       precatio  deorum,  prayer  to  the  gods. 
contentio  honorum,  struggle  for  office,     opinio  virtutis,  reputation  for  valor. 

Note. — This  usage  is  an  extension  of  the  idea  of  belonging  to  (Possessive  Genitive). 
Thus  in  the  plirase  odium  Caesaris,  hate  of  CsRsar,  the  hate  in  a  passive  sense  belongs 
to  Caesar,  as  odium,  though  in  its  active  sense  he  is  the  object  of  it,  as  hate  (cf.  a). 
The  distinction  between  the  Possessive  (subjective)  and  the  Objective  Genitive  is  very- 
unstable  and  is  often  lost  sight  of.  It  is  illustrated  by  the  following  example :  the 
phrase  amor  patris,  love  of  a  father,  may  mean  love  felt  by  a  father,  a  father's  love 
(subjective  genitive),  or  love  towards  a  father  (objective  genitive). 


216  SYNTAX:    CONSTRUCTION  OF   CASES  [§§348,349 

«.  The  objective  genitive  is  sometimes  replaced  by  a  possessive 
pronoun  or  other  derivative  adjective :  — 

mea  invidia,  7ny  unpopularity  (the  dislike  of  which  I  am  the  object).     [Cf. 

odium  mei  (Har.  Resp.  5),  hatred  of  me.] 
laudator  meus  (Att.  i.  16.  5),  my  eulogist  (one  who  praises  me).     [Cf.  nostri 

laudator  (id.  i.  14.  6).] 
Clodianum  crimen  (Mil.  72),  the  murder  of  Clodius  (the  Clodian  charge).     [As 

we  say,  t?ie  Nathan  juurder.] 
metus  hostilis  (lug.  41), /ear  of  the  enemy  (hostile  fear), 
ea  quae  faciebat,  tua  se  fidiicia  facere  dicebat  (Verr.  v.  176),  what  he  was 

doing,  he  said  he  did  relying  on  you  (with  your  reliance), 
neque  neglegentia  tua,  neque  id  odio  fecit  tuo  (Ter.  Ph.  1016),  he  did  this 

neither  from  neglect  nor  from  hatred  of  you. 

b.  Rarely  the  objective  genitive  is  used  with  a  noun  already  lim- 
ited by  another  genitive  :  — 

animi  multarum  rerum  percursio  (Tusc.  iv.  31),  the  mind^s  traversing  of  many 
things. 

c,  A  noun  with  a  preposition  is  often  used  instead  of  the  objec- 
tive genitive :  — 

odium  in  Antonium  (Fam.  x.  5.  3),  hate  of  Antony. 

merita  eiga  me  (id.  i.  1.  1),  services  to  me. 

meam  in  te  pietatem  (id.  i.  9.  1),  my  devotion  to  you. 

impetus  in  urbem  (Phil.  xii.  29),  an  attack  on  the  city. 

excessus  e  vita  (Fin.  iii.  60),  departure  from  life.     [Also,  excessus  vitae, 

Tusc.  i.  27.] 
adoptio  in  Domitium  (Tac.  Ann.  xii.  25),  the  adoption  of  Domitius.     [A  late 

and  bold  extension  of  this  construction.] 

Note.  —  So  also  in  late  writers  the  dative  of  reference  (cf.  §  366.  &):  as,  —  longo 
bello  materia  (Tac.  H.  i.  89),  resources  for  a  long  war. 

GENITIVE  WITH  ADJECTIVES 

349.  Adjectives  requiring  an  object  of  reference  govern  the 
Objective  Genitive. 

a.  Adjectives  denoting  desire,  knowledge,  memory,  fulness,  power, 
sharing,  guilt,  and  their  opposites  govern  the  genitive :  — 
avidi  laudis  (Manil.  7),  greedy  of  praise. 
fastldiosus  litterarum,  disdaining  letters. 

iuris  perltus,  skilled  in  law.     [So  also  the  ablative,  lure,  cf.  §  418.] 
memorem  vestri,  oblitum  sui  (Cat.  iv.  19),  mindful  of  you,  forgetful  of  himself. 
rationis  et  6rati5nis  expertes  (Off.  i.  50),  devoid  of  sense  and  speech. 
nostrae  cousuetudiBis  imperiti  (B.G.  iv.  22),  unacquainted  with  our  customs. 


§349]  GENITIVE  WITH  ADJECTIVES  217 

plenus  fidei,  fvM  of  good  faith. 

omnis  spei  egenam  (Tac.  Ann.  i.  53),  destitute  of  all  hope. 
tempestatum  potentem  (Aen.  i.  80),  having  sway  over  the  storms. 
impotens  irae  (Li v.  xxix,  9,  9),  ungovernable  in  anger. 
coniurati5nis  participes  (Cat.  iii.  14),  sharing  in  the  conspiracy. 
affinis  rei  capitalis  (Verr.  ii.  2.  94),  involved  in  a  capital  crime. 
insons  cuipae  (Liv.  xxii.  49),  innocent  of  guilt. 

b.  Participles  in  -ns  govern  the  genitive  when  they  are  used  as 
adjectives,  i.e.  when  thej  denote  a  constant  disposition  and  not  a 
jparticidar  act :  — 

si  quern  tui  amantiorem  cognovisti  (Q.  Fr.  i.  1.  16),  if  you  have  become 
acquainted  with  any  one  more  fond  of  you. 

multitudo  insolens  belli  (B.  C.  ii.  36),  a  crowd  unused  to  war. 

erat  lugurtha  appetens  gloriae  militaris  (lug.  7),  Jugurtha  wa^  eager  for  mili- 
tary glory. 

Note  1.  —  Participles  in  -ns,  when  used  as  participles,  take  the  case  regularly  gov- 
erned by  the  verb  to  which  they  belong:  as,  —  Sp.  Maelium  regnum  appetentem  inter- 
emit  (Cat.  M.  56),  he  put  to  death  Spurius  Mselius,  who  was  aspiring  to  royal  power. 

Note  2.  —  Occasionally  participial  forms  in  -ns  are  treated  as  participles  (see  note  1) 
even  when  they  express  a  disposition  or  character:  as,  —  virtus  quam  alii  i^jsam  tem- 
perantiam  dicunt  esse,  alii  obtemperantem  temperantiae  praeceptis  et  earn  subsequen- 
tem  (Tusc.  iv.  30),  observant  of  the  teachings  of  temperance  and  obedient  to  her. 

c.  Verbals  in  -ax  (§  251)  govern  the  genitive  in  poetry  and  later 
Latin :  — 

iustum  et  tenacem  propositi  virum  (Hor.  Od.  iii.  3),  a  man  just  and  steadfast 

to  his  purpose. 
circus  capaxpopuli  (Ov.  A.  A.  i.  136),  a  circus  big  enough  to  hold  the  people. 
cibi  vinique  capacissimus  (Liv.  ix.  16.  13),  a  very  great  eater  and  drinker 

(very  able  to  contain  food  and  wine). 

d.  The  poets  and  later  writers  use  the  genitive  with  almost  any 
adjective,  to  denote  that  with  reference  to  which  the  quality  exists 
(  Genitive  of  Specification) :  — 

callidus  rei  militaris  (Tac.  H.  ii.  32),  skilled  in  soldiership. 
pauper  aquae  (Hor.  Od.  iii.  30.  11),  scant  qf  water. 
notus  animi  paterni  (id.  ii.  2.  6),  famed  for  a  paternal  spirit. 
fessi  rerum  (Aen.  i,  178),  weary  of  toil. 

integer  vitae  scelerisque  piirus  (Hor,  Od.  i.  22. 1),  upright  in  life,  and  unstained 

by  guilt. 

Note.  —  The  Genitive  of  Specification  is  only  an  extension  of  the  construction  with 

adjectives  requiring  an  object  of  reference  (§  o49).    Thus  callidus  denotes  knowledge ; 

pauper,  want ;  piirus,  innocence  ;  and  so  these  words  in  a  manner  belong  to  the  classes 

under  a. 

For  the  Ablative  of  Specification,  the  prose  construction,  see  §  418.  For  Adjectives 
of  likeness  etc,  with  the  Genitive,  apparently  Objective,  see  §  385,  c  For  Adjectives 
with  animi  (locative  in  origin),  see  §  358. 


218  SYNTAX:    CONSTRUCTION  OF   CASES  [§360 

GENITIVE   WITH  VERBS 

Verbs  of  Remembering  and  Forgetting 

350.  Verbs  of  remembering  a.nd  forgetting  take  either  the  Accu- 
sative or  the  Genitive  of  the  object :  — 

a,  Memini  takes  the  Accusative  when  it  has  the  literal  sense  of 
retaining  in  the  mind  what  one  has  seen,  heard,  or  learned.  Hence 
the  accusative  is  used  of  persons  whom  one  remembers  as  acquaint- 
ances, or  of  things  which  one  has  experienced. 

So  obliviscor  in  the  opposite  sense,  —  to  forget  literally,  to  lose  all 
memory  of  2.  thing  (very  rarely,  of  a  person). 
Cinnam  memini  (Phil.  v.  17),  I  remember  Cinna. 
utinam  avum  tuum  meminisses  (id.  i.  34),  oh!  that  you  could  remember  your 

grandfather !  (but  lie  died  before  you  were  born). 
Postumium,  cuius  statuam  in  Isthmo  meminisse  te  dicis  (Att.  xiii.  32),  Postu- 

mius,  whose  statue  you  say  you  remember  (to  have  seen)  on  the  Isthmus. 
omnia  meminit  Siron  Epicurl  dogmata  (Acad.  ii.  106),  Siron  remembers  all 

the  doctrines  of  Epicurus. 
multa  ab  aliis  audita  meminerunt  (De  Or.  ii.  355),  they  remember  many  things 

that  they  have  heard  from  others. 
totam  causam  oblitus  est  (Brut.  217),  he  forgot  the  whole  case. 
hinc  iam  obliviscere  Graios  (Aen.  ii.  148),  from  henceforth  forget  the  Greeks 

(i.e.  not  merely  disregard  them,  but  banish  them  from  your  mind,  as  if 

you  had  never  known  them). 

b.  Memini  takes  the  Genitive  when  it  means  to  be  rrdndfid  xii 
regardful  of  a  person  or  thing,  to  think  of  somebody  or  something 
(often  with  special  interest  or  warmth  of  feeling). 

So  obliviscor  in  the  opposite  sense,  —  to  disregard,  or  dismiss  from 
the  mind,  —  and  the  adjective  oblitus,  careless  or  regardless. 

ipse  sui  meminerat  (Verr.  ii.  136),  he  was  mindful  of  himself  (of  his  own 

interests), 
faciam  ut  huius  loci  dieique  meique  semper  memineris  (Ter.  Eun.  801),  I  ivill 

make  you  remember  this  place  and  this  day  and  me  as  long  as  you  live. 
nee  me  meminisse  pigebit  Elissae,  dum  memor  ipse  mei  (Aen.  iv.  335),  nor 

shall  I  feel  regret  at  the  thought  of  Elissa,  so  long  as  I  remember  myself. 
meminerint  verecundiae  (Off.  i.  122),  let  them  cherish  modesty. 
htimanae  infirmitatis  memini  (Liv.  xxx.  31.  6),  I  remember  human  weakness. 
oblivisci  temporum  meorum,  meminisse  actionum  (Fam.  i.  9.  8),  to  disregard 

my  own  interests,  to  be  mindfid  of  the  matters  at  issue. 
nee  tamen  Epicuri  licet  oblivisci  (Fin.  v.  3),  and  yet  I  must  not  forget  Epicurus. 
obliviscere  caedis  atque  incendiorum  (Cat.  i.  6),  turn  your  mind  from  slaughter 

and  conflagrations  (dismiss  them  from  your  thoughts). 


§§  350,  361]  GENITIVE  WITH  VERBS  219 

Note  1,  —  With  both  memini  and  obliviscor  the  personal  and  reflexive  pronouns  are 
regularly  in  the  Genitive ;  neuter  pronouns  and  adjectives  used  substantively  are  regu- 
larly in  the  Accusative ;  abstract  nouns  are  often  in  the  Genitive.  These  uses  come 
in  each  instance  from  the  natural  meaning  of  the  verbs  (as  defined  above) . 

Note  2.  —  Memini  in  the  sense  of  mention  takes  the  Genitive :  as,  —  eundem  Achil- 
1am  cuius  supra  meminimus  (B.  C.  iii.  108),  that  same  Achillas  whom  I  mentioned 
above. 

c,  Reminiscor  is  rare.  It  takes  the  Accusative  in  the  literal  sense 
of  call  to  mind,  recollect ;  the  Genitive  in  the  more  figurative  sense 
of  be  mindful  of:  — 

dulcis  moriens  reminlscitur  Argos  (Aen.  x.  782),  as  he  dies  he  calls  to  mind 

his  beloved  Argos. 
reminisceretur  et  veteris  incommodi  popull  RomanI  et  pristlnae  virtiitis  Helve- 

tiorum  (B.  G.  i.  13),  let  him  remember  both  the  former  discomfiture  of  the 

Boman  people  and  the  ancient  valor  of  the  Helvetians.     [A  warning,  — 

let  him  hear  it  in  mind  (and  beware) !  ] 

d.  Recorder,  recollect,  recall,  regularly  takes  the  Accusative :  — 

recordare  consensum  ilium  theatrl  (Phil.  i.  30),  recall  that  unanimous  agree- 
ment of  the  [audience  in  the]  theatre. 

recordamini  omnis  civilis  dissensiones  (Cat.  iii.  24),  call  to  mind  all  the  civil 
wars. 

Note.  —  Recorder  takes  the  genitive  once  (Pison.  12) ;  it  is  never  used  with  a  per- 
sonal object,  but  may  be  followed  by  de  with  the  ablative  of  the  person  or  thing 
(cf.  §351.  N.):  — 

de  te  recordor  (Scaur.  49),  I  remember  about  you. 

de  illis  (lacrimis)  recordor  (Plane.  104),  /  am  reminded  of  those  tears. 

Verbs  of  Reminding 

351.  Verbs  of  reminding  take  with  the  Accusative  of  the  per- 
son a  Genitive  of  the  thing ;  except  in  the  case  of  a  neuter  pro- 
noun, which  is  put  in  the  accusative  (cf.  §  390.  c). 

So  admoneo,  commoneo,  commonefaciS,  commonefio.  But  moneo  with 
the  genitive  is  found  in  late  writers  only. 

Catillna  admonebat  alium  egestatis,  alium  cupiditatis  suae  (Sail.  Cat.  21), 

Catiline  reminded  one  of  his  poverty,  another  of  his  cupidity. 
eos  hoc  moneo  (Cat.  ii.  20),  I  give  them  this  warning. 
quod  vos  lex  commonet  (Verr.  iii.  40),  that  which  the  law  reminds  you  of. 

Note.  —  All  these  verbs  often  take  de  with  the  ablative,  and  the  accusative  of  nouns 
as  well  as  of  pronouns  is  sometimes  used  with  them :  — 

saepius  te  admoneo  de  syngrapha  Sittiana  (Fam.  viii.  4.  5)  I  remind  you  again  and 

again  of  Sittius's  bond. 
offlcium  vostrum  ut  vos  malo  cogatis  commonerier  (Plant.  Ps.  1.50),  that  you  may 
by  misfortune  force  yourselves  to  be  reminded  of  your  duty. 


220  SYNTAX:    CONSTRUCTION  OF  CASES  [§§352,353 

Verbs  of  Accusing,  Condemning,  and  Acquitting 

352.  Verbs  of  accusing^  condemning^  and  acquitting^  take  the 
Genitive  of  the  Charge  or  Penalty ;  — 

arguit  mg  furti,  he  accuses  me  of  theft. 

peculatus  damnatus  (pecuniae  ptiblicae  damnatus)  (Flacc.  43),  condemned  for 

embezzlement. 
video  non  te  absoltitum  esse  improbitatis,  sed  illos  damnatos  esse  caedis 

(Verr.  ii.  1.  72),  I  see,  not  that  you  were  acquitted  of  outrage,  hut  that 

they  were  condemned  for  homicide. 

a.  Peculiar  genitives,  under  this  construction,  are  — 

capitis,  as  in  damnare  capitis,  to  sentence  to  death. 
maiestatis  [laesae],  treason  (crime  against  tlie  dignity  of  the  state), 
repetundarum  [rerum],  extortion  (lit.  of  an  action  for  reclaiming  money). 
voti  damnatus  (or  reus),  bound  [to  the  payment]  of  one''s  vow,  i.e.  success- 
ful in  one's  effort. 
pecuniae  (damnare,  iudicare,  see  note). 
dupli  etc. ,  as  in  dupli  condemnare,  condemn  to  pay  twofold. 

Note.  —  The  origin  of  these  genitive  constructions  is  pointed  at  by  peciiniae  dam- 
nare  (Gell.  xx.  1.  38),  to  condemn  to  pay  money,  in  a  case  of  injury  to  the  person; 
quantae  pecuniae  iudicati  essent  (id.xx.  1.^1), hoio  much  money  they  were  adjudged  to  pay  ^ 
in  a  mere  suit  for  debt;  confessi  aeris  ac  debit!  iudicati  (id.  xx.  1. 42),  adjudged  to  owe 
an  admitted  sum  due.  These  expressions  show  that  the  genitive  of  the  penalty  comes 
from  the  use  of  the  genitive  of  value  to  express  a  sum  of  money  due  either  as  a  debt  or  as 
a  fine.  Since  in  early  civilizations  all  offences  could  be  compounded  by  the  payment  of 
fines,  the  genitive  came  to  be  used  of  other  x>unishnients,  not  pecuniary.  From  this  to 
the  genitive  of  the  actual  crime  is  an  easy  transition,  inasmuch  as  there^4s^«lways^a 
confusion  between  crime  and  penalty  (ci.  Eng.  guilty  of  death).  It  is  quite  unnecessary- 
to  assume  an  ellipsis  of  crimine  or  iudicio. 

353.  Other  constructions  for  the  Charge  or  Penalty  are  — 

1.  The  Ablative  of  Price :  regularly  of  a  definite  amount  of  line, 
and  often  of  indefinite  penalties  (cl  §  416) :  — 

Frusinates  tertia  parte  agrl  damnati  (Liv.  x.  1),  the  people  of  Frusino  con- 
demned [to  forfeit]  a  third  iiart  of  their  land. 

2.  The  Ablative  with  de,  or  the  Accusative  with  inter,  in  idiomatic 

expressions :  —  \      " 

de  alea,  for  gambling ;  de  anibitu,  for  bribery. 

d6  pectiniis  repetundls,  of  extortion  (cf.  §  352.  a). 

inter  slcarios  (Rose.  Am.  90),  as  an  assassin  (among  the  assassins). 

dS  vi  et  maiestatis  damnati  (Phil,  i.  21),  convicted  of  assault  and  treason. 

Note.  —  The  accusative  with  ad  and  in  occurs  in  later  writers  to  express  the  pen- 
alty: as,  — ad  mortem  (Tac.  Ann.  xvi.  21),  to  death;  ad  (in)  metaUa,  to  the  mines. 


§§  354,  355]  GENITIVE    WITH    VERBS  221 

Verbs  of  Feeling 

354.  Many  verbs  of  feeling  take  the  Genitive  of  the  object 
which  excites  the  feeling. 

a.  Verbs  of  pity^  as  misereor  and  iniseresco,  take  the  genitive :  — 
miseremini  familiae,  iudices,  miseremini  patris,  miseremini  fili  (Flacc.  106), 

have  pity  on  the  family,  etc. 
miserere  animi  noii  digna  ferentis  (Aen.  ii.  144),  pity  a  soul  that  endures 

unworthy  things. 
miserescite  regis  (id.  viii.  573),  pity  the  king.     [Poetical.] 
Note.  —  But  miseror,  commiseror,  bewail,  take  the  accusative:   as,  —  communem 
condicionem  miserari  (Mur.  55),  bewail  the  common  lot. 

h.  As  impersonals,  miseret,  paenitet,  piget,  pudet,  taedet  (or  pertaesum 

est),  take  the  genitive  of  the  cause  of  the  feeling  and  the  accusative 
of  t\iQ  person  affected:  — 

quos  infamiae  suae  neque  piidet  neque  taedet  (Verr,  i.  35),  who  are  neither 

ashamed  nor  weary  of  their  dishonor. 
me  miseret  parietum  ipsorum  (Pliil.  ii.  69),  I  pity  the  very  walls. 
me  civitatis  morum  piget  taedetque  (lug.  4),  I  am  sick  ami  tired  of  the  luays 

of  the  state. 
decemvirorum  vos  pertaesum  est  (Liv.  iii.  67),  you  became  tired  of  the  decemvirs. 

c.  With  miseret,  paenitet,  etc.,  the  cause  of  the  feeling  may  be  ex- 
|)ressed  by  an  infinitive  or  a  clause :  — 

neque  me  paenitet  mortalls  inimicitias  habere  (Rab.  Post.  32),  nor  am  I  sorry 

to  have  deadly  enmities. 
Qon  dedisse  istunc  pudet ;  me  quia  non  accepi  piget  (PI.  Pseud.  282),  he  is 
ashamed  not  to  have  given;  I  am  sorry  because  I  have  not  received. 
Note.  —  Miseret  etc.  are  sometimes  used  personally  with  a  neuter  pronoun  as  sub- 
ject: as, — non  te  haec  pudent  (Ter.  Ad.  754),  do  not  these  things  shame  you? 

Interest  and  Refert 

355.  The  impersonals  interest  and  refert  take  the  Genitive  of 
the  person  (rarely  of  the  thing)  affected. 

The  subject  of  the  verb  is  a  neuter  pronoun  or  a  substantive 
clause :  — 

Clodi  intererat  Milonem  perlre  (cf.  Mil.  56),  it  was  the  interest  of  Clodius  that 

Milo  should  die. 
aliquid  quod  illorum  magis  quam  sua  retulisse  videretur  (lug.  Ill),  something 

which  seemed  to  be  more  for  their  interest  than  his  own. 
video  enim  quid  mea  intersit,  quid  utriusque  nostrum  (Earn.  vii.  23.  4),/ori 
see  what  is  for  my  good  and  for  the  good  of  us  both. 


222  SYNTAX:    CONSTRUCTION   OF   CASES  [§§355,356 

a.  Instead  of  the  genitive  of  a  personal  pronoun  the  correspond- 
ing possessive  is  used  in  the  ablative  singular  feminine  after  interest 
or  refert :  — 

quid  tua  id  refert?  magni  (Ter.  Ph.  723),  how  does  that  concern  yoaf  much. 

[See  also  the  last  two  examples  above.] 
vehementer  iiitererat  vestra  qui  patres  estis  (Plin.  Ep.  iv.  13.  4),  it  would  he 
very  much  to  your  advantage.,  you  who  are  fathers. 
Note.  —  This  is  the  only  construction  with  refert  in  classic  prose,  except  in  one 
passage  in  Sallust  (see  example  above). 

h.  The  accusative  with  ad  is  used  with  interest  and  refert  to  ex- 
press the  thing  with  reference  to  which  one  is  interested :  — 

magni  ad  honorem  nostrum  interest  (Fam.  xvi.  1),  it  is  of  great  consequence 

to  our  honor. 
refert  etiam  ad  fructus  (Varr.  R.  R.  i.  16.  6),  it  makes  a  difference  as  to  the  crop. 

Note  1.  — Very  rarely  the  person  is  expressed  by  ad  and  the  accusative,  or  (with 
refert)  by  the  dative  (probably  a  popular  corruption) :  — 

quid  id  ad  me  aut  ad  meam  rem  refert  (PI.  Pers.  513),  what  difference  does  that 

make  to  me  or  to  my  interests  f 
quid  referat  intra  naturae  finis  viventi  (Hor.  S.  i.  1.  49),  what  difference  does  it 

make  to  me  who  live  loithin  the  limits  of  natural  desire  9 
non  referre  dedecori  (Tac.  Ann.  xv.  65),  that  it  makes  no  difference  as  to  the 
disgrace. 
Note  2.  — The  degree  of  interest  is  expressed  by  a  genitive  of  value,  an  adverb, 
or  an  adverbial  accusative. 

Verbs  of  Plenty  and  Want 

356.  Verbs  of  Plenty  and  Want  sometimes  govern  the  geni- 
tive (of.  §  409.  a.  N.) :  — 

convivium  vicinorum  compleo  (Cat.  M.  46,  in  the  mouth  of  Cato),  I  Jill  up  the 
banquet  with  my  neighbors. 

implentur  veteris  Bacchi  pinguisque  ferinae  (Aen.  1.  215),  they  fill  themselves 
with  old  wine  and  fat  venison. 

ne  quis  auxili  egeat  (B.  G.  vi.  11),  lest  any  require  aid. 

quid  est  quod  defensionis  indigeat  (Rose.  Am.  34),  what  is  there  thai  needs 
defence  1 

quae  ad  consolandum  m^ioris  ingeni  et  ad  ferendum  singularis  virtutis  indi- 
gent (Fam.  vi.  4.  2),  [sorrows]  which  for  their  comforting  need  more  abil- 
1  ity,  and  for  endurance  unusual  courage. 

T^OTE.  — Verbs  of  plenty  and  want  more  commonly  take  the  ablative  (see  §§  409.  a, 
401),  except  egeo,  which  takes  either  case,  and  indigeo.  But  the  genitive  is  by  a  Greek 
idiom  often  used  in  poetry  instead  of  the  ablative  with  all  words  denoting  separation 
and  want  (cf.  §  .357.  &.  3):  — 

abstiniito  irarum  (Hor.  Od.  iii.  27.  69),  refrain  from  lorath. 

operum  solfitis  (id.  iii.  17.  \^,  free  from  toils. 

desine  mollium  querellarum  (id.  ii.  9- 17),  have  done  with  weak  complaints 


§§357-359]  PECULIAR   GENITIVES  223 

Genitive  with  Special  Verbs 

357.  The  Genitive  is  used  with  certain  special  verbs. 

a.  The  genitive  sometimes  follows  potior,  get  possession  of:  as 
always  in  the  phrase  potiri  rerum,  to  be  master  of  affairs :  — 

illius  regni  potiri  (Fam.  i.  7.  5),  to  become  master  of  that  kingdom. 
Cleanthes  solem  dominari  et  rerum  potiri  putat  (Acad.  ii.  126),  Cleanthes 
thinks  the  sun  holds  sway  and  is  lord  of  the  universe. 
Note.  —  But  potior  usually  takes  the  ablative  (see  §410). 

b.  Some  other  verbs  rarely  take  the  genitive  — 

1 .  By  analogy  with  those  mentioned  in  §  354 :  — 

neque  huiiis  sis  veritus  feminae  primariae  (Ter.  Ph.  971),  and  you  had  no 
respect  for  this  high-born  lady. 

2.  As  akin  to  adjectives  which  take  the  genitive :  — 
fastidit  mei  (Plant.  Aul.  245),  he  disdains  me.     [Cf.  fastidiosus.] 
studet  tui  (quoted  N.  D.  ill.  72),  he  is  zealous  for  you.     [Cf.  studiosus.] 

3.  In  imitation  of  the  Greek:  — 

iustitiaene  prius  rairer,  belllne  laborum  (Aen.  xi.  126),  shall  I  rather  admire 

his  justice  or  his  toils  in  war? 
neque  ille  sepositi  ciceris  nee  longae  invidit  avenae  (Hor.  S.  ii.  6.  84),  nor  did 

he  grudge  his  garnered  peas,  etc.  [But  cf.  invidus,  parous.] 
laborum  decipitur  (Hor.  Od.  ii.  13.  38),  he  is  beguiled  of  his  woes. 
me  laborum  levas  (PL  Pud.  247),  you  relieve  me  of  my  troubles, 

358.  The  apparent  Genitive  animi  (really  Locative)  is  used  with 

a  few  verbs  and  adjectives  oi  feeling  and  the  like:  — 

Antipho  me  excruciat  animi  (Ter.  Ph.  187),  Antipho  tortures  my  mind  (me  in 

my  mind), 
qui  pendet  animi  (Tusc.  iv.  35),  who  is  in  suspense. 
me  animi  fallit  (Lucr.  i.  922),  my  mind  deceives  me. 

So,  by  analogy,  desipiebam  mentis  (PI.  Epid.  138),  I  was  out  of  my  head. 
aeger  animi,  sick  at  heart;  conftisus  animi,  disturbed  in  spirit. 
sanus  mentis  aut  animi  (PI.  Trin.  454),  sound  in  mind  or  heart. 

PECULIAR   GENITIVES 

359.  Peculiar  Genitive  constructions  are  the  following :  — 
a.  A  poetical  genitive  occurs  rarely  in  exclamations,  in  imitation 

of  the  Greek  (  Genitive  of  Exclamation)  :  — 

di  immortales,  mercimoni  lepidi  (PI.  Most.  912),  good  heavens!  what  a  charm- 
ing bargain ! 
foederis  heu  taciti  (Prop.  iv.  7.  21),  alas  for  the  unspoken  agreement! 


224  SYNTAX:    CONSTRUCTION  OF   CASES  [§§359,360 

b.  The  genitive  is  often  used  with  the  ablatives  causa,  gratia,  for 
the  sake  of;  ergo,  hecause  of;  and  the  indeclinable  instar,  like;  also 
v/ith  pridie,  the  day  before;  postridie,  the  day  after;  tenus,  as  far  as: 
honoris  causa,  with  due  respect  (for  the  sake  of  honor), 
verbi  gratia,  for  example. 
eius  legis  ergo,  on  account  of  this  law. 
equus  instai- montis  (Aen.  ii.  15),  a  horse  huge  as  a  mountain  (the  image  of 

a  mountain), 
laterum  tenus  (id.  x.  210),  as  far  as  the  sides. 
Note  1.  — Of  these  the  genitive  with  causa  is  a  development  from  the  possessive 
genitive  and  resembles  that  in  nomen  insaniae  (§  S'i'S.d) .  The  others  are  of  various  origin. 
Note  2.  —  In  prose  of  the  Republican  Period  pridie  and  postridie  are  thus  used  only 
in  the  expressions  pridie  (postridie)  eius  diei,  the  day  before  (after)  that  (of.  "the  eve,  the 
morrow  of  that  day").    Tacitus  uses  the  construction  with  other  words :  as,  —  postridie 
insidiarum,  the  day  after  the  plot.    For  the  accusative,  see  §  432.  a.    Tenus  takes  also 
the  ablative  (p.  136). 

DATIVE   CASE 

360.  The  Dative  is  probably,  like  the  Genitive,  a  grammatical  case,  that  is,  it  is 
a  form  appropriated  to  the  expression  of  a  variety  of  relations  other  than  that  of  the 
direct  object.  But  it  is  held  by  some  to  be  a  Locative  with  the  primary  meaning  of 
to  or  towards,  and  the  poetic  uses  (like  it  clamor  caelo,  Aen.  v.  451)  are  regarded  as 
survivals  of  the  original  use. 

In  Latin  the  Dative  has  two  classes  of  meanings :  — 

1.  The  Dative  denotes  an  object  not  as  caused  by  the  action,  or  directly  affected  by 
it  (like  the  Accusative),  but  as  reciprocally  sharing  in  the  action  or  receiving  it  con- 
sciously or  actively.  Thus  in  dedit  puero  librum,  he  gave  the  hoy  a  book,  or  fecit  mihi 
iniuriam,  he  did  me  a  wrong,  there  is  an  idea  of  the  boy's  receiving  the  book,  and  of  my 
feeling  the  wrong.  Hence  expressions  denoting  persons,  or  things  with  personal 
attributes,  are  more  likely  to  be  in  the  dative  than  those  denoting  mere  things.  So 
in  Spanish  the  dative  is  used  whenever  a  person  is  the  object  of  an  action;  yo  veo  al 
hombre,  I  see  [to]  the  man.  This  difference  between  the  Accusative  and  the  Dative 
(i.e.  between  the  Direct  and  the  Indirect  Object)  depends  upon  the  point  of  view  implied 
in  the  verb  or  existing  in  the  mind  of  the  writer.  Hence  Latin  verbs  of  similar  meaning 
(to  an  English  mind)  often  differ  in  the  case  of  their  object  (see  §  367.  a). 

2.  The  Dative  is  used  to  express  the  purpose  of  an  action  or  that  for  which  it  .<ierves 
(see  §  382).  This  construction  is  especially  used  with  abstract  expressions,  or  those 
implying  an  action. 

These  two  classes  of  Datives  approach  each  other  in  some  cases  and  are  occasion- 
ally  confounded,  as  in  §§  383,  384. 

The  uses  of  the  Dative  are  the  following:  — • 
1.    Indirect    Object    (general  /  1.  With  Transitives  (^  362). 
12. 


use):  \  2.  With  Intransitives  (§§  366-372). 

'  1.  Of  Possession  (with  esse)  (§  373). 

2.  Of  Agency  (with  Gerundive)  (§  374). 

3.  Of  Reference  (dattvus  commodl)  (§§  376-381). 

4.  Of  Purpose  or  End  (predicate  use)  (§  382). 
I.  5.  Of  Fitness  etc.  (with  Adjectives)  (§§  383,  384). 


2.    Special  or  Idiomatic  Uses : 


§§301-363]  DATIVE   OF  INDIRECT   OBJECT  225 

INDIRECT   OBJECT 

361.  The  Dative  is  used  to  denote  the  object  indirectly  affected 
by  an  action. 

This  is  called  the  Indirect  Object  (§  274).  It  is  usually  denoted 
in  English  by  the  objective  with  to :  — 

cedite  tempori,  yield  to  the  occasion. 

provincia  Ciceroni  obtigit,  the  jjrovince  fell  by  lot  to  Cicero. 

inimicis  non  credimus,  we  do  not  trust  [to]  our  enemies. 

Indirect  Object  with  Transitives 

362.  The  Dative  of  the  Indirect  Object  with  the  Accusative 
of  the  Direct  may  be  used  with  any  transitive  verb  whose  mean- 
ing allows  (see  §  274) :  — 

do  tibi  librum,  I  give  you  a  hook. 

illud  tibi  aff irmo  (Fain.  i.  7.  5) ,  this  I  assure  you. 

commendo  tibi  eius  omnia  negotia  (id.  i.  8),  I  put  all  his  affairs  in  your  hands 

(commit  them  to  you), 
dabis  profecto  misericordiae  quod  iracundiae  negavisti  (Deiot.  40),  you  will 

surely  grant  to  mercy  what  you  refused  to  wrath. 
litteras  a  tg  mihi  stator  tuus  reddidit  (Fam.  ii.  17),  your  messenger  delivered 

to  me  a  letter  from  you. 

a.  Many  verbs  have  both  a  transitive  and  an  intransitive  use,  and 
take  either  the  Accusative  with  the  Dative,  or  the  Dative  alone :  — 

mihi  id  aurum  credidit  (cf.  Plant.  Aul.  15),  he  trusted  that  gold  to  me. 
equo  ne  credits  (Aen.  ii.  48),  jput  not  your  trust  in  the  horse. 
concessit  senatus  postulationi  tuae  (Mur.  47),  the  senate  yielded  to  your  demand. 
concedere  amicis  quidquid  veliat  (Lael.  88),  to  grant  to  friends  all  they  may 
ivish. 

363.  Certain  verbs  implying  motion  vary  in  their  construction 
between  the  Dative  of  the  Indirect  Object  and  the  Accusative 
of  the  End  of  Motion  (§§  426,  427):  — 

1.  Some  verbs  implying  motion  take  the  Accusative  (usually  with 
ad  or  in)  instead  of  the  Indirect  Object,  when  the  idea  of  motion  pre- 
vails :  — 

litteras  quas  ad  Pompeium  scrips!  (Att.  iii.  8.  4),  the  letter  which  I  have  written 
[and  sent]  to  Pompey.  [Cf.  non  quo  habgrem  quod  tibi  scriberem  (id. 
iv.  4  a),  not  that  I  had  anything  to  write  to  you.'] 


226  SYNTAX :    CONSTRUCTION  OF   CASES  [§§  363,  364 

litterae  extemplo  Romam  scrlptae  (Liv.  xli.  16),  a  letter  was  immediately  writteri 

[and  sent]  to  Rome. 
hostis  in  fugam  dat  (B.  G.  v.  51),  he  puts  the  enemy  tojlight.     [Cf.  ut  me  dem 

fugae  (Att.  vii.  23),  to  take  tojlight.] 
omnes  rem  ad  Pompeium  deferri  volunt  (Fam.  i.  1),  all  wish  the  matter  to  be 

put  in  the  hands  of  Pompey  (referred  to  Pompey). 

2.  On  the  other  hand,  many  verbs  of  motion  usually  followed  by 
the  Accusative  with  ad  or  in,  take  the  Dative  when  the  idea  of  motion 
is  merged  in  some  other  idea :  — 

mihi  litteras  mittere  (Fam.  vii.  12),  to  send  me  a  letter. 
eum  librum  tibi  misi  (id.  vii.  19),  7  sent  you  that  hook. 
nee  quicquam  quod  nou  mihi  Caesar  detulerit  (id.  iv.  13),  and  nothing  which 

CcBsar  did  not  communicate  to  me. 
cfires  ut  mihi  vehantur  (id.  viii.  4.  5),  take  care  that  they  be  conveyed  to  me. 
cum  alius  alii  subsidium  ferrent  (B.  G.  ii.  26),  while  one  lent  aid  to  another. 

364.  Certain  verbs  may  take  either  the  Dative  of  the  person  and 

the  Accusative  of  the  thing,  or  (in  a  different  sense)  the  Accusative 

of  the  person  and  the  Ablative  of  the  thing  ^:  — 

donat  coronas  suls,  he  presents  wreaths  to  his  men;  or, 

donat  suos  coronis,  he  presents  his  men  with  wreaths. 

vincula  exuere  sibi  (Ov.  M.  vii.  772),  to  shake  off  the  leash  (from  himself). 

omnis  armis  exuit  (B.  G.  v.  51),  Ae  stripped  them  all  of  their  arms. 

Note  1.  — InteTilcb,  forbid,  takes  either  (1)  the  Dative  of  the  person  and  the  Abla- 
tive of  the  thing,  or  (2)  in  later  writers,  the  Dative  of  the  person  and  the  Accusative  of 
the  thing :  — 

aqua  et  igni  alicui  interdicere,  to  forbid  one  the  v^e  of  fire  and  water.     [The  regular 

formula  for  banishment.] 
interdixit  histrionibus  scaenam  (Suet.  Dom.  7),  he  forbade  the  actors  [to  appear  on] 

the  stage  (he  prohibited  the  stage  to  the  actors) . 
feminis  (dat.)  purpurae  usu  interdicemus  (Liv.  xxxiv.  7),  shall  we  forbid  women 
the  wearing  of  purple? 
Note  2.  —  The  Dative  with  the  Accusative  is  used  in  poetry  with  many  verbs  of 
preventing,  protecting,  and  the  like,  which  usually  take  the  Accusative  and  Ablative. 
Intercludo  and  prohibeo  sometimes  take  the  Dative  and  Accusative,  even  in  prose :  — 
hisce  omnis  aditiis  ad  Sullara  intercludere  (Rose.  Am.  110),  to  shut  these  men  off 
from  all  access  to  Sidla  (close  to  them  every  approach).     [Cf.  uti  commeatii 
Caesarem  intercliideret  (B.  G.  i.  48),  to  shut  Csesar  off  from  supplies.] 
hunc  (oestrum)  arcebis  pecori  (Georg.  iii.  154),  you  shall  keep  this  away  from  the 

flock,     [Cf.  ilium  arcuit  Gallia  (Phil.  v.  37),  he  excluded  hi7n from  Gaul.] 
solstitium  pecori  defendite  (Eel.  vii.  47) ,  keep  the  summer  heat  from  the  flock.    [Cf . 
utI  se  a  contumeliis  inimicorum  defenderet  (B.  C.  i.  22),  to  defend  himself 
from  the  slanders  of  his  enejnies.] 

1  Such  are  dono,  impertio,  induo,  exuo,  adsperg5,  inspergS,  circumdo  and  in  poetry 
accingOj  implic6>  and  similar  verbs. 


§§  365,  366]  DATIVE  OF   INDIRECT  OBJECT  227 

365.  Verbs  which  in  the  active  voice  take  the  Accusative  and 
Dative  retain  the  Dative  when  used  in  the  passive :  — 

nuntiabantur  haec  eadem  Curioni  (B.  C.  ii.  37),  these  same  things  were 
announced  to  Curio.     [Active  :  nuntiabant  (quidam)  haec  eadem  Curioni.] 

nee  docendi  Caesaris  propinquis  eius  spatium  datur,  nee  tribunis  plebis  sui 
peiicull  deprecandi  facultas  tribuitur  (id.  i.  5),  no  time  is  given  CcBsar's 
relatives  to  inform  him,  and  no  opportunity  is  granted  to  the  tribunes  of 
the  plebs  to  avert  danger  from  themselves. 

provinciae  privatis  decernuntur  (id.  i.  6),  provinces  are  voted  to  private 
citizens. 

Indirect  Object  with  Intransitives 

366.  The  Dative  of  the  Indirect  Object  may  be  used  with  any 
Intransitive  verb  whose  meaning  allows :  — 

cedant  arma  togae  (Ptiil.  ii.  20),  let  arms  give  place  to  the  gown. 

Caesari  respondet,  he  replies  to  Coesar. 

Caesari  respondetur,  a  reply  is  given  to  Coisar  (Caesar  is  replied  to) .    [Cf .  §  372.  ] 

respond!  maximis  criminibus  (Phil.  ii.  36),  I  have  answered  the  heaviest  charges. 

ut  ita  cuique  eveniat  (id.  ii.  119),  that  it  may  so  turn  out  to  each. 
Note  1.  —  Intransitive  verbs  have  no  Direct  Object.    The  Indirect  Object,  there- 
fore, in  these  cases  stands  alone  as  in  the  second  example  (but  cf.  §  362.  a). 

Note  2.  —  Cedo,  yield,  sometimes  takes  the  Ablative  of  the  thing  along  vrith  the 
Dative  of  the  person :  as,  —  cedere  alicui  possessione  hortorum  (cf.  Mil.  75),  to  give  up  to 
one  the  possession  of  a  garden. 

a.  Many  phrases  consisting  of  a  noun  with  the  copula  sum  or  a 
copulative  verb  are  equivalent  to  an  intransitive  verb  and  take  a 
kind  of  indirect  object  (cf.  §  367.  a.  n.^):  — 

auctor  esse  alicui,  to  advise  or  instigate  one  (cf.  persuaded). 

quis  huic  rei  testis  est  (Quinet.  37),  who  testifies  (is  witness)  to  this  fact? 

is  finis  populationibus  fuit  (Liv.  ii.  30.  9),  this  put  an  end  to  the  raids. 

b.  The  dative  is  sometimes  used  without  a  copulative  verb  in  a 
sense  approaching  that  of  the  genitive  (cf.  §§  367.  d,  377):  — 

legatus  fratrl  (Mur.  32),  a  lieutenant  to  his  brother  (i.e.  a  man  assigned  to  his 

brother), 
ministri  sceleribus  (Tac.  Ann.  vi.  36),  agents  of  crime.    [Cf.  seditionis  minis- 

tri  (id.  i.  17),  agents  of  sedition.] 
miseriis  suis  remedium  mortem  exspeetare  (Sail.  Cat.  40),  to  look  for  death 
as  a  cure  for  their  miseries.     [Cf.  solus  mearum  miseriarumst  remedium 
(Ter.  Ad.  294).] 
Note.  —  The  cases  in  a  and  b  differ  from  the  constructions  of  §  367.  a.  N.2  and 
§  377  in  that  the  dative  is  more  closely  connected  in  idea  with  some  single  word  to 
which  it  serves  as  an  indirect  obiect. 


228  SYNTAX:    CONSTRUCTION   OF   CASES  [§367 

Indirect  Object  with  Special  Verbs 

367.  Many  verbs  signifying  to  favor^  help,  please,  trust,  and 
their  contraries ;  also  to  believe,  persuade,  command,  obey,  serve, 
resist,  envy,  threaten,  pardon,  and  spare,^  take  the  Dative :  — 

cur  mihi  invides,  why  do  you  envy  me? 

mihi  parcit  atque  ignOscit,  he  spares  and  imrdons  me. 

ignosce  patrio  dol5ri  (Liv.  iii.  48),  excuse  a  father^ s  grief. 

subveni  patriae,  opitulare  conlegae  (Fain.  x.  10-  2),  come  to  the  aid  of  your 

country,  help  your  colleague. 
mihi  non  displicet  (Clu.  144),  it  does  not  displease  me. 
non  omnibus  servio  (Att.  xiii.  49),  I  am  not  a  servant  to  every  man. 
non  parcam  operae  (Fam.  xiii.  27),  I  will  spare  no  pains. 
sic  mihi  persuasl  (Cat.  M.  78),  so  I  have  persuaded  myself. 
mihi  Fabius  debebit  ignoscere  si  minus  eius  famae  parcere  videbor  quam  antea 

consulul  (Tull.  3),  Fahiiis  will  have  to  pardon  me  if  I  seem  to  spare  his 

reputation  less  than  I  have  heretofore  regarded  it. 
huic  legioni  Caesar  confidebat  maxime  (B.  G.  i.  40.  15),  in  this  legion  CcBsar 

trusted  most. 

In  these  verbs  the  Latin  retains  an  original  intransitive  meaning. 
Thus  :  invidere,  to  envy,  is  literally  to  look  askance  at ;  servire  is  to  be 
a  slave  to  ;  suadere  is  to  make  a  thing  pleasant  (sweet)  to, 

a.  Some  verbs  apparently  of  the  same  meanings  take  the  Accusative. 

Such  are  iuv5,  adiuvo,  help;  laedo,  injure;  iubeo,  order;  deficid,  fail; 
delecto,  please :  — 

hie  pulvis  oculum  meum  laedit,  this  dust  hurts  my  eye.     [Cf.  multa  oculis 
nocent,  many  things  are  injurious  to  the  eyes.] 

NoTB  1.  —  Fido  and  confido  take  also  the  Ablative  (§  431) :  as,  —  multura  natura  loci 
confidebant  (B.  G.  iii.  9),  they  had  great  confidence  in  the  strength  of  their  position. 

Note  2.  —  Some  common  phrases  regularly  take  the  dative  precisely  like  verbs  of 
similar  meaning.  Such  are  —  praesto  esse,  he  on  hand  (cf .  adesse) ;  morem  gerere, 
humor  (cf.  morigerari) ;  gratum  facere,  do  a  favor  (cf.  gratiflcari) ;  dicto  audiens  esse, 
he  obedient  (cf.  oboedire) ;  cui  fidem  habebat  (E.  G.  i.  19),  in  whom  he  had  confidence 
(cf.  confidelxat). 

So  also  many  phrases  where  no  corresponding  verb  exists.  Such  are  —  bene  (male, 
pulchre,  aegre,  etc.)  esse,  he  ivell  {ill,  etc.)  off;  iniuriam  facere,  do  injustice  to ;  diem 
dicere,  hring  to  trial  (name  a  day  for,  etc.);  agere  gratias,  express  one's  thanks; 
habere  gratiam,/ee^  thankful;  referre  gratiam,  repay  a  favor;  opus  esse,  be  neces- 
sary;  damnum  dare,  infiict  an  injury;  acceptum  (expensum)  ferre  (esse),  credit 
{charge);  honorera  habere,  to  pay  honor  to. 

1  These  include,  among  others,  the  following:  adversor,  cedo,  credo,  faveo,  fido, 
ignosco,  impero,  indulgeo,  invideo,  irascor,  minitor,  noceo,  parco,  pareo,  placeo,  resisto, 
servio,  studeo,  suadeo  (persuadeo),  suscenseo,  tempero  (obtemperS). 


§§  367,  368]  DATIVE   WITH   SPECIAL   VERBS  229 

6.  Some  verbs  are  used  transitively  with  the  Accusative  or  intran- 
sitively with  the  Dative  without  perceptible  difference  of  meaning. 
Such  are  adulor,  aemulor,  despero,  praestolor,  medeor :  — 

adulatus  est  Antonio  (Nep.  Att.  8),  he  flattered  Antony. 

adulari  Neronem  (Tac.  Ann.  xvi.  19),  to  flatter  Nero. 

pacem  non  desperas  (Att.  viii.  15.  3),  you  do  not  despair  of  peace. 

saluti  desperare  vetuit  (Ciu.  68),  he  forbade  him  to  despair  of  safety. 

c.  Some  verbs  are  used  transitively  with  the  Accusative  or  intran- 
sitively with  the  Dative  with  a  difference  of  meaning  :  —  ^ 

parti  civium  consulunt  (Off.  i.  85),  they  consult  for  a  part  of  the  citizens. 
cum  te  consuluissem  (Earn.  xi.  29),  when  I  had  consulted  you. 
metuens  pueris  (Plant.  Am.  1113),  anxious  for  the  children. 
nee  metuunt  deos  (Ter.  Hec.  772),  they  fear  not  even  the  gods.    [So  also  timeo.] 
prospicite  patriae  (Cat.  iv.  3),  have  regard  for  the  state. 

prospicere  sedem  senecttiti  (Liv.  iv.  49.  14),  to  provide  a  habitation  for  old  age.  ■ 
[So  also  provided.] 

d.  A  few  verbal  nouns  (as  insidiae,  ambush;  obtemperatio,  obedi- 
ence)  rarely  take  the  dative  like  the  corresponding  verbs  :  — 

insidiae  consul!  (Sail.  Cat.  32),  the  plot  against  the  consul  (cf.  insidior). 
obtemperatio  legibus  (Legg.  i.  42),  obedience  to  the  laws  (cf.  obtempero). 
sibi  ipsi  responsio  (De  Or.  iii.  207),  an  answer  to  himself  (cf.  responded). 

Note.  —  In  these  cases  the  dative  depends  immediately  upon  the  verbal  force  of  the 
noun  and  not  on  any  complex  idea  (cf.  §  366.  a,  b). 

368.  The  Dative  is  used  — 

1.  With  the  impersonal s  libet  (lubet),  it  pleases,  and  licet,  it  is 

allowed :  — 

quod  mihi  maxime  lubet  (Earn.  i.  8.  3),  what  most  pleases  me. 
quasi  tibi  non  liceret  (id.  vi.  8),  as  if  you  were  not  permitted. 

2.  With  verbs  compounded  with  satis,  bene,  and  male  :  — 

mihi  ipse  numquam  satisfacio  (Earn.  i.  1),  I  never  satisfy  myself. 
optimo  vir5  maledicere  (Deiot.  28),  to  speak  ill  of  a  most  excellent  man. 
pulchrum  est  benefacere  rei  publicae  (Sail.  Cat.  3),  it  is  a  glorious  thing  to 
benefit  the  state. 

Note.  —  These  are  not  real  compounds,  but  phrases,  and  were  apparently  felt  as 
such  by  the  Romans.  Thus,  —  satis  officio  meo,  satis  illorum  voluntati  qui  a  me  hoc 
petiverunt  factum  esse  arbitrabor  (Verr.  v.  130),  I  shall  consider  that  enough  has  been 
done  for  my  duty,  enough  for  the  wishes  of  those  who  asked  this  of  me. 

1  See  the  Lexicon  under  caveo,  convenio,  cupio,  insists,  maneo,  praeverto,  recipio,  rcr 
riuntio,  solvo,  succedo. 


230  SYNTAX:    CONSTRUCTION  OF   CASES  [§§368,869 

3.  With  gratificor,  gratulor,  nubo,  pennitto,  plaudo,  probo,  studeo,  sup- 
plico,  excello:  — 

Pompeio  se  gratificari  putant  (Fam.  i.  1),  they  suppose  they  are  doing  Pompey 

a  service. 
gratulor  tibi,  uii  Balbe  (id.  vi.  12),  I  congratulate  you,  my  dear  Balbus. 
tibi  permitto  respondere  (N.  D,  iii.  4),  I  give  you  leave  to  answer. 
mihi  plaudo  ipse  doml  (Hor.  S.  i.  1.  66),  I  applaud  myself  at  home. 
cum  inimici  M.  Fontei  vobis  ac  populo  Romano  minentur,  amici  ac  propinqui 
supplicent  vobis  (Font.  35),  while  the  enemies  of  Marcus  Fonteius  are 
threatening  you  and  the  Roman  people  too,  while  his  friends  and  relatives 
are  beseeching  you. 
Note." —  Misceo  and  iungo  sometimes  take  the  dative  (see  §  413.  a.  n.).  Haereo  usually 
takes  the  ablative,  with  or  without  in,  rarely  the  dative:  as,  —  haerentem  capiti  coro- 
nam  (Hor.  S.  i.  10.  49),  a  wreath  clinging  to  the  head. 

a.  The  dative  is  often  used  by  the  poets  in  constructions  which 
would  in  prose  require  a  noun  with  a  preposition.  So  especially 
with  verbs  of  contending  (§  413.  b) :  — 

contendis  Homero  (Prop.  i.  7.  3),  you  vie  with  Homer.    [In  prose  :  cum  Homero.] 
placitone  etiam  piignabis  amori  (Aen.  iv.  38),  will  you  struggle  even  against  a 

love  that  pleases  you  ? 
tibi  certat  (Eel.  v.  8),  vies  with  you.     [tecum.] 

differt  sermoni  (Hor.  S.  i.  4.  48),  differs  from  prose,     [a  sermone,  §  401.] 
lateri  abdidit  ensem  (Aen.  ii.  553),  buried  the  sword  in  his  side,     [in  latere, 

§  430.  ] 
For  the  Dative  instead  of  ad  with  the  Accusative,  see  §  428.  h. 

369.  Some  verbs  ordinarily  intransitive  may  have  an  Accusar 
tive  of  the  direct  object  along  with  the  Dative  of  the  indirect 
(cf.  §  362.  a):  — 

cui  cum  rex  crucem  minaretur  (Tusc.  i.  102),  and  when  the  king  threatened 

him  with  the  cross. 
Cretensibus  obsides  imperavit  (Manil.  35),  he  exacted  hostages  of  the  Cretans. 
omnia  sibi  ignoscere  (Yell.  ii.  30),  to  pardon  one''s  self  everything. 
Ascanione  pater  Romanas  invidet  arces  (Aen.  iv.  234),  does  the  father  envy 

Ascanius  his  Roman  citadels  9     [With  invideo  this  construction  is  poetic 

or  late.] 

a.  With  the  passive  voice  this  dative  may  be  retained :  — 
qui  iam  nunc  sanguinem  meum  sibi  indulgeri  aequum  censet  (Li v.  xl.  15.  16), 
who  even  now  thinks  it  right  that  my  blood  should  be  granted  to  him  as  a 
favor. 
singulis  censoribus  denarii  trecenti  imperati  sunt  (Verr.  ii.  137),  three  hun- 
dred denarii  were  exacted  of  each  censor. 
Scaevolae  concessa  est  facundiae  virtus  (Quint,  xii.  3.  9),  to  Scaevola  has 
been  granted  excellence  in  oratory. 


§370]  DATIVE   WITH  COMPOUNDS  231 

Indirect  Object  with  Compounds 

370.  Many  verbs  compounded  with  ad,  ante,  con,  in,  inter,  ob, 
post,  prae,  pro,  sub,  super,  and  some  with  circum,  admit  the  Dative 
of  the  indirect  object :  — 

neque  enim  adsentior  eis  (Lael.  13),  for  I  do  not  agree  with  them. 

quantum  natura  hominis  pecudibus  antecedit  (Off.  i.  105),  so  far  as  mart's 
nature  is  superior  to  brutes. 

si  sibi  ipse  consentit  (id.  i.  6),  if  he  is  in  accord  with  himself. 

virtutes  semper  voluptatibus  inhaerent  (Fin.  i.  68),  virtues  are  always  con- 
nected with  pleasures. 

omnibus  negotiis  non  interfuit  solum  sed  praefuit  (id.  i,  6),  he  not  only  had 
a  hand  in  all  matters,  but  took  the  lead  in  them. 

tempestati  obsequi  artis  est  (Fam.  i.  9.  21),  it  is  a  point  of  skill  to  yield  to 
the  weather. 

nee  umquam  succumbet  inimicis  (Deiot.  36),  and  lie  will  never  yield  to  his 
foes. 

cum  et  Brutus  cuilibet  ducum  praeferendus  videretur  et  Vatlnius  nulli  non 
esset  postferendus  (Veil.  ii.  69),  since  Brutus  seemed  worthy  of  being  put 
before  any  of  the  generals  and  Vatlnius  deserved  to  be  put  after  all  of  them. 

a.  In  these  cases  the  dative  depends  not  on  the  preposition,  but 
on  the  compound  verb  in  its  acquired  meaning.  Hence,  if  the  acquired 
meaning  is  not  suited  to  an  indirect  object,  the  original  construction 
of  tlie  simple  verb  remains. 

Thus  in  convocat  su5s,  he  calls  his  men  together,  the  idea  of  calling  is  not  so 
modified  as  to  make  an  indirect  object  appropriate.  So  hominem  interficere,  to 
make  way  with  a  man  (kill  him).  But  in  praeficere  imperat5rem  bello,  to  put  a 
man  as  commander-in-chief  in  charge  of  a  war,  the  idea  resulting  from  the  com- 
position is  suited  to  an  indirect  object  (see  also  b,  §§  371,  388.  6). 

Note  1.  —  Some  of  these  verbs,  being  originally  transitive,  take  also  a  direct  object : 
as,  —  ne  offeramus  nos  periculls  (Off.  i.  83),  that  we  may  not  expose  ourselves  to  perils. 

Note  2.  —  The  construction  of  §  370  is  not  different  in  its  nature  from  that  of  §§  362, 
366,  and  367 ;  but  the  compound  verbs  make  a  convenient  group. 

b.  Some  compounds  of  ad.  ante,  ob,  with  a  few  others,  have  acquired 
a  transitive  meaning,  and  take  the  accusative  (cf.  §  388.  b):  —  ^ 

nos  oppugnat  (Fam.  i.  1),  he  opposes  us. 

quis  audeat  bene  comitatum  aggredi  (Phil.  xii.  25),  who  would  dare  encounter 

a  man  well  attended  ? 
munus  obire  (Lael.  7),  to  attend  to  a  duty. 

1  Such  verbs  are  aggredior,  adeo,  antecedo,  anteeo,  antegredior,  convenio,  ineo,  obeo, 
ofiendo,  oppiigno,  praecedo,  subeo. 


232  SYNTAX:    CONSTRUCTION  OF  CASES  [§§370-373 

c.  The  adjective  obvius  and  the  adverb  obviam  with  a  verb  take 
the  dative :  — 

si  ille  obvius  ei  futurus  non  erat  (Mil.  47),  if  he  was  not  intending  to  get  in 

his  loay. 
mihi  obviam  venisti  (Fam.  11.  IG.  3),  you  came  to  meet  me. 

371.  When  place  or  motion  is  distinctly  thought  of,  the  verbs 
mentioned  in  §  370  regularly  take  a  noun  with  a  preposition : 

inhaeret  in  visceribus  (Tusc.  iv.  24),  it  remains  fixed  in  the  vitals. 

homine  coniuncto  mecum  (Tull.  4),  a  man  united  to  me. 

cum  hoc  concurrit  ipse  Eumenes  (Nep.  Euin.  4.  1),  with  him  JEumenes  him- 
self engages  in  combat  (runs  together). 

inserite  oculos  in  curiam  (Font.  43),  fix  your  eyes  on  the  senate-house. 

ignis  qui  est  ob  6s  ofEusus  (Tim.  14),  the  fire  which  is  diffused  before  the  sight. 

oblcitur  contra  Istorum  impetiis  Macedonia  (Font.  44),  Macedonia  is  set  to 
withstand  their  attacks.  [Cf.  si  quls  vobis  error  obiectus  (Caec.  5),  if 
any  mistake  has  been  caused  you.] 

in  segetem  flamma  Incidit  (Aen.  li.  304),  the  fire  falls  upon  the  standing  corn. 

Note.  —  But  the  usage  varies  in  different  authors,  in  different  words,  and  often  in 
the  same  word  and  the  same  sense.    The  Lexicon  must  be  consulted  for  each  verb. 

372.  Intransitive  verbs  that  govern  the  dative  are  used  wiper- 
sonally  in  the  passive  (§  208.  cZ).  The  dative  is  retained  (cf.  §  365) : 

cui  parol  potuit  (Liv.  xxi.  14),  who  could  he  spared? 

non  modo  non  invidetur  illi  aetati  verum  etiam  fdvetur  (Off.  11.  45),  that  age 

(youth)  not  only  is  not  envied,  but  is  even  favored. 
tempori  servlendum  est(Fam.  Ix.  7),  we  must  serve  the  exigency  of  the  occasion. 

Note.  —  In  poetry  the  personal  construction  is  sometimes  found :  as,  —  ciir  invideor 
(Her.  A.  P.  56),  why  am  I  envied? 

Dative  of  Possession 

373.  The  Dative  is  used  with  esse  and  similar  words  to  denote 

Possession :  — 

est  mihi  domi  pater  (Eel.  ill.  33),  I  have  a  father  at  home  (there  Is  to  me), 
homini  cum  deo  slmllitudo  est  (Legg.  1.  25),  man  has  a  likeness  to  God. 
quibus  opes  nullae  sunt  (Sail.  Cat.  37),  [those]  ivho  have  no  wealth. 

Note.  —  The  Genitive  or  a  Possessive  with  esse  emphasizes  tlae  possessor;  the 
Dative,  the  fact  of  possession:  as,  —  liber  est  mens,  the  book  is  mine  (and  no  one's 
else) ;  est  mihi  liber,  /have  a  book  (among  otlier  things). 

a.  With  nomen  est,  and  similar  expressions,  the  7iame  is  often  put 
in  the  Dative  by  a  kind  of  apposition  with  the  person;  but  the 
Nominative  is  also  common  :  — 


§§  373-375]  DATIVE   OF  THE  AGENT  233 

(1)  cui  Africans  fuit  cognomen  (Liv.  xxv.  2),  whose  (to  whom)  surname  was 

Africanus. 
puero  ab  inopia  Egerio  inditum  nomen  (id.  i.  34),  the  name  Egerius  was  given 
the  boy  from  his  poverty. 

(2)  puero  nomen  est  Marcus,  the  boy''s  name  is  Marcus  (to  the  boy  is,  etc.). 
cui  nomen  Arethusa  (Verr.  iv.  118),  [a  fount]  called  Arethusa. 

Note.  —  In  early  Latin  the  dative  is  usual ;  Cicero  prefers  the  nominative,  Livy  the 
dative ;  Sallust  uses  the  dative  only.  In  later  Latin  the  genitive  also  occurs  (cf .  §  343.  d) : 
as,  —  Q.  Metello  Macedonici  nomen  inditum  est  (Veil.  i.  11),  to  Quintus  Metellus  the 
name  of  Macedonicus  was  given. 

h,  Desum  takes  the  dative;  so  occasionally  absum  (which  regu- 
larly has  the  ablative)  :  — ■ 

hoc  tinum  Caesari  defuit  (B.G.  iv.  26),  this  only  was  lacking  to  Ccesar. 
quid  huic  abesse  poterit  (De  Or.  i.  48),  what  can  be  wanting  to  him  ? 

Dative  of  the  Agent 

374.  The  Dative  of  the  Agent  is  used  with  the  Gerundive  to 
denote  the  person  on  whom^the  necessity  rests :  — 

haec  v5bis  provincia  est  defendenda  (Manil.  14),  this  province  is  for  you  to 

defend  (to  be  defended  by  you). 
mihi  est  pugnandum,  I  have  to  fight  (i.e.  the  need  of  fighting  is  to  me  :  of. 

mihi  est  liber,  I  have  a  book,  §  373.  n.). 

a.  This  is  the  regular  way  of  expressing  the  agent  with  the  Second 
or  Passive  Periphrastic  Conjugation  (§  196). 

Note  1.  —  The  Ablative  of  the  Agent  with  ab  (§  405)  is  sometimes  used  with  the  Sec- 
ond Periphrastic  Conjugation  when  the  Dative  would  be  ambiguous  or  when  a  stronger 
expression  is  desired :  — 

quibus  est  a  vobis  consulendum  (Manil.  6),  for  whom  you  must  consult.     [Here  two 

datives,  quibus  and  vobis,  would  have  been  ambiguous.] 
rem  ab  omnibus  vobis  providendam  (Kabir.  4),  that  the  matter  must  be  attended  to 
by  all  of  you.     [The  dative  might  mean /or  all  of  you.] 
Note  2.  —  The  Dative  of  the  Agent  is  either  a  special  use  of  the  Dative  of  Posses- 
sion or  a  development  of  the  Dative  of  Reference  (§  37()). 

375.  The  Dative  of  the  Agent  is  common  with  perfect  parti- 
ciples (especially  when  used  in  an  adjective  sense),  but  rare  with 
other  parts  of  the  verb :  — 

mihi  deliberatum  et  constitutum  est  (Leg.  Agr.  i.  25),  I  have  deliberated  and 

resolved  (it  has  been  deliberated  by  me), 
mihi  res  provisa  est  (Verr.  iv.  91),  the  matter  has  been  provided  for  by  me. 
sic  dissimillimis  bestiolis  communiter  cibus  quaeritur  (N.  D.  ii.  123),  so  by 

very  different  creatures  food  is  sought  in  common. 


234  SYNTAX:    CONSTRUCTION  OF  CASES  [§§375-377 

a.  The  Dative  of  the  Agent  is  used  by  the  poets  and  later  writers 
with  almost  any  passive  verb :  — 

neque  cernitur  ulii  (Aen.  i.  440),  nor  is  seen  by  any. 

felix  est  dicta  sorori  (Ov.  Fast.  iii.  1.  597),  she  was  called  happy  by  her  sister, 
Aelia  Paetina  Narcisso  fovebatur  (Tac.  Ann.  xii.    1),  u3^lia  Pcetina  was 
favored  by  Narcissus. 

h.  The  dative  of  the  person  who  sees  or  thinks  is  regularly  used 
after  videor,  seem : — • 

videtur  mihi,  it  seems  (or  seems  good)  to  me. 

dis  aliter  visum  [est]  (Aen.  ii.  428),  it  seemed  otherwise  to  the  gods. 
videor  mihi  perspicere  ipslus  animum  (Fam.  iv.  13.  5),  I  seem  (to  myself)  to  see 
the  soul  of  the  man  himself. 
Note.  —  The  verb  probare,  approve  (originally  a  mercantile  word),  takes  a  Dative 
of  Reference  (§  376),  which  has  become  so  firmly  attached  that  it  is  often  retained  with 
the  passive,  seemingly  as  Dative  of  Agent :  — 

haec  sententia  et  illi  et  nobis  probabatur  (Fam.  i.  7.  5),  this  view  met  both  his 

approval  and  mine  (was  made  acceptable  both  to  him  and  to  me) . 
hoc  consilium  plerisque  non  probabatur  (B.  C.  i.  72),  this  plan  was  not  approved  by 
the  majority.     [But  also,  consilium  a  cunctis  probabatur  (id.  i.  74).] 

Dative  of  Reference 

376.  The  Dative  often  depends,  not  on  any  particular  tvord^  but 
on  the  general  meaning  of  the  sentence  (Dative  of  liefer ence).  . 

The  dative  in  this  construction  is  often  called  the  Dative  of 
Advantage  or  Disadvantage/  as  denoting  the  person  or  thing  for 
whose  benefit  or  to  whose  prejudice  the  action  is  performed. 

tibi  aras  (Plant.  Merc.  71),  you  plough  for  yourself. 

tuas  res  tibi  habeto  (Plant.  Trin.  266),  keep  your  goods  to  yourself  (formula 

of  divorce), 
laudavit  mihi  f ratrem,  he  praised  my  brother  (out  of  regard  for  me ;  laudavit 

fratrem  meum  would  imply  no  such  motive), 
meritos  mactavit  honores,  taurum  Neptuno,  taurum  tibi,  pulcher  Apollo 

(Aen.  iii.  118),  he  offered  the  sacrifices  due.,  a  bull  to  Neptune.,  a  bull  to 

thee,  beautiful  Apollo. 

Note.  —  In  this  construction  the  meaning  of  the  sentence  is  complete  without  the 
dative,  which  is  not,  as  in  the  preceding  constructions,  closely  connected  with  any  sin- 
gle word.  Thus  the  Dative  of  Reference  is  easily  distinguishable  in  most  instances 
even  when  the  sentence  consists  of  only  two  words,  as  in  the  first  example. 

377.  The  Dative  of  Reference  is  often  used  to  qualify  a  whole 
idea,  instead  of  the  Possessive  Genitive  modifying  a  single  word  : 

1  Datlvus  commodl  aut  iyicommodl. 


§§  377-379]  DATIVE   OF   REFERENCE  235 

iter  Poenis  vel  corporibus  suis  obstruere  (Cat.  M.  75),  to  block  the  march  of 
the  Carthaginians  even  with  their  own  bodies  (to  block,  etc.,  for  the  dis- 
advantage of,  etc.). 

se  in  conspectum  nautis  dedit  (Verr.  v.  86),  he  put  himself  in  sight  of  the 
sailors  (he  put  himself  to  the  sailors  into  sight). 

versatur  mihi  ante  oculos  (id.  v.  123),  it  comes  before  my  eyes  (it  comes  to  me 
before  the  eyes). 

378.  The  Dative  is  used  of  the  person  from  whose'j^om*  of  vieiv 
an  opinion  is  stated  or  a  situation  or  a  direction  is  defined. 

This  is  often  called  the  Dative  of  the  Person  Judging,^  but  is 
merely  a  weakened  variety  of  the  Dative  of  Eeference.     It  is  used 

1.  Of  the  mental  point  of  view  (iii  my  opinion^  according  to  me, 
etc.) :  — 

Plato  mihi  imus  instar  est  centum  milium  (Brut.  191),  in  my  opinion  (to  me) 

Flato  alone  is  worth  a  hundred  thousand. 
erit  ille  mihi  semper  deus  (Eel.  i.  7),  he  will  always  be  a  god  to  me  (in  my 

regard), 
quae  est  ista  servitustam  claro  homini  (Par.  41),  ivhat  is  that  slavery  according 

to  the  view  of  this  distinguished  man  ? 

2:  Of  the  local  point  of  view  (as  you  go  in  etc.).  In  this  use  the 
person  is  commonly  denoted  indefinitely  by  a  participle  in  the  dative 
plural :  — 

oppidum  primum  Thessaliae  venientibus  ab  Epiro  (B.  C.  iii.  80),  the  first  town 
of  Thessaly  as  you  come  from  Epirus  (to  those  coming,  etc.). 

laeva  parte  sinum  intrant!  (Liv.  xxvi.  26),  on  the  left  as  you  sail  up  the  gulf 
(to  one  entering). 

est  urbe  egressis  tumulus  (Aen.  ii.  713),  there  is,  as  you  come  out  of  the  city, 
a  mound  (to  those  having  come  out). 

Note.  — The  Dative  of  the  Person  Judging  is  (by  a  Greek  idiom)  rarely  modified  by 
nolens,  volens  (participles  of  n51o,  volo),  or  by  some  similar  word:  — 

ut  quibusque  helium  invltis  ant  cupientibus  erat  (Tac.  Ann.  i.  59),  as  each  might 

receive  the  war  reluctantly  or  gladly. 
ut  militibus  labos  volentibus  esset  (lug.  100),  that  the  soldiers  might  assume  the 
task  loillingly. 

379.  The  Dative  of  Reference  is  used  idiomatically  without 

any  verb  in  colloquial  questions  and  exclamations :  — 

quo  mihi  fortunam  (Hor.  Ep.  i.  5.  12),  of  what  use  to  me  is  fortune? 
unde  mihi  lapidem  (Hor.  S.  ii.  7.  116),  where  can  I  get  a  stone? 
quo  tibi,  Till!  (id.  i.  6.  24),  what  use  for  t/ou,  Tillius? 

1  Vatlvus  iudicantis. 


286  SYNTAX:    CONSTRUCTION   OF   CASES  [§§379-381 

c/.  The  dative  of  reference  is  sometimes  used  after  interjections: 
ei  (hei)  mihi  (Aen.  ii.  274),  ah  me! 
vae  victis  (Li v.  v.  48),  woe  to  the  conquered. 
em  tibi,  there,  take  that  (there  for  you)!     [Cf.  §  380.] 

Note.  —  To  express  fob  —  meaning  instead  of,  in  defence  of,  iti  behalf  of — the 
ablative  with  pro  is  used:  — 

pro  patria  morl  (Her.  Od.  iii.  2.  13),  to  die  for  one's  country. 
ego  ibo  pro  te  (Plant.  Most.  1131),  I  will  go  instead  of  you. 

Ethical  Dative 

380.  The  Dative  of  the  Personal  Pronouns  is  used  to  show  a 
certain  interest  felt  by  the  person  indicated.^ 

This  construction  is  called  the  Ethical  Da^tive.^  It  is  really  a 
faded  variety  of  the  Dative  of  Eeference. 

quid  mihi  Celsus  agit  (Hor.  Ep.  i.  3.  15),  pray  what  is  Celsus  doing  ? 

suo  sibi  servit  patri  (Plaut.  Capt.  5),  he  serves  his  own  father. 

at  tibi  repente  venit  mihi  Canlnius  (Fara.  ix.  2),  but,  look  you,  of  a  sudden 

comes  to  me  Caninius. 
hem  tibi  talentum  argenti  (PI.  True.  60),  hark  ye,  a  talent  of  silver. 
quid  tibi  vis,  what  would  you  have  (what  do  you  wish  for  yourself)  ? 

Dative  of  Separation 

381.  Many  verbs  of  taking  away  and  the  like  take  the  Dative 
(especially  of  a  person)  instead  of  the  Ablative  of  Separation 
(§  401). 

Such  are  compounds  of  ab,  dg,  ex,  and  a  few  of  ad :  — 

aureum  ei  detraxit  amiculum  (N.  D.  iii.  83),  he  took  from  him  his  cloak  of 

gold. 
hunc  mihi  terrorem  eripe  (Cat.  i.  18),  take  from  me  this  terror. 
vitam  adulescentibus  vis  aufert  (Cat.  M.  71),  violence  deprives  young  men  of 

life. 
nihil  enim  tibi  detraxit  senatus  (Fani.  i.  5  n),  for  the  senate  has  taken  nothing 

from  you. 
nee  mihi  hunc  errorem  extorquerl  volo  (Cat.  JM.  85),  nor  do  I  wish  this  error 

wrested  from  me. 

Note.  —  The  Dative  of  Separation  is  a  variety  of  the  Dative  of  Reference.  It  repre- 
sents the  action  as  done  to  the  person  or  thing,  and  is  thus  more  vivid  than  the  Ablative. 

1  Compare  "  I  '11  rhyme  you  so  eight  years  together."  —  As  You  Like  It,  iii.  2. 

2  Datlvus  ethicus. 


§§  381,  S82]  DATIVE   OF  THE  PURPOSE  OR  END  287 

a.  The  distinct  idea  of  motion  requires  the  ablative  with  a  prep- 
osition —  thus  generally  with  names  of  things  (§  426.  1)  :  — 
ilium  ex  periculo  eripuit  (B.  G.  iv.  12),  he  dragged  him  out  of  danger. 

Note.  —  Sometimes  the  dative  of  the  person  and  the  ablative  of  the  thing  with  a 
preposition  are  both  used  with  the  same  verb :  as,  —  mihi  praeda  de  manibus  eripitur 
(Verr.  ii.  1.  142),  the  booty  is  wrested  from  my  hands. 

Dative  of  the  Purpose  or  End 

382.  The  Dative  is  used  to  denote  the  Purpose  or  End,  often 
with  another  Dative  of  the  person  or  thing  affected. 

This  use  of  the  dative,  once  apparently  general,  remains  in 
only  a  few  constructions,  as  follows :  — 

1.  The  dative  of  an  abstract  noun  is  used  to  show  that /or  which 
a  thing  serves  or  which  it  accomplishes,  often  with  another  dative  of 
the  person  or  thing  affected  :  — 

rei  publicae  cladi  sunt  (lug.  85.  43),  they  are  ruin  to  the  state  (they  are  for  a 

disaster  to  the  state), 
magno  usui  nostris  fuit  (B.  G.  iv.  25),  it  was  of  great  service  to  our  men  (to 

our  men  for  great  use), 
tertiam  aciem  nostris  subsidiS  misit  (id.  i.  52),  he  sent  the  third  line  as  a  relief 

to  our  men. 
suis  saluti  fuit  (id.  vii.  50),  he  was  the  salvation  of  his  men. 
evenit  facile  quod  dis  cordi  esset  (Liv.  i.  39),  that  came  to  pass  easily  which 

was  desired  by  the  gods  (was  for  a  pleasure  [lit.  heart]  to  the  gods). 

Note  1.  —  This  construction  is  often  called  the  Dative  of  Service,  or  the  Double 
Dative  construction.  The  verb  is  usually  sum.  The  noun  expressing  the  end  for 
lohich  is  regularly  abstract  and  singular  in  number  and  is  never  modified  by  an  adjec- 
tive, except  one  of  degree  (magnus,  minor,  etc.),  or  by  a  genitive. 

Note  2.  —  The  word  frugi  used  as  an  adjective  is  a  dative  of  this  kind :  — 
cogis  me  dicere  inimicum  Frugi  (Font.  39) ,  you  compel  me  to  call  my  enemy  Honest. 
homines  satis  fortes  et  plane  frugi  (Verr.  iii.  67),  men  brave  enough  and  thoroughly 
honest.    Cf.  ero  frugi  bonae  (Plant.  Pseud.  468),  I  loill  be  good  for  some- 
thing.   [See  §  122.  &.] 

2.  The  Dative  of  Purpose  of  concrete  nouns  is  used  in  prose  in  a 
few  military  expressions,  and  with  freedom  in  poetry  :  — 

locum  castris  deligit  (B.  G.  vii.  16),  he  selects  a  site  for  a  camp. 
receptui  canere,  to  sound  a  retreat  (for  a  retreat), 
receptui  signura  (Phil,  xiii,  15),  the  signal  for  retreat. 
optavit  locum  regno  (Aen,  iii.  109),  he  chose  a  place  for  a  kingdom. 
locum  insidiis  circumspectare  (Liv.  xxi.  53),  to  look  about  for  a  place  for  an 
ambush.     [Cf.  locum  seditionis  quaerere  (id.  iii.  46).] 

For  the  Dative  of  the  Gerundive  denoting  Purpose,  see  §  505.  6. 


238  SYNTAX:    CONSTRUCTION   OF   CASES  [§§383-385 

Dative  with  Adjectives 

383.  The  Dative  is  used  after  Adjectives  or  Adverbs,  to  denote 

that  to  which  the  given  quality  is  directed,  for  which  it  exists,  or 
towards  ivhich  it  tends. 

Note.  —  The  dative  with  certain  adjectives  is  in  origin  a  Dative  of  Purpose  or  End. 

384.  The  Dative  is  used  vrith  adjectives  (and  a  few  Adverbs)  of 
fitness,  nearness,  likeness,  service,  inclination,  and  their  opposites :  ^ 

nihil  est  tarn  naturae  aptum  (Lael.  17),  nothing  is  so  fitted  to  nature. 

nihil  difficile  amanti  puto  (Or.  33),  I  think  nothing  hard  to  a  lover. 

castris  idoneum  locum  delegit  (B.  G.  i.  49),  he  selected  a  place  suitable  for  a 
camp. 

tribiini  nobis  sunt  amici  (Q.  Fr.  i.  2.  16) ,  the  tribunes  are  friendly  to  us. 

esse  propitius  potest  nemini  (N.  D.  i.  124),  he  can  be  gracious  to  nobody. 

magnis  autem  viris  prosperae  semper  omnes  res  (id.  ii.  167),  but  to  great  men 
everything  is  always  favorable. 

sedes  huic  nostro  non  importuna  sermoni  (De  Or.  iii.  18),  a  place  not  unsuit- 
able for  this  conversation  of  ours. 

cui  fundo  erat  affinis  M.  Tullius  (Tull.  14),  to  which  estate  Marcus  Tullius  was 
next  neighbor. 

convenienter  naturae  vivere  (Off.  iii.  13),  to  live  in  accordance  with  nature 
{ofioXoyov/j.^ vojs  t^  (piLKrei). 

Note  1.  —  So,  also,  in  poetic  and  colloquial  use,  with  idem :  as,  —  invitum  qui  servat 
idem  facit  occidenti  (Hor.  A.  P.  467),  he  who  saves  a  man  against  his  will  does  the  same 
as  one  loho  kills  hhn. 

Note  2.  —  Adjectives  of  likeness  are  often  followed  by  atque  (ac),  as.  So  also 
the  adverbs  aeque,  pariter,  similiter,  etc.  The  pronouu  idem  has  regularly  atque  or  a 
relative :  — 

si  parera  sapientiam  habet  ac  formam  (Plaut.  Mil.  1251),  if  he  has  sense  equal  to 

his  beauty  (like  as  his  beauty), 
te  suspicor  elsdem  rebus  quibus  me  ipsum  commoverl  (Cat.  M.  1),  I  suspect  you  are 
disturbed  by  the  same  things  by  which  I  am. 

385.  Other  constructions  are  sometimes  found  where  the  dative 
might  be  expected :  — • 

a.  Adjectives  of  fitness  or  use  take  oftener  the  Accusative  with  ad 
to  denote  the  purpose  or  end ;  but  regularly  the  Dative  oi persons :  — 

aptus  ad  rem  m!litarem,,^i /or  a  soldier's  duty. 

locus  ad  insidias  aptior  (Mil.  53),  a  place  fitter  for  lying  in  ivait. 

nobis  utile  est  ad  hanc  rem  (cf.  Ter.  And.  287),  it  is  of  use  to  us  for  this  thing. 

1  Adjectives  of  this  kind  are  accommodatus,  aptus ;  amicus,  inimicus,  infestus,  invisus, 
molestus ;  idoneus.  opportunus,  proprius;  iitilis,  inutills;  affinis,  finitimus,  propinquus, 
vicinus  ;  par,  dispar,  similis,  dissimilis  ;  iucundus,  g:ratus  ;  notus,  ignotus,  and  others. 


§385]  DATIVE  WITH  ADJECTIVES  239 

b.  Adjectives  and  nouns  of  inclination  and  the  like  may  take  the 
Accusative  with  in  or  erga :  — 

comis  in  uxorem  (Hor,  Ep.  ii.  2.  133),  kind  to  his  wife. 

divlna  bonitas  erga  homines  (N.  D.  ii.  60),  the  divine  goodness  towards  men. 

de  benevolentia  quam  quisque  habeat  erga  nos  (Off.  i.  47),  in  regard  to  each 

man's  good  will  which  he  has  towards  us. 
gratiorem  me  esse  in  te  (Earn.  xi.  10),  that  I  am  more  grateful  to  you. 

c.  Some  adjectives  of  likeness,  nearness,  belonging,  and  a  few 
others,  ordinarily  requiring  the  Dative,  often  take  the  Possessive 
Genitive :  —  ^ 

quod  ut  illi  proprium  ac  perpetuum  sit .  .  .  optare  debetis  (Manil.  48),  which 

you  ought  to  pray  may  he  secure  (his  own)  and  lasting  to  him.    [Dative.] 
fuit  hoc  quondam  proprium  populi  Romani  (id.  32),  this.was  once  the  peculiar 

char oMeristic  of  the  Boman  people.     [Genitive.] 
cum  utrique  sis  maxime  necessarius  (Att.  ix.  7  a),  since  you  are  especially 

hound  to  both.     [Dative.] 
procurator  aeque  utriusque  necessarius  (Quinct.  86),  an  agent  alike  closely 

connected  with  hoth.     [Genitive.] 

1.  The  genitive  is  especially  used  with  these  adjectives  when  they  are 
used  wholly  or  approximately  as  nouns  :  — 

amicus  Ciceroni,  friendly  to  Cicero.    But,  Ciceronis  amicus,  a  friend  of  Cicero ; 

and  even,  Ciceronis  amicissimus,  a  very  great  friend  of  Cicero. 
creticus  et  eius  aequalis  paean  (Or.  215),  the  cretic  and  its.  equivalent  thepcean. 
hi  erant  affines  istius  (Verr.  ii.  36),  these  were  this  man^ s  fellows. 

2.  After  similis,  like,  the  genitive  is  more  common  in  early  writers. 
Cicero  regularly  uses  the  genitive  of  persons,  and  either  the  genitive  or  the 
dative  of  things.  With  personal  pronouns  the  genitive  is  regular  (mei,  tui, 
etc.),  and  also  in  veri  similis,  probable  :  — 

domini  similis  es  (Ter.  Eun.  496),  you  We  like  your  master  (your  master's  lil?:6). 

ut  essemus  similes  deorum  (N.  D.  i.  91),  that  loe  might  be  like  the  gods. 

est  similis  maiorum  suom  (Ter.  Ad.  411),  he's  like  his  ancestors. 

patris  similis  esse  (Off.  i.  121),  to  be  like  his  father. 

simia  quam  similis  turpissima  bestia  nobis  (N.  D.  i.  97,  quoted  from  Enn.), 

how  like  us  is  that  wretched  beast  the  ape ! 
si  enim  hoc  illl  simile  sit,  est  illud  huic  (id.  i.  90),  for  if  this  is  like  that,  that 
is  like  this. 
Note. —  The  genitive  in  this  construction  is  not  objective  like  those  in  5  .349.  but 
possessive  (cf .  §  343) . 

For  the  Dative  or  Accusative  with  propior,  proximus,  propius,  proxime,  see  §  432.  a. 

1  Such  are  aequalis,  affinis,  alienus,  amicus,  cognatus,  communis,  consanguineus,  contra 
rius,  dispar,  familiaris,  finitimus,  inimicus,  necessarius,  par,  peculiaris,  propinquus,  proprius 
(reguhirly  genitive),  sacer,  similis,  superstes,  vicinus. 


240  SYNTAX:    CONSTRUCTION   OF   CASES  [§§386,387 


ACCUSATIVE   CASE 

386.  The  Accusative  originally  served  to  connect  the  noun  more  or  less  loosely 
with  the  verb-idea,  whether  expressed  by  a  verb  proper  or  by  a  verbal  noun  or  adjec- 
tive. Its  earliest  use  was  perhaps  to  repeat  the  verb-idea  as  in  the  Cognate  Accusative 
{run  a  race,  fight  a  battle,  see  §  390) .  From  this  it  would  be  a  short  step  to  the  Factitive 
Accusative  (denoting  the  result  of  an  act,  as  in  make  a  table,  drill  a  hole,  cf.  §  273.  n.I). 
From  this  last  could  easily  come  the  common  accusative  (of  Affecting,  break  a  table, 
plug  a  hole,  see  §  387.  a) .  Traces  of  all  these  uses  appear  in  the  language,  and  the  loose 
connection  of  noun  with  verb-idea  is  seen  in  the  use  of  stems  in  composition  (cf .  §  265. 3)  A 
It  is  impossible,  however,  to  derive  the  various  constructions  of  the  accusative  with 
certainty  from  any  single  function  of  that  case. 

The  uses  of  the  accusative  may  be  classified  as  follows : 

(1.  Directly  affected  by  the  Action  (§  387.  a), 
o  -^^e    X    i.^t-    A   ^-       f  Thing  produced  (§  387.  a) . 
2.  Effect  of  the  Action -^  ^      *,^  .  ,.^^    /zocJw 

{  Cognate  Accusative  (§  390) . 

(1.  Predicate  Accusative  (Of  Naming  etc.)  (§  393). 
2.  Of  Asking  or  Teaching  (§  396) . 
3.  Of  Concealing  (§  396.  c). 

1.  Adverbial  (§  397.  a). 

2.  Of  Specification  (Greek  Accusative)  (§  397.  b). 

3.  Of  Extent  and  Duration  (§§  423,  425). 

4.  Of  Exclamation  (§  397.  d). 

5.  Subject  of  Infinitive  (§  397.  e). 


III.   Idiomatic  Uses: 


Direct  Object 

387.  The  Direct  Object  of  a  transitive  verb  is  put  in  the  Ac- 
cusative (§  274). 

a.  The  Accusative  of  the  Direct  Object  denotes  (1)  that  which  is 
directly  affected,  or  (2)  that  which  is  caused  or  produced  by  the  action 
of  the  verb :  — 

(1)  Brutus  Caesarem  interfecit,  Brutus  killed  CcBsar. 

(2)  aedem  facers,  to  make  a  temple.     [Cf .  proelium  pugnare,  to  fight  a  battle, 

§  390.] 

Note.  —  There  is  no  definite  line  by  which  transitive  verbs  can  be  distinguished 
from  intransitive.  Verbs  which  usually  take  a  direct  object  (expressed  or  implied) 
are  called  transitive,  but  many  of  these  arc  often  used  intJ^ansitively  or  absolutely. 
Thus  timeo,  I  fear,  is  transitive  in  the  sentence  inimicum  timeo,  I  fear  my  enemy,  but 
Intransitive  (absolute)  in  noli  timere,  don't  be  afraid.  Again,  many  verbs  are  transi- 
tive in  one  sense  and  intransitive  in  another:  as,  —  Helvetios  superavgrunt  RomanT,  the 
Romans  overcame  the  Helvetians ;  but  nihil  superabat,  nothing  remained  (was  left  over) . 
So  also  many  verbs  commonly  intransitive  may  be  used  transitively  with  a  slight 
change  of  meaning:  as, — rides,  yow  are  laughing;  but  mg  rides,  you're  laughing  at  me. 

1  Compare  armiger,  armor-bearer,  with  arma  gerere,  to  bear  arms ;  fldicen,  lyre-player, 
with  fldibus  canere,  to  (play  on)  sing  to  the  lyre.  Compare  also  istanc  tactio  (Plaut.),  the 
[act  of]  touching  her,  with  istanc  tangere,  to  touch  her  (§  388.  d.  N.^). 


§§  387,  888]  ACCUSATIVE   OF   DIRECT  OBJECT  241 

ho  The  object  of  a  transitive  verb  in  the  active  voice  becomes  its 
subject  in  the  passive,  and  is  put  in  the  nominative  (§  275) :  — 
Brutus  Caesarem  interfecit,  Brutus  killed  Ccesar. 
Caesar  a  Bruto  interfectus  est,  Coesar  was  killed  by  Brutus. 
domum  aedificat,  he  builds  a  house. 
domus  aedificatur,  the  house  is  building  (being  built). 

388.  Certain  special  verbs  require  notice. 

a.  Many  verbs  apparently  intransitive,  expressing  feeling,  take 
an  accusative,  and  may  be  used  in  the  passive :  • — 

meum  casum  luctumque  dolueruiit  (Sest.  145),  they  grieved  at  my  calamity 

and  sorrow. 
si  non  Acrisium  risissent  luppiter  et  Venus  (Hor.  Od.  iii.  10.  5),  if  Jupiter 

and  Venus  had  not  laughed  at  Acrisius. 
rldetur  ab  omni  conventu  (Hor.  S.  i.  7.  22),  he  is  laughed  at  by  the  whole 

assembly. 

For  the  Cognate  Accusative  witli  verbs  of  ta^te,  smell,  and  the  like,  see  §  390.  a. 
Note.  —  Some  verbs  commonly  intransitive  may  be  used  transitively  (especially  in 
poetry)  from  a  similarity  of  meaning  with  other  verbs  that  take  the  accusative ;  — 
gemens  ignominiam  (Georg.  iii.  226),  groaning  at  the  disgrace.     [Cf.  doleo.] 
festinare  fugam  (Aen.  iv.  575),  to  hasten  tlieir flight.     [Cf.  accelero.] 
comptos  arsit  crinis  (Hor.  Od.  iv.  9. 13),  she  burned  loith  love  for  his  well-combed 
locks.     [Cf.  adamo.] 

b.  Verbs  of  motion,  compounds  of  circum,  trans,  and  praeter,  and 
a  few  others,  frequently  become  transitive,  and  take  the  accusative 
(cf.  §370.  b):-~ 

mortem  oblre,  to  die  (to  meet  death). 

consulatum  ineunt  (Li v.  ii.  28),  they  enter  upon  the  consulship. 
ueminem  couveni  (Fam.  ix.  14),  I  met  no  one. 
si  Insulam  adisset  (B.  G.  iv.  20),  if  he  should  go  to  the  island. 
transire  flumen  (id.  ii.  23),  to  cross  the  river  (cf.  §  395). 
elves  qui  circumstant  senatum  (Cat.  i.  21),  the  citizens  who  stand  about  the 
senate. 
Note.  —  Among  such  verbs  are  some  compounds  of  ad,  in,  per,  and  sub. 

c.  The  accusative  is  used  after  the  impersonals  decet,  dedecet,  delec- 

tat,  iuvat,  oportet,  fallit,  f ugit,  praeterit :  — 

ita  ut  vos  decet  (Plant.  Most.  729),  so  as  befits  you. 

me  pedibus  delectat  claudere  verba  (Hor.   S.  ii.  1.  28),  my  delight  is  (it 

pleases  me)  to  arrange  words  in  measure. 
nisi  me  fallit,  unless  I  am  mistaken  (unless  it  deceives  me), 
itivit  me  tibi  tuas  litteras  profuisse  (Fam.  v.  21.  8),  it  pleased  me  that  your 

literary  studies  had  profited  you. 
te  non  praeterit  (Fam.  i.  8.  2),  it  does  not  escape  your  notice. 


242  SYNTAX:    CONSTRUCTION   OF   CASES  [§§388-390 

Note  1.  —  So  after  latet  in  poetry  and  post-classical  prose:  as, — latet  plerosque 
(Pliu.  N.  H.  ii.  82),  it  is  u7iknow7i  to  most  persons. 

Note  2.  —  These  verbs  are  merely  ordinary  transitives  with  an  idiomatic  significa- 
tion.   Hence  most  of  them  are  also  used  personally. 

Note  3.  —  Decet  and  latet  sometimes  take  the  dative :  — 
ita  nobis  decet  (Ter.  Ad.  928),  thus  it  befits  us. 
hostique  Roma  latet  (Sil.  It.  xii.  (314),  and  Rome  lies  hidden  from  the  foe. 

d,  A  few  verbs  in  isolated  expressions  take  the  accusative  from 
a  forcing  of  their  meaning      Such  expressions  are  :  — 

ferire  foedus,  to  strike  a  treaty  (i.e.  to  sanction  by  striking  down  a  victim), 
vincere  indicium  (sp6nsi5nem,  rem,  h5c),  to  prevail  on  a  trial,  etc.     [As  if  the 

case  were  a  diflBculty  to  overcome ;  cf.  vincere  iter,  Aen.  vi,  688.] 
aequor  navigare  (Aen.  i.  67),  to  sail  the  sea.     [As  if  it  were  transire,  §  388.  b.] 
maria  aspera  iuro  (id.  vi.  351),  I  swear  by  the  rough  seas  (cf,  id.  vi.  32-i). 

[The  accusative  with  verbs  of  swearing  is  chiefly  poetic] 
noctis  dormire,  to  sleep  [whole]  nights  (to  spend  in  sleep). 

Note  1.  —  These  accusatives  are  of  various  kinds.  The  last  example  approaches 
the  cognate  construction  (cf.  the  second  example  under  §  390). 

Note  2.  —  In  early  and  popular  usage  some  nouns  and  adjectives  derived  from  tran- 
sitive verbs  retain  verbal  force  sufficient  to  govern  the  accusative :  — 

quid  tibi  istanc  tactio  est  (Plant.  Poen.  1308),  what  business  have  you  to  touch  her? 

[Cf .  tang5.] 
mirabundl  bestiam  (Ap.  Met.  iv.  16),  full  of  wonder  at  the  creature.    [Cf.  miror.] 
vitabundus  castra  (Liv.  xxv.  13),  tiding  to  avoid  the  camp.     [Cf.  vito.] 

389.  Many  verbs  ordinarily  transitive  may  be  used  absolutely^ 
having  their  natural  object  in  the  ablative  with  de  (§  273.  N.  2):  — 

priusquam  Pomponius  de  eius  adventu  cognosceret  (B.  C.  iii.  101),  before, 
Pomponius  could  learn  of  his  coming.  [Cf.  eius  adventu  cognito,  his 
arrival  being  discovered.] 

For  Accusative  and  Genitive  after  Impersonals,  see  §  354.  b.  For  the  Accusative 
after  the  impersonal  Gerundive  with  esse,  see  §  500.  3. 

Cognate  Accusative 

390.  An  intransitive  verb  often  takes  the  Accusative  of  a  noun 
of  kindred  meaning,  usually  modified  by  an  adjective  or  in  some 
other  manner. 

This  construction  is  called  the  Cognate  Accusative  or  Accusative 
of  Kindred  Signification :  — 

tiitiorem  vitam  vivere  (Verr.  ii.  118),  to  live  a  safer  life. 

tertiam  iam  aetatem  hominum  vivebat  (Cat.  M.  31),  he  was  now  living  the 

third  generation  of  men. 
servitutem  servire,  to  be  in  slavery. 
coire  societatem,  to  [go  together  and]  form  an  alliance. 


§390J  COGNATE  ACCUSATIVE  243 

a.  Verbs  of  taste^  smelly  and  the  like  take  a  cognate  accusative 
of  the  quality  :  — 

vinum  redolens  (Phil.  ii.  63),  smelling  [of]  wine. 

herbam  mella  sapiunt  (Plin.  H.  N.  xi.  18),  the  honey  tastes  [of]  grass. 

olere  malitiam  (Rose.  Com.  20),  to  have  the  odor  of  malice. 

Cordubae  natis  poetis,  pingue  quiddam  sonantibus  atque  peregrinum  (Arch. 

26),  to  poets  born  at  Cordova,  whose  speech  had  a  somewhat  thick  and 

foreign  accent. 

b.  The  cognate  accusative  is  often  loosely  used  by  the  poets  :  — 
huic  error!  similem  [errorem]  insanlre  (Hor.  S.  ii.  3.  62),  to  suffer  a  delusion 

like  this. 
saltare  Cyclopa  (id.  i.  5.  63),  to  dance  the  Cyclops  (represent  in  dancing). 
Bacchanalia  vivere  (luv.  ii.  3),  to  live  in  revellings. 
Amaryllida  resonare  (Eel.  i.  5),  to  reecho  [the  name  of]  Amaryllis. 
intonuit  laevum  (Aen.  ii.  693),  it  thundered  on  the  left. 
dulce  ridentem,  dulce  loquentem  (Hor.  Od.  i.  22.  23),  sweetly  smiling,  sweetly 

prattling. 
acerba  tuens  (Aen,  ix.  794),  looking  fiercely.     [Cf.  Eng.  "to  look  daggers."] 
torvum  clamat  (id.  vii.  399),  he  cries  harshly. 

c-  A  neuter  pronoun  or  an  adjective  of  indefinite  meaning  is  very 
common  as  cognate  accusative  (cf.  §§  214.  d,  397.  a):  — 

Empedocles  multa  alia  peccat  (N.  D.  i.  29),  Empedocles  commits  many  other 

errors. 
ego  illud  adsentior  Theophrasto  (De  Or.  iii.  184),  in  this  I  agree  with  Theo- 

phrastus. 
multum  te  ista  fefellit  opinio  (Verr,  ii.  1.  88),  you  were  much  deceived  in  this 

expectation  (this  expectation  deceived  you  much) . 
plus  valeo,  I  have  more  strength. 
plurimum  potest,  he  is  strongest. 

quid  me  ista  laedunt  (Leg.  Agr.  ii.  32),  what  harm  do  those  things  do  me  ? 
hoc  te  moneo,  I  give  you  this  warning  (cf.  d.  n.  i). 
id  laetor,  I  rejoice  at  this  (cf.  d.  n.  i). 
quid  moror,  why  do  I  delay  f 
quae  homines  arant,  navigant,  aedificant  (Sail.  Cat.  ii.  7),  what  men  do  in 

ploughing,  sailing,  and  building. 

d.  So  in  many  common  phrases  :  — 
si  quid  ille  se  velit  (B.  G.  i.  34),  if  he  should  want  anything  of  him  (if  he 

should  want  him  in  anything). 
numquid,  Geta,  aliud  me  vis  (Ter.  Ph.  151),  can  I  do  anything  more  for  you, 

Geta  (there  is  nothing  you  want  of  me,  is  there)?     [A  common  form 

of  leave-taking.] 
quid  est  quod,  etc.,  why  is  it  that,  etc.?     [Cf.  hoc  erat  quod  (Aen.  ii.  664), 

was  it  for  this  that,  etc.?] 


244  SYNTAX:    CONSTRUCTION  OF  CASES  [§§390-393 

Note  1.  — In  these  cases  substantives  with  a  definite  meaning  would  bo  in  pome 

other  construction :  — 

in  hoc  eodem  peccat,  he  errs  in  this  same  point. 
bonis  rebus  laetarl,  to  rejoice  at  prosperity .     [Also:  in,  de,  or  ex.] 
de  testaments  monere,  to  remind  one  of  the  will.     [Later ;  genitive,  §  351.] 
offici  admonere,  to  remind  one  of  his  duty.     [Also:  de  officio,] 
Note  2.  —  In  some  of  these  cases  the  connection  of  the  accusative  with  the  verb  has 

so  faded  out  that  the  words  have  become  real  adverbs :  as,  —  multum,  plfls,  piarimum ; 

plerumque, /or  the  most  part,  generally;  ceterum,  cetera, /or  the  rest,  otherwise,  but; 

l>nmviin,  first;  nihil,  by  no  means,  not  at  all;  aliquid,  someiohat ;  qnii, why;  fdcil^,  easily. 

So  in  the  comparative  of  adverbs  (§  218).    But  the  line  cannot  be  sharply  drawn,  and 

some  of  the  examples  under  6  may  be  classed  as  adverbial. 


Two  Accusatives 

391.  Some  transitive  verbs  take  a  second  accusative  in  addi- 
tion to  their  Direct  Object. 

This  second  accusative  is  either  (1)  a  Predicate  Accusative  or 
(2)  a  Secondary  Object. 

Predicate  Accusative 

392.  An  accusative  in  the  Predicate  referring  to  the  same  per- 
son or  thing  as  the  Direct  Object,  but  not  in  apposition  with  it, 
is  called  a  Predicate  Accusative. 

393.  Verbs  of  naming,  choosing^  appointing,  making,  esteeming, 
showing,  and  the  like,  may  take  a  Predicate  Accusative  along 
with  the  direct  object :  — 

o  Spartace,  quem  enim  te  potius  appellem  (Phil.  xiii.  22),  0  Spartaciis,  for 

what  else  shall  I  call  you  (than  Spartacus)  ? 
Ciceronem  consulem  creare,  to  elect  Cicero  consul. 
me  augurem  nominaverunt  (Phil.  ii.  4),  they  nominated  me  for  augur. 
cum  gratias  ageret  quod  se  consulem  fecisset  (De  Or.  ii.  268),  when  he  thanked 

him  because  he  had  made  him  consul  (supported  his  candidacy). 
hominem  prae  se  neminem  putavit  (Rose.  Am.  135),  he  thought  nobody  a  man 

in  comparison  with  himself. 
ducem  se  praebuit  (Vat.  33),  he  offered  himself  as  a  leader. 

Note.  —  The  predicate  accusative  may  be  an  adjective:  as,  —  homines  mitis  red- 
didit et  mansuetos  (Inv.  1.  2),  has  made  men  mild  and  gentle. 

a.  In  changing  from  the  active  voice  to  the  passive,  the  Predicate 
Accusative  becomes  Predicate  Nominative  (§  284) :  — 

rex  ab  suis  appellatur  (B.  G.  viii.  4),  /le  is  called  king  by  his  subjects.    [Active : 
sui  eum  regem  appellant.] 


§§  394,  395]    ACCUSATIVE  OF  THE  SECONDARY  OBJECT  245 

Secondary  Object 

394.  The  Accusative  of  the  Secondary  Object  is  used  (along 
with  the  direct  object)  to  denote  something  more  remotely  affected 
by  the  action  of  the  verb. 

395.  Transitive  verbs  compounded  with  prepositions  sometimes 
take  (in  addition  to  the  direct  object)  a  Secondary  Object,  origi- 
nally governed  by  the  preposition  :  — 

Caesar  Germanos  flumen  traicit  (B.  C.  i.  83),  Ccesar  throws  the  Germans 

across  the  river. 
idem  ius  iurandum  adigit  Afranium  (id.  i.  76),  he  exacts  the  same  oath  from 

Afranius. 
quos  Pompeius  omnia  sua  praesidia  circumduxit  (id.  iii.  61),  whom  Pompey 

conducted  through  all  his  garrison. 

Note  1.  —  This  construction  is  common  only  with  traduco,  traici5,  and  transports. 
The  preposition  is  sometimes  repeated  with  compounds  of  trans,  and  usually  with 
compounds  of  the  other  prepositions.    The  ablative  is  also  used :  — 

donee  res  suas  trans  Halyn  flumen  traicerent  (Liv.  xxxviii.  25),  till  they  should  get 

their  possessions  across  the  river  Halys. 
(exercitus)  Pado  traiectus  Cremonam  (id.  xxi.  56),  the  army  was  conveyed  across 
the  Po  to  Cj^emona  (by  way  of  the  Po,  §  429.  a). 
Note  2.  —  The  secondary  object  may  be  retained  with  a  passive  verb :  as,  —  Belgae 
Rhenum  traducti  sunt  (B.  G.  ii.  4),  the  Belgians  were  led  over  the  Rhine. 

Note  3.  —  The  double  construction  indicated  in  §  395  is  possible  only  when  the  force 
of  the  preposition  and  the  force  of  the  verb  are  each  distinctly  felt  in  the  compound, 
the  verb  governing  the  direct,  and  the  preposition  the  secondary  object. 

But  often  the  two  parts  of  the  compound  become  closely  united  to  form  a  transitive 
verb  of  simple  meaning.  In  this  case  the  compound  verb  is  transitive  solely  by  virtue 
of  its  prepositional  part  and  can  have  but  one  accusative,  —  the  same  which  was  for- 
merly the  secondary  object,  but  which  now  becomes  the  direct.  So  traicio  comes  to 
mean  either  (1)  to  pierce  (anybody)  [by  hurling]  or  (2)  to  cross  (a  river  etc.):  — 

gladi6  hominem  traiecit,  he  pierced  the  man  with  a  sword.     [Here  iacio  has  lost 
all  transitive  force,  and  serves  simply  to  give  the  force  of  a  verb  to  the  mean- 
ing of  trans,  and  to  tell  the  manner  of  the  act.] 
Rhodanum  traiecit,  he  crossed  the  Rhone.     [Here  iacio  has  become  simply  a  verb 
of  motion,  and  traicio  is  hardly  distinguishable  from  transeo.] 
In  these  examples  hominem  and  Rhodanum,  which  would  be  secondary  objects  if  traiecit 
were  used  in  its  primary  signiiication,  have  become  the  direct  objects.    Hence  in  the 
passive  construction  they  become  the  subjects  and  are  put  in  the  nominative :  — 
homo  traiectus  est  gladio,  the  man  was  pierced  with  a  sword. 
Rhodanus  traiectus  est,  the  Rhone  was  crossed. 
The  poetical  traiectus  lora  (Aen.  ii.  273) ,  pierced  with  thongs,  comes  from  a  mixture  of 
two  constructions :  (1)  eum  traiecit  lora,  he  rove  thongs  through  him,^  and  (2)  eum 
traiecit  loris,  he  pierced  him  icith  thongs.    In  putting  the  sentence  into  a  passive  form, 
the  direct  object  of  the  former  (lora)  is  irregularly  kept,  and  the  direct  object  of  the 
latter  (eum)  is  made  the  subject. 

1  Perhaps  not  found  in  the  active,  but  cf.  traiecto  fune  (Aen.  v.  488). 


246  SYNTAX:    CONSTRUCTION  OF   CASES  [§396 

396.  Some  verbs  of  ashing  and  teaching  may  take  two  accusa- 
tives, one  of  the  Person  (direct  object)^  and  the  other  of  the  Thing 
{secondary  object) :  — 

me  sententiam  rogavit,  he  asked  me  my  opinion. 

otium  divos  rogat  (Hor.  Od.  ii.  16.  1),  he  prays  the  gods  for  rest. 

haec  praetorem  postulabas  (Tull.  39),  you  demanded  this  of  the  proetor. 

aedilis  populum  rogare  (Liv.  vi.  42),  to  ask  the  people  [to  elect]  oediles. 

docere  pueros  elementa,  to  teach  children  their  A  B  Cs. 
Note.  —  This  construction  is  found  in  classical  authors  with  oro,  posco,  reposco,  rogo, 
interrogo,  flagito,  doceo. 

a.  Some  verbs  of  asking  take  the  ablative  of  the  person  with  a 
preposition  instead  of  the  accusative.  So,  always,  peto  (ab),  quaero 
(ex,  ab,  de);  usually  posco  (ab),  flagito  (ab),  postulo  (ab),  and  occa- 
sionally others :  — 

pacem  ab  Romanis  petierunt  (B.  G.  ii.  13),  they  sought  peace  from  the  Bomans. 
quod  quaesivit  ex  me  P.  Apuleius  (Phil.  vi.  1),  what  Pubiius  Apuleius  asked 
of  me. 

h.  With  the  passive  of  some  verbs  of  asking  or  teaching,  the^er- 
son  or  the  thing  may  be  used  as  subject  (cf.  c.  n.  ^) :  — 
Caesar  sententiam  rogatus  est,  CcBsar  was  asked  his  opinion. 
id  ab  eo  flagitabatnr  (B.  C.  i.  71),  this  was  urgently  demanded  of  him. 

Note.  —  The  accusative  of  the  thing  may  be  retained  with  the  passive  of  rogo,  and 
of  verbs  of  teaching,  and  occasionally  with  a  few  other  verbs :  — 

fuerant  hoc  rogati  (Gael.  64),  they  had  been  asked  this. 

poscor  meum  Laelapa  (Ov.  M.  vii.  771),  /  am  asked  for  my  Lselaps. 

Cicero  cuncta  edoctus  (Sail.  Cat.  45),  Cicero,  being  informed  of  everything. 
But  with  most  verbs  of  asking  in  prose  the  accusative  of  the  thing  becomes  the 
subject  nominative,  and  the  accusative  of  the  person  is  put  in  the  ablative  with  a 
preposition:  as,  —  ne  postulantur  quidem  vires  a  senectute  (Cat.  M.  34),  strength  is 
not  even  expected  of  an  old  man  (asked  from  old  age) . 

c.  The  verb  celo,  conceal^  may  take  two  accusatives,  and  the  usually 
intransitive  lateo,  lie  hid,  an  accusative  of  the  person :  — 

non  te  celavi  sermonem  T.  Ampi  (Fam.  ii.  16.  3),  I  did  not  conceal  from  you 

the  talk  of  Titus  Ampius. 
nee  latuere  doll  fratrem  lunonis  (Aen.  1.  130),  nor  did  the  wiles  of  Juno 
escape  the  notice  of  her  brother. 

Note  1.  —  The  accusative  of  the  person  with  lateo  is  late  or  poetical  (§  388.  c.  n.  i). 

Note  2.  —  All  the  double  constructions  indicated  in  §  396  arise  from  the  waver- 
ing meaning  of  the  verbs.  Thus  doceo  means  both  to  show  a  thing,  and  to  instruct 
a  person ;  celo,  to  keep  a  person  in  the  dark,  and  to  hide  a  thing ;  rogo,  to  question 
a  person,  and  to  ask  a  question  or  a  thing.  Thus  either  accusative  may  be  regarded 
as  the  direct  object,  and  so  become  the  subject  of  the  passive  (cf.  b  above),  but  for 
convenience  the  accusative  of  the  thing  is  usually  called  secondary. 


§  397]  IDIOMATIC   USES   OF  THE   ACCUSATIVE  247 

Idiomatic  Uses 
397.    The  Accusative  has  the  following  special  uses  :  — 

a.  The  accusative  is  found  in  a  few  adverbial  phrases  (Adverbial 
Accusative) :  — 

id  temporis,  at  that  time ;  id  (istiic)  aetatis,  at  that  age. 

id  (quod)  genus,  of  that  {what)  sort  (perliaps  originally  nominative). 

meam  vicem,  on  my  part. 

bonam  partem,  in  a  great  measure  ;  maximam  partem,  for  the  most  part. 

virile  (muliebre)  secus,  of  the  male  {female)  sex  (probably  originally  in 

apposition). 
quod  si,  but  if  (as  to  wMch,  if) ;  quod  nisi,  if  not.  » 

h.  The  so-called  synecdochical  or  Greek  Accusative,  found  in  poetry 
and  later  Latin,  is  used  to  denote  the  part  affected :  — 

caput  nectentur  (Aen.  v.  309),  their  heads  shall  he  hound  (they  shall  be  bound 
about  the  head). 

ardentis  ocul5s  suffecti  sanguine  et  igni  (id.  ii.  210),  their  glaring  eyes  blood- 
shot and  blazing  with  fire  (suffused  as  to  their  eyes  with  blood  and  fire). 

nuda  genu  (id,  i.  320),  with  her  knee  hare  (bare  as  to  the  knee). 

femur  tragula  ictus  (Li v.  xxi.  7.  10),  wounded  in  the  thigh  by  a  dart. 

Note.  —  This  construction  is  also  called  the  Accusative  of  Specificatiouo 

c.  In  many  apparently  similar  expressions  the  accusative  may  be 
regarded  as  the  direct  object  of  a  verb  in  the  middle  voice  (§  156.  a)  : 

Lniitile  ferrum  cingitur  (Aen.  ii.  510),  he  girds  on  the  useless  steel. 

nodo  sinus  collecta  fluentis  (id.  i.  320),  having  her  flowing  folds  gathered  in 

a  knot. 
umeros  insternor  pelle  leonis  (id.  ii.  722),  I  cover  my  shoulders  with  a  lion'^s 

skin. 
protinus  induitur  faciem  cultumque  Dianae  (Oy.  M.  ii.  425),  forthwith  she 

assumes  the  shape  and  garb  of  Diana. 

d.  The  Accusative  is  used  in  Exclamations  :  — 

o  f ortunatam  rem  publicam,  O  fortunate  republic !     [Cf.  o  fortiinata  mora 

(Phil.  xiv.  31),  oh,  happy  death!  (§339.  a).] 
o  me  infelicem  (Mil.  102),  oh.,  unhappy  I ! 
me  miserum,  ah,  wretched  me ! 
en  quattuor  aras  (Eel.  v.  65),  lo,four  altars! 
ellum  (=  em  ilium),  there  he  is !     [Cf.  §  146.  a.  n.  2.] 
eccos  (=  ecce  eos),  there  they  are,  look  at  them! 
pro  deum  fidem,  good  heavens  (0  protection  of  the  gods)  I 
hocine  saeclum  (Ter.  Ad.  304),  0  this  generation! 
huncine  hominem  (Verr.  v.  62),  this  man,  good  heavens  I 


248  SYNTAX:    CONSTRUCTION  OF   CASES  [§§397,398 

Note  1.  —  Such  expressions  usually  depend  upon  some  long-forgotten  verb.  The 
substantive  is  commonly  accompanied  by  an  adjective.  The  use  of  -ne  in  some  cases 
suggests  an  original  question,  as  in  quid?  what?  why?  tell  me. 

Note  2.  —  The  omission  of  the  verb  has  given  rise  to  some  other  idiomatic  accusa- 
tives.    Such  are : — 

salutem  (sc.  dicit)  (in  addressing  a  letter),  greeting. 
me  dius  fidius  (sc.  adiuvet),  so  help  me  heaven  (the  god  of  faith), 
unde  mihl  lapidem  (Hor.  S.  ii.  7.  IIG),  where  can  I  get  a  stone? 
quo  mihi  fortunam  (Hor.  Ep.  i.  5.  12),  of  what  use  to  me  is  fortune?    [No  verb 
thought  of.] 

e.  The  subject  of  an  infinitive  is  in  the  accusative :  — 
intellego  te  sapere  (Fam.  vii.  32.  3),  I  perceive  that  you  are  wise. 
eas  res  iactarl  nolebat  (B.  G.  i.  18),  he  was  unwilling  that  these  matters  should 
«♦     be  discussed. 

Note.  — This  construction  is  especially  common  -with  verbs  of  knowing,  thinking, 
telling,  and  perceiving  (§580). 

/,  The  accusative  in  later  writers  is  sometimes  used  in  apposition 
with  a  clause  :  — 

deserunt  tribunal .  .  .  manus  intentantes,  causam  discordiae  et  initium  armo- 
rum  (Tac.  Ann.  i.  27),  they  abandon  the  tribunal  shaking  their  fists, — 
a  cause  of  dissension  and  the  beginning  of ^jimr. 

Note.  —  This  construction  is  an  extension  (under  Greek  influence)  of  a  usage  more 
nearly  within  the  ordinary  rules,  such  as,  —  Eumenem  prodidere  Antiocho,  pacis  merce- 
dem  (Sail.  Ep.  Mith.  8),  iheij  betrayed  Eumenes  to  Antiochus,  theprice  of  peace.  [Here 
Eumenes  may  be  regarded  as  the  price,  although  the  real  price  is  the  betrayal.] 

For  the  Accusative  of  the  End  of  Motion,  see  §  427.  2  ;  for  the  Accusative  of  Dura- 
tion of  Time  and  Extent  of  Space,  see  §§  423, 425 ;  for  the  Accusative  with  Prepositions, 
see  §  220. 

ABLATIVE   CASE 

398.  Under  th»  name  Ablative  are  included  the  meanings  and,  in  part,  the  forms 
of  three  cases,  —  the  Ablative  proper,  expressing  the  relation  from;  the  Locative, 
IN ;  and  the  Instrumental,  with  or  by.  These  three  cases  were  originally  not  wholly 
distinct  in  meaning,  and  their  confusion  was  rendered  more  certain  (1)  by  the  develop- 
ment of  meanings  that  approached  each  other  and  (2)  by  phonetic  decay,  by  means  of 
which  these  cases  have  become  largely  identical  in  form.  Compare,  for  the  first,  the 
phrases  a  parte  dextera,  on  the  right;  quam  ob  causam,  from  which  cause;  ad  famam, 
at  (in  consequence  of)  the  report;  and,  for  the  second,  the  like  forms  of  the  dative 
and  ablative  plural,  the  old  dative  in  -e  of  the  fifth  declension  (§  90),  and  the  loss  of  the 
original  -d  of  the  ablative  (§  49.  e;  cf.  §§  43.  n.  i,  92./,  214.  a.  n.). 

The  relation  of  from  includes  separation,  source,  cause,  agent,  and  comparison; 
that  of  WITH  or  by,  accompaniment,  instrument,  means,  manner,  quality,  and  pjice ; 
that  of  IN  or  at,  place,  time,  circumstance.  This  classification  according  to  the 
original  cases  (to  which,  however,  too  great  a  degree  of  certainty  should  not  be 
attached)!  is  set  forth  in  the  following  table:  — 

1  Thus  the  Ablative  of  Cause  may  be,  at  least  in  part,  of  Instrumental  origin,  and 
the  Ablative  Absolute  appears  to  coml)ine  the  Instrumental  and  the  Locative. 


§§  398-401]  ABLATIVE   OF  SEPARATION  249 


I.  Ablative  Proper  {from) 
{Separative): 


II.   Instrumental     Ablative 

{with): 


1.  Of  Separation,  Privation,  and  Want  (§400). 

2.  Of  Source  (participles  of  origin  etc.)  (§403). 

3.  Of  Cause  (labor5,  exsilio,  etc.)  (§404). 

4.  Of  Agent  (witli  ab  after  Passives)  (§  405). 

5.  Of  Comparison  (than)  (§40G). 

1.  Of  Manner,  Means,  and  Instrument  (§408ff.). 

2.  Of  Object  of  the  Deponents  utor  etc.  (§  410). 

3.  Of  Accompaniment  (with  cum)  (§413). 

4.  Of  Degree  of  Difference  (§  414) . 

5.  Of  Quality  (with  Adjectives)  (§415). 

6.  Of  Price  and  Exchange  (§  416) . 

7.  Of  Specification  (§418). 

8.  Ablative  Absolute  (§419). 

III.   Locative    Ablative    {in,    T  1.  Of  Place  w;7iere  (commonly  with  in)  (§421).  , 
on,  at):  \  2.  Of  Time  and  Circumstance  (§  423). 

399.  The  Ablative  is  used  to  denote  the  relations  expressed  in 

English  by  the  prepositions /rom;  m,  at;  witli^  hy :  — 

liberare  metu,  to  deliver  from  fear. 
excultus  doctrina,  trained  in  learning. 
hoc  ipso  tempore,  at  this  eery  time. 
caecus  avaritia,  blind  with  avarice. 
occisus  gladio,  slain  hy  the  sword. 


USES    OF   TEE  ABLATIVE  PROPER 
Ablative  of  Separation 

400.  Words  signifying  Separation  or  Privation  are  followed  by 
the  ablative. 

401.  Verbs  meaning  to  remove^  setfree^  be  absent^  deprive^  and 

want^  take  the  Ablative  (sometimes  with  ab  or  ex) :  — 

oculis  se  privavit  (Fin.  v.  87),  he  deprived  himself  of  eyes. 

omni  Gallia  Romanis  interdicit  (B,  G.  i.  46),  he  (Ariovistus)  bars  the  Romans 

from  the  whole  of  Gaul. 
e!  aqua  et  igni  interdlcitur  (Veil.  ii.  45),  he  is  debarred  the  use  of  fire  and 

water.     [The  regular  formula  of  banishment.] 
volaptatibus  carere  (Cat.  M.  7),  to  lack  enjoyments. 
non  egeo  medicina  (Lael.  10),  I  want  no  physic. 
levamur  superstitione,  llberamur  mortis  metu  (Fin.  i.  63),  we  are  relieved 

from  superstition,  we  are  freed  from  fear  of  death. 
soluti  a  ctipiditatibus  (Leg.  Agr.  i.  27),  freed  from  desires. 
multos  ex  his  incommodis  peciinia  se  liberasse  (Verr.  v.  23),  that  many  have 

freed  themselves  by  money  from  these  inconveniences. 

For  the  Genitive  with  verbs  of  separation  and  want,  see  §  35G.  n. 


250  SYNTAX :    CONSTRUCTION  OF   CASES  [§§  402,  403 

402.  Verbs  compounded  with  a,  ab,  de,  ex,  (1)  take  the  simple 
Ablative  when  u^Q(i  figuratively ;  but  (2)  when  used  literally  to 
denote  actual  separation  or  motion^  they  usually  require  a  prepo- 
sition (§  426.  1) :  — 

(1)  conatu  desistere  (B.  G.  i.  8),  to  desist  from  the  attempt. 
desine  communibus  locis  (Acad.  ii.  80),  quit  commonplaces. 
abire  magistratu,  to  leave  one^s  office. 

abstinere  iniuria,  to  refrain  from  wrong. 

(2)  a  proposito  aberrare  (Fin.  v.  88),  to  wander  from  the  point. 

de  provincia  decedere  (Verr.  ii.  48),  to  withdraw  from  on£''s  province. 

ab  lure  abIre  (id.  ii.  114),  to  go  outside  of  the  law. 

ex  civitate  excessere  (B.  G.  vi.  8),  they  departed  from  the  state.     [But  cf. 

finibus  suis  excesserant  (id.  iv.  18),  they  had  left  their  own  territory. 1 
a  magno  demissum  nomen  lulo  (Aen.  i.  288),  a  name  descended  (sent  down) 
from  great  lulus. 
For  the  Dative  used  instead  of  the  Ablative  of  Separation,  see  §  381.    For  the  Abla- 
tive of  the  actual  place  whence  in  idiomatic  expressions,  see  §§  427. 1,  428./. 

a.  Adjectives  denoting  freedom  and  wa7it  are  followed  by  the 
ablative :  — 

urbs  ntida  praesidio  (Att.  vii.  13),  the  city  naked  of  defence. 

immunis  militia  (Liv.  i.  43),/ree  of  military  service. 

plebs  orba  tribunis  (Leg.  iii.  9),  the  people  deprived  of  tribunes. 

Note.  —  A  preposition  sometimes  occurs:  — 

a  culpa  vacuus  (Sail.  Cat.  14),  free  from  blame.        ~    , 

liberi  a  delicils  (Leg.  Agr.  i.  27) ,  free  fro7n  luxuries. 

Messana  ab  his  rebus  vacua  atque  nuda  est  (Verr.  iv.  3),  Messana  is  empty  and 
bare  of  these  things. 
For  the  Genitive  with  adjectives  of  want,  see  §  349.  a. 

Ablative  of  Source  and  Material 

403.  The  Ablative  (usually  with  a  preposition)  is  used  to  denote 
the  Source  from  which  anything  is  derived,  or  the  Material  of 
which  it  consists :  — 

1.  Source :  — 
Rhenus  oritur  ex  Lepontiis  (B.   G.  iv.   10),  the  Rhine  rises  in  (from)  the 

country  of  the  Lepontii. 
ab  his  sermo  oritur  (Lael.  5),  the  conversation  is  begun  by  (arises  from)  them. 
cuius  rationis  vim  atque  utilitatem  ex  illo  caelesti  Epicuri  volumine  accepi- 

mus  (N.  T).  i.  43),  of  this  reasoning  we  have  learned  the  power  and 

advantage  from  that  divine  book  of  Epicurus. 
suavitatem  odorum  qui  afiflarentur  e  floribus  (Cat.  M.  59),  the  sweetness  of 

the  odors  which  breathed  from  the  flowers. 


§  408]  ABLATIVE   OF   SOURCE  AND   MATERIAL  251 

2.  Material:  — 
erat  totus  ex  fraude  et  mendaciS  f actus  (Clu.  72),  he  was  entirely  made  up  of 

fraud  and  falsehood. 
valvas  magnificentiores,  ex  auro  atque  ebore  perfectiores  (Verr.  iv.  124), 

more  splendid  doors,  more  finely  wrought  of  gold  and  ivory. 
factum  de  cautibus  antrum  (Ov.  M.  i,  576),  a  cave  formed  of  rocks. 
templum  de  marmore  pouam  (Georg.  iii.  13),  I'll  build  a  temple  of  marble. 

Note  1,  —  In  poetry  the  preposition  is  often  omitted. 

Note  2.  —  The  Ablative  of  Material  is  a  development  of  the  Ablative  of  Source. 
For  the  Genitive  of  Material,  see  §  344. 

a.  Participles  denoting  birth  or  o^ngin  are  followed  by  the  Abla- 
tive of  Source,  generally  without  a  preposition  :  —  ^ 

love  natus  et  Maia  (N.  D.  iii.  66),  son  of  Jupiter  and  Maia. 
edite  regibus  (Hor.  Od.  i.  1.  1),  descendant  of  kings. 
quo  sanguine  cretus  (Aen.  ii.  74),  born  of  what  blood. 
genitae  Pandione  (Ov.  M.  vi.  666),  daughters  of  Pandion. 

Note  1.  —  A  preposition  (ab,  de,  ex)  is  usually  expressed  with  pronouns,  with  the 
name  of  the  mother,  and  often  with  that  of  other  ancestors :  — 

ex  me  hic  natus  non  est  sod  ex  fratre  meo  (Ter.  Ad.  40),  this  is  not  my  son,  but 

my  brother^ s  (not  born  from  me,  etc.). 
cum  ex  utraque  [uxore]  filius  natus  esset  (De  Or.  i.  183),  each  wife  having  had 

a  son  (when  a  son  had  been  born  of  each  wife). 
Belus  et  omnes  a  Belo  (Aen.  i.  730),  Belus  and  all  his  descendants. 
Note  2.  —  Rarely,  the  place  of  birth  is  expressed  by  the  ablative  of  source:  as, — 
desideravit  C.  Fleginatem  Placentia,  A.  Granium  Puteolis  (B.  C.  iii.  71),  he  lost  Cains 
Fleginas  of  Placentia,  Aulus  Granius  of  Pifteoli. 

Note  3.  —  The  Roman  tribe  is  regularly  expressed  by  the  ablative  alone :  as,  — 
Q.  Verrem  Romilia  (Verr.  i.  23),  Quintus  Verres  of  the  Romilian  tribe. 

b.  Some  verbs  may  take  the  Ablative  of  Material  without  a  prep- 
osition. Such  are  constare,  consistere,  and  contineri.^  But  with  con- 
stare,  ex  is  more  common  :  — 

domiis  amoenitas  non  aedificio  sed  silva  constabat  (Nep.  Att.  13),  the  chdrm 

of  the  house  consisted  not  in  the  buildings  but  in  the  woods. 
ex  animo  constamus  et  corpore  (Fin.  iv.  19),  we  consist  of  soul  and  body. 
vita  corpore  et  spiritu  continetur  (Marc.  28),  life  consists  of  body  and  spirit. 

c.  The  Ablative  of  Material  without  a  preposition  is  used  with 
facere,  fieri,  and  similar  words,  in  the  sense  of  do  with,  become  of:  — 

quid  hoc  homine  faciatis  (Verr.  ii.  1.  42),  what  are  you  going  to  do  with  this 

man  ? 
quid  Tulliola  mea  flet  (Fam.  xiv.  4.  3),  what  will  become  of  my  dear  Tullia  1 
quid  te  futurum  est  (Verr.  ii.  166),  v}hat  will  become  of  you? 

1  As  natus,  satus,  editus,  genitus,  ortus,  prognatus,  generatus,  cretus,  creatus,  oriundus. 

2  The  ablati\e  with  consistere  and  cootiueri  is  probably  locative  in  origin  (cf.  §431). 


252  SYNTAX :    CONSTRUCTION   OF   CASES  [§§  403,  404. 

d.  The  Ahlative  of  Material  with  ex,  and  in  poetry  without  a 
preposition,  sometimes  depends  directly  on  a  noun  :  • — 

non  pauca  pocula  ex  aurd  (Verr.  iv.  62),  not  a  few  cups  of  gold. 

scopulis  pendentibus  antrum  (Aen.  i.  166),  a  cave  of  hanging  rocks. 
For  Ablative  of  Source  instead  of  Partitive  Genitive,  see  §  346.  c. 

Ablative  of  Cause 
404.  The  Ablative  (with  or  without  a  preposition)  is  used  to 
express  Cause  :  —  ^ 

neglegentia  plectimur  (Lael,  85),  we  are  chastised  for  negligence. 
gubernatoris  ars  utilitate  non  arte  laudatur  (Fin.  i.  42),  the  piloVs  skill  is 

praised  for  its  service,  not  its  skill. 
certis  de  causis,  for  cogent  reasons. 

ex  vulnere  aeger  (Rep.  ii.  38),  disabled  hy  (from)  a  wound. 
mare  a  sole  lucet  (Acad.  ii.  105),  the  sea  gleams  in  the  sun  (from  the  sun). 

a.  The  Ablative  of  Cause  without  a  preposition  is  used  with  laboro 
(also  with  ex),  exsilio,  exsulto,  triumpho,  lacrimo,  ardeo :  — 

doleo  te  aliis  mails  laborare  (Fam.  iv.  3),  I  am  sorry  that  you  suffer  with 

other  ills.     [Cf.  ex  aere  alieuo  laborare  (B,  C.  iii.  22),  to  labor  under 

debt  (from  another's  money).] 
exsultare  laetitia,  triumphare  gaudio  coepit  (Clu.  14),  she  began  to  exult  in 

gladness,  and  triumph  in  joy. 
exsilui  gaudio  (Fam.  xvi.  16),  I  jumped  for  joy.     [Cf.  lacrimo  gaudid  (Ter. 

Ad.  409),  I  weep  for  joy .'] 
ardere  dolore  et  ira  (Att.  ii.  19.  5),  to  be  on  fire  with  pain  and  anger. 
For  gaudeo  and  glorior,  see  §  431. 

h.  The  motive  which  influences  the  mind  of  the  person  acting  is 
expressed  by  the  ablative  of  cause ;  the  object  exciting  the  emotion 
often  by  ob  ^  or  propter  with  the  accusative  :  — 

non  ob  praedam  aut  spoliandi  cupidine  (Tac.  H.  i.  63),  not  for  booty  or  through 

lust  of  plunder. 
amicitia  ex  se  et  propter  s§  expetenda  (Fin.  ii.  83),  friendship  must  be  sought 

of  and  for  itself. 

Note.  —  But  these  constructions  are  often  confused:  as,  — parere  legibus  propter 
metum  (Par.  34),  to  obey  the  laws  on  account  of  fear.  [Here  metum  is  almost  equiva- 
lent to  "the  terrors  of  the  laAV,"  and  hence  propter  is  used,  thous:h  the  ablative  would 
be  more  natural.] 

1  The  cause,  in  the  ablative,  is  originally  source,  as  is  shown  by  the  use  of  ab,  de, 
ex ;  hut  when  the  accusative  with  ad,  ob,  is  used,  the  idea  of  cause  arises  from  nearness. 
Occasionally  it  is  difficult  to  distinguish  between  cause  and  means  (which  is  the  old 
Instrumental  case)  or  circumstance  (which  is  either  the  Locative  or  the  Instrumental). 

2  Originally  a  mercantile  use:  cf.  ob  decern  minSs, /or  the  price  of  ten  minss. 


\ 


§§  404,  405]  ABLATIVE   OF  AGENT  253 

c.  The  ablatives  causa  and  gratia^  for  the  sake  of,  are  used  with  a 
genitive  preceding,  or  with  a  pronoun  in  agreement :  — 

ea  causa,  on  account  of  this;  qua  gratia  (Ter.  Eun.  99), /or  vjhat  purpose  f 
mea  causa,  for  my  sake ;  mea  gratia  (Plant.),  for  my  sake. 
ex  mea  et  rei  publicae  causa,  for  my  own  sake  and  the  republic'' s. 
praedictionis  causa  (N.  D.  iii.  5),  by  way  of  prophecy. 
exempli  gratia  (verbi  gratia) ,  for  example. 
sul  purgandi  gratia,  for  the  sake  of  clearing  themselves. 
Note.  —  But  gratia  with  possessives  in  this  use  is  rare. 

Ablative  of  Agent 

405.  The  Voluntary  Agent  after  a  passive  verb  is  expressed  by 
the  Ablative  with  a  or  ab :  — 

laudatur  ab  his,  culpatur  ab  illis  (Hor.  S.  i.  2.  11),  he  is  praised  by  these, 

blamed  by  those. 
ab  animo  tno  quidquid  agitur  id  agitur  a  te  (Tusc.  i.  52),  whatever  is  done  by 

your  soul  is  done  by  yourself. 
a  filiis  in  iudicium  vocatus  est  (Cat.  M.  22),  he  ivas  brought  to  trial  by  his  sons. 
cum  a  cuncto  consessu  plausus  esset  multiplex  datus  (id.  64),  when  great 

applause  had  been  given  by  the  whole  audience. 
ne  virtus  ab  audacia  vinceretur  (Sest.  92),  that  valor  might  not  be  overborne 

by  audacity.     [Audacia  is  in  a  manner  personified.  ] 

Note  1.  —  This  construction  is  developed  from  the  Ablative  of  Source.  The  agent 
is  conceived  as  the  source  or  author  of  the  action. 

Note  2.  —  The  ablative  of  the  agent  (which  requires  a  or  ab)  must  be  carefully 
distinguished  from  the  ablative  of  instrument,  which  has  no  preposition  (§  409) .  Thus 
—  occisus  gladio,  slain  by  a  sword;  but,  occisus  ab  hoste,  slain  by  an  enemy. 

Note  3.  —  The  ablative  of  the  agent  is  commonest  with  nouns  denoting pe7'sons,  but 
it  occurs  also  with  names  of  things  or  qualities  when  these  are  conceived  as  performing 
an  action  and  so  are  partly  or  wholly  personified,  as  in  the  last  example  under  the  rule. 

a.  The  ablative  of  the  agent  with  ab  is  sometimes  used  after  intran- 
sitive verbs  that  have  a  passive  sense  :  — 

perire  ab  hoste,  to  be  slain  by  an  enemy. 

b.  The  personal  agent,  when  considered  as  instrument  or  means, 
is  often  expressed  by  per  with  the  accusative,  or  by  opera  with  a 
genitive  or  possessive :  — 

ab  exploratoribus  certior  f actus  est  (B.  G.  i.  21),  he  was  informed  by  scouts  (in 

person).     But,  — 
per  exploratores  Caesar  certior  f actus  est  (id.  i.  12),  Ccosar  ivas  informed  by 

(means  of)  scouts. 
glautae  opera  Neptuni  (Plant.  Rud.  699),  washed  cleanby  the  services  of  Neptune. 
non  mea  opera  evenit  (Ter.  Hec.  228),  it  hasiiH  happened  through  me  (by  my 

exertions).     [Cf.  eius  opera,  B.  G.  v.  27.] 


254  SYNTAX:    CONSTRUCTION   OF   CASES  [§§405-40; 

Note  1.  —  The  ablative  of  means  or  instrument  is  often  used  instead  of  the  abla- 
tive of  agent,  especially  in  military  phrases:  as,  — haec  excubitoribus  teuebautur 
(B.  G.  vii.  09),  these  (redoubts)  loere  held  by  means  of  sentinds. 

Note  2.  —  An  animal  is  sometimes  regarded  as  the  means  or  instrument,  some- 
times as  the  agent.    Hence  both  the  simple  ablative  and  the  ablative  with  ab  occur :  — 
equo  vehi,  to  ride  on  horseback  (be  conveyed  by  means  of  a  horse).    [Not  ab  equo.J 
clipeos  a  muribus  esse  derosos  (Div.  i.  99),  that  the  shields  were  gnawed  by  mice. 
For  the  Dative  of  the  Agent  vf'ith.  the  Gerundive,  see  §  374. 

Ablative  of  Comparison 

406.  The  Comparative  degree  is  often  followed  by  the  Abla- 
tive ^  signifying  than :  — 

Cato  est  Cicerone  eloquentior,  Cato  is  more  eloquent  than  Cicero. 

quid  nobis  duobus  laboriosius  est  (Mil.  5),  what  more  burdened  with  toil  than 

we  two  1 
villus  argentum  est  auto,  virtutibus  aurum  (Hor.  Ep.  i.  1.  52),  silver  is  less 

precious  than  gold,  gold  than  virtue. 

a.  The  idiomatic  ablatives  opinione,  spe,  solito,  dicto,  aequo,  credi- 
bili,  aiid  iusto  are  used  after  comparatives  instead  of  a  clause  :  — 
celerius  opinione  (Fam.  xiv.  2S),  faster  than  one  would  think. 
serius  spe  omnium  (Liv.  xxvi.  26),  later  than  all  hoped  (than  the  hope  of  all), 
amnis  solit5  citatior  (id.  xxiii.  19.  11),  a  stream  swifte)'  than  its  wont. 
gravius  aequo  (Sail.  Cat.  51),  more  seriously  than  was  right. 

407.  The  comparative  may  be  followed  by  quam,  than.  When 
quam  is  used,  the  two  things  compared  are  put  in  the  same  case  : 

non  callidior  es  quam  hie  (Rose.  Am.  49),  you  are  not  more  cunning  than  he. 

c6nti5nibus  accommodatior  est  quamiudiciis  (Clu.  2),  fitter  for  popular  assem- 
blies than  for  courts. 

misericordia  dignior  quam  contumelia  (Pison.  32),  more  worthy  of  p)ity  than  of 
disgrace. 

a.  The  construction  with  quam  is  required  when  the  first  of  the 

things  compared  is  not  in  the  Nominative  or  Accusative. 

Note  1.  —  There  are  several  limitations  on  the  use  of  the  ablative  of  comparison, 
even  when  the  first  of  the  things  compared  is  in  the  nominative  or  accusative.  Thus 
the  quam  construction  is  regularly  used  (1)  when  the  comparative  is  in  agreement 
with  a  genitive,  dative,  or  ablative :  as, — senex  est  eo  meliore  condicione  quam  adules- 
cens  (Cat.  M.  G8),  an  old  man  is  in  this  respect  in  a  better  position  than  a  young  man ; 
and  (2)  when  the  second  member  of  the  comparison  is  modified  by  a  clause :  as, — minor 
fuit  aliquanto  is  qui  primus  fabulara  dedit  quam  ei  qui,  etc.  (Brut.  73),  he  who  first 
presented  a  play  loas  somewhat  younger  than  those  ivho,  etc. 

1  This  is  a  branch  of  the  Ablative  of  Separation,  The  object  with  which  anything 
is  compared  is  the  starting-point /rom  which  we  reckon.  Thus,  "  Cicero  is  eloquent " ; 
but,  starting  from  him,  we  come  to  Cato,  who  is  *'  more  so  than  he." 


§407]  ABLATIVE   OF  COMPARISON  255 

Note  2.  —  The  poets  sometimes  use  the  ablative  of  comparison  where  the  prose 
construction  requires  quam:  as,  —  pane  egeo  iam  mellitis  potiore  placentis  (Hor.  Ep. 
i.  10.  11),  I  now  vmnt  bread  better  than  honey-cakes. 

Note  3. — Relative  pronouns  having  a  definite  antecedent  never  take  quam  in  this 
construction,  but  always  the  ablative:  as,  —  rex  erat  Aeneas  nobis,  quo  iustior  alter 
nee,  etc.  (Aen.  i.  644),  Apneas  was  our  king,  than  whom  no  other  [was]  more  righteous. 

b.  In  sentences  expressing  or  implying  a  general  negative  the 
ablative  (rather  than  quam)  is  the  regular  construction  when  the  first 
member  of  the  comparison  is  in  the  nominative  or  accusative :  — 

nihil  detestabilius  dedecore,  nihil  foedius  servitute  (Phil.  iii.  36),  nothing  is 

more  dreadful  than  disgrace,  nothing  viler  than  slavery. 
neminem  esse  cariorem  te  (Att.  x.  8  a.  1),  that  no  one  is  dearer  than  you. 

c.  After  the  comparatives  plus,  minus,  amplius,  longius,  v^ithout 
quam,  a  word  of  measure  or  number  is  often  used,  with  no  change  in 
its  case :  — 

plus  septingenti  capti  (Liv.  xli.  12),  more  than  seven  hundred  were  taken. 

[Nominative.] 
plus  tertia  parte  interfecta  (B.  G.  iii.  6),  more  than  a  third  part  being  slain. 

[Ablative  Absolute.] 
aditus  in  latitudinem  non  amplius  ducentorum  pedum  relinquebatur  (id.  ii. 

29),  an  approach  of  not  more  than  two  hundred  feet  in  width  was  left. 

[Genitive  of  Measure:  §  345.  6.] 

Note.  —  The  noun  takes  the  case  required  by  the  context,  without  reference  to  the 
comparative,  which  is  in  a  sort  of  apposition :  "seven  hundred  were  taken  [and]  more." 

d.  Alius  is  sometimes  followed  by  the  ablative  in  poetic  and  collo- 
quial use  ;  in  formal  prose  it  is  followed  by  ac  (atque),  et,  more  rarely 
by  nisi,  quam :  — - 

nee  quicquara  aliud  libertate  commiini  (Fam.  xi.  2),  nothing  else  than  the  com- 
mon liberty. 

alius  Lysippo  (Hor.  Ep.  ii.  1.  240),  another  than  Lysippus. 

num  aliud  videtur  esse  ac  meorum  bonorum  direptio  (Dom.  51),  does  it  seem 
anything  different  from  the  plundering  of  my  property  ? 

erat  historia  nihil  aliud  nisi  annalium  confectio  (De  Or.  ii.  52),  history  was 
nothing  else  but  a  compiling  of  records. 

e.  The  comparative  of  an  adverb  is  usually  followed  by  quam,  rarely 
by  the  ablative  except  in  poetry  :  — 

tempus  te  citius  quam  oratio  deficeret  (Rose.  Am.  89),  time  would  fail  you 

sooner  than  words.     But,  — 
cur  olivum  sanguine  viperino  cautius  vitat  (Hor.  Od.  i.  8.  9),  why  does  he  shun 

oil  more  carefully  than  viper'' s  blood  ? 

Note.  —  Prepositions  meaning  before  or  beyond  (as  ante,  prae,  praeter,  supra)  are 
sometimes  used  with  a  comparative :  as,  —  scelere  ante  alios  immanior  oninis  (Aen.  i. 
^7),  more  monstrous  in  crime  than  all  other  men- 


256  SYNTAX:    CONSTRUCTION   OF  CASES  [§§408,409 


USES   OF   THE  ABLATIVE  AS   INSTRUMENTAL 

408.  Means,  Instrument,  Manner,  and  Accompaniment  are  denoted  by  the  Instru- 
mental Ablative  (see  §  ;^98),  but  some  of  these  uses  more  commonly  require  a  prepo- 
sition. As  they  all  come  from  one  source  (the  old  Instrumental  Case)  no  sharp  line 
can  be  drawn  between  them,  and  indeed  the  Romans  themselves  can  hardly  have 
thought  of  any  distinction.  Thus,  in  omnibus  precibus  orabaut,  they  entreated  with 
eve7i/  [kind  of]  prayer,  the  ablative,  properly  that  of  means,  cannot  be  distinguished 
from  that  of  manner. 

Ablative  of  Means  or  Instrument 

409.  The  Ablative  is  used  to  denote  the  means  or  instrument 
of  an  action :  — 

certantes  pugnis,  calcibus,  unguibus,  morsu  denique  (Tusc.  v.  77),  fighting 

with  fists  J  heels,  nails,  and  even  teeth. 
cum  pugnis  et  calcibus  concisus  esset  (Verr.  iii.  56),  when  he  had  heenimm- 

melled  with  their  fists  and  heels. 
nieis  laboribus  iuteritu  rem  piiblicam  llberavi  (Sull.  33),  by  my  toils  I  have 

saved  the  state  from  ruin. 
multae  istarum  arborum  mea  manu  sunt  satae  (Cat.  M.  59),  many  of  those 

trees  were  set  out  with  my  own  hands. 
VI  victa  vis,  vel  potius  oppressa  virtute  audacia  est  (Mil.  30),  violence  was 

overcome  by  violence,  or  rather^  boldness  was  put  down  by  courage. 

a.  The  Ablative  of  Means  is  used  with  verbs  and  adjectives  of 
filling,  abounding,  and  the  like  :  — 

Deus  bonis  omnibus  explevit  mundum  (Tim.  3),  God  ha^  filled  the  world  with 

all  good  things. 
aggere  et  cratibus  fossas  explent  (B.  G.  vii.  86),  they  fill  up  the  ditches  with 

earth  and  fascines. 
totum  monlem  hominibus  complevit  (id.  i.  24),  he  filled  the  whole  mountain 

with  men. 
opimus  praeda  (Verr.  ii.  1.  132),  rich  with  spoils. 

vita  plena  et  conferta  voluptatibus  (Sest.23),  lifefilled  and  crowded  with  delights. 
Forum  Appi  differtum  nautis  (Hor.  S.  1.  5.  4),  Forum  Appii  crammed  with 

bargemen. 

Note.  —  In  poetry  the  Genitive  is  often  used  with  these  words.  Compleo  and  impleo 
sometimes  take  the  genitive  in  prose  (cf .  §  356) ;  so  regularly  plenus  and  (with  personal 
nouns)  completus  and  ref ertus  (§  349.  a) :  — 

omnia  plena  luctus  et  maeroris  fuerunt.(Sest.  128),  everything  was  full  of  grief 

and  mourning. 
611am  denariorum  implere  (Fam.  ix.  18),  to  fill  a  pot  with  money.     [Here  evidently 

colloquial,  otherwise  rare  in  Cicero.] 
convivium  vicinorum  compleo  (Cat.  M.  4<),  in  the  mouth  of  Cato),  I  fill  up  the  ban- 
quet with  my  neighbors. 
cum  completus  mercatorum  career  esset  (Verr.  v.  147),  lohen  the  prison  was  full  of 
trader^. 


§§  410,  411]       ABLATIVE    OF   MEANS   OR   INSTRUMENT  257 

410.  The  deponents  utor,  fruor,  fungor,  potior,  vescor,  with  several 

of  their  compouncls,^  govern  the  Ablative  :  — 

utar  vestra  benignitate  (Arch.  18),  1  will  avail  myself  of  your  kindness. 

ita  mihi  salva  re  publica  vobiscum  perfrul  liceat  (Cat.  iv.  11),  so  may  I  enjoy 

with  you  the  state  secure  and  prosperous. 
fungi  inani  munere  (Aeu.  vi.  885),  to  perform  an  idle  service. 
auro  heros  potitur  (Ov.  M.  vii.  156),  the  hero  takes  the  gold. 
lacte  et  ferina  came  vescebantur  (lug.  89),  they  fed  on  milk  and  game. 

Note.— This  is  properly  an  Ablative  of  Means  {instrumental)  and  the  verbs  are 
really  in  the  middle  voice  (§  156.  a).  Thus  utor  Mith  the  ablative  signifies  I  employ 
myself  (or  avail  myself)  by  means  of,  etc.  But  these  earlier  meanings  disappeared 
from  the  language,  leaving  the  construction  as  we  find  it. 

a.  Potior  sometimes  takes  the  Genitive,  as  always  in  the  phrase 
potiri  rerum,  to  get  control  or  be  Tnaster  of  affairs  (§  357.  a) :  — 

totius  Galliae  sese  potiri  posse  sperant  (B.  G.  i.  3),  they  hope  they  can  get 
possession  of  the  whole  of  Gaul. 

Note  1.  —  In  early  Latin,  these  verbs  are  sometimes  transitive  and  take  the 
accusative:  — 

functus  est  officium  (Ter.  Ph.  281),  he  performed  the  part,  etc. 
ille  patria  potitur  commoda  (Ter.  Ad.  871),  he  enjoys  his  ancestral  estate. 
Note  2.  —  The  Gerundive  of  these  verbs  is  used  personally  in  the  passive  as  if  the 
verb  were  transitive  (but  cf.  §  500.  3):  as,  —  Heraclio  omnia  utenda  ac  possidenda  tra- 
diderat  (Verr.  ii.  46),  he  had  given  over  everythiiig  to  Ileraclius  for  his  use  and  posses- 
sion (to  be  used  and  possessed). 

411.  opus  and  usus,  signifying  need,  take  the  Ablative:  —  ^ 

magistratibus  opus  est  (Leg.  iii.  5),  there  is  need  of  magistrates. 
nuuc  viribus  usus  (Aen.  viii.  441),  now  there  is  need  of  strength. 
Note.  —  The  ablative  with  iisus  is  not  common  in  classic  prose. 
a.  With  opus  the  ablative  of  a  perfect  participle  is  often  found, 
either  agreeing  with  a  noun  or  used  as  a  neuter  abstract  noun  :  — 
opus  est  tua  exprompta  malitia  atque  astutia  (Ter.  And.  723),  I  must  have 

your  best  cunning  and  cleverness  set  to  work. 
properato  opus  erat  (cf.  Mil.  49),  there  was  need  of  haste. 
Note  1.  —  So  rarely  with  iisus  in  comedy:   as,  —  quid  istis  usust  conscriptis  (PI. 
Bacch.  749),  what's  the  good  of  having  them  in  writing? 

Note  2.  —  The  omission  of  the  noun  gives  rise  to  complex  constructions :  as,  —  quid 
opus  factost  (cf.  B.  G.  i.  42),  what  must  be  done?  [Cf.  quid  opus  est  fieri?  with  quo 
facto  opus  est  ?] 

1  These  are  abiitor,  deutor  (very  rare) ,  defungor,  dgfnior,  perfruor,  perfungor. 

2  This  construction  is  properly  an  instrumental  one,  in  which  opus  and  usus  mean 
work  and  service,  and  the  ablative  expresses  that  with  lohich  the  work  is  performed 
or  the  service  rendered.  The  noun  usus  follows  the  analogy  of  the  verb  utor,  and  the 
a.blative  with  opus  est  appears  to  be  an  extension  of  that  with  iisus  est. 


258  SYNTAX:    CONSTRUCTION   OF   CASES  [§§411-413 

b.  Opus  is  often  found  in  the  predicate,  Tvitli  the  tiling  needed  in 
the  nominative  as  subject:  — 

dux  nobis  et  auctor  opus  est  (Fam.  ii.  6.  4),  we  need  a  chief  and  responsible 

adviser  (a  chief,  etc.,  is  necessary  for  us), 
si  quid  ipsi  opus  esset  (B.  G.  i.  34),  if  he  himself  wanted  anything  (if  any- 
thing should  be  necessary  for  him). 
quae  opus  sunt  (Cato  R.  R.  14.  3),  things  which  are  required. 

Ablative  of  Manner 

412.  The  Manner  of  an  action  is  denoted  by  the  Ablative ;  usu- 
ally with  cum,  unless  a  limiting  adjective  is  used  with  the  noun : 

cum  celeritate  venit,  he  came  with  speed.     But,  — 
summa  celeritate  venit,  he  came  with  the  greatest  speed. 
quid  refert  qua  me  ratione  cogatis  (Lael.  26),  what  difference  does  it  make  in 
what  way  you  compel  me  f 

a.  But  cum  is  often  used  even  when  the  ablative  has  a  limiting 
adj  ective :  — 

quanto  id  cum  periculo  fecerit  (B.  G.  i.  17),  at  what  risk  he  did  this. 
non  minore  cum  taedio  recubant  (Plin.  Ep.  ix.  17.  3),  they  recline  with  no  less 
weariness. 

h.  With  such  words  of  manner  as  modo,  pacto,  ratione,  ritu,  vi,  via, 

and  with  stock  expressions  which  have  become  virtually  adverbs  (as 
silentio,  iure,  iniuria),  cum  is  not  used :  — 

apis  Matinae  more  modoque  carmina  fingo  (Hor.  Od.  iv.  2.  28),  in  the  style 
and  manner  of  a  Matinian  bee  I  fashion  songs. 

Note.  —  So  in  poetry  the  ablative  of  manner  often  omits  cum:  as,  — insequitur  cu- 
mulo  aquae  mons  (Aen.  i.  105),  a  mountain  of  water  foUoios  in  a  mass.  [Cf.  murmure 
(id.  i.  124) ;  rimis  (id,  i.  123),] 

Ablative  of  Accompaniment 

413.  Accompaniment  is  denoted  by  the  Ablative,  regularly  with 


cum: 


cum  coniugibus  ac  liberis  (Att.  viii.  2.  3),  with  wives  and  children. 

cum  funditoribus  sagittariisque  flilmen  transgress!  (B.    G.    ii.  19),   having 

crossed  the  river  with  the  archers  and  slingers. 
quae  supplicatio  si  cum  ceteris  conferatur  (Cat.  iii.  15),  if  this  thanksgiving 

be  compared  with  others. 
quae  [lex]  esse  cum  tel5  vetat  (Mil.  11),  the  law  which  forbids  [one]  to  go 

armed  (be  with  a  weapon), 
si  secum  suos  eduxerit  (Cat.  i.  30),  if  he  leads  out  with  him  his  associates. 

[For  sfcum,  see  §  144.  b.  n.i.] 


§§  413,  414]      ABLATIVE   OF   DEGREE    OF   DIFFERENCE  259 

a.  The  ablative  is  used  without  cum  in  some  military  phrases,  and 
here  and  there  by  early  writers  :  — 

subsequebatur  omnibus  copiis  (B.  G.  ii.  19),  he  followed  close  with  all  his 

forces.     [But  also  cum  omnibus  copiis,  id.  i.  26.] 
hoc  praesidio  profectus  est  (Verr.  ii.  1.  86),  with  this  force  he  set  out. 
Note.  —  Misceo  and  iungo,  with  some  of  their  compounds,  and  confundo  take  either 
(1)  the  Ablative  of  Accompaniment  with  or  without  cum,  or  (2)  sometimes  the  Dative 
(mostly  poetical  or  late) :  — 

mixta  dolore  voluptas  (B.  Al.  56),  pleasure  mingled  with  pain. 
cuius  auimumcum  suo  misceat  (Lael.  81),  whose  soul  he  may  mingle  with  his  own. 
fletumque  cruori  miscuit  (Ov.  M.  iv.  140),  and  mingled  tears  with  blood. 
Caesar  eas  cohortis  cum  exercita  su5  coniunxit  (B.  C.  i.  18),  Csesar  united  those 

cohorts  with  his  own  army. 
aer  coniunctus  terris  (Lucr.  v.  562) ,  air  united  with  earth. 

humano  capiti  cervicem  equinam  iimgere  (Hor.  A.  P.  1),  to  join  to  a  human  head 
a  horse's  neck. 

h.  Words  of  Contention  and  the  like  require  cum :  — 
armis  cum  hoste  certare  (Off.  iii.  87),  to  fight  with  the  enemy  in  arms. 
libenter  liaec  cum  Q.  Catulo  disputarem  (Manil.  66),  I  should  gladly  discuss 
these  matters  with  Quintus  Catulus. 

Note.  —  But  words  of  contention  may  take  the  Dative  in  poetry  (see  §  368.  a). 

Ablative  of  Degree  of  Difference 

414.  With  Comparatives  and  words  implying  comparison  the 
ablative  is  used  to  denote  the  Degree  of  Difference :  — 
quinque  milibus  passuum  distat,  it  is  five  miles  distant. 
a  milibus  passnum  circiter  duobus  (B.  G.  v.  32),  at  a  distance  of  about  two 

miles.     [For  a  as  an  adverb,  see  §  433.  3.] 
aliquot  ante  annis  (Tusc.  1.  4),  several  years  before. 
aliquanto  post  suspexit  (Rep.  vi.  9),  a  while  after,  he  looked  up. 
multo  me  vigilare  acrius  (Cat.  1.  8),  that  I  watch  much  more  sharply. 
nihilo  erat  ipse  Cyclops  quam  aries  prudentior  (Tusc.  v.  115),  the  Cyclops 

himself  was  not  a  whit  wiser  than  the  ram. 

a.  The  ablatives  quo  .  .  .  eo  (hoc),  and  quanto  ,  .  .  tanto,  are  used 

correlatively  with  comparatives,  like  the  English  the  .  .  .  the  ^ :  — 
quo  minus  cupiditatis,  eo  plus  auctoritatis  (Liv.  xxiv.  28),  the  less  greed,  the 

more  weight  (by  what  the  less,  by  that  the  more'). 
quanto  erat  gravior  oppiignatio,  tanto  crebriores  litterae  mittebantur  (B.  G. 

V.  45),  the  severer  the  siege  was,  the  more  frequently  letters  were  sent. 

1  In  this  phrase  the  is  not  the  definite  article  but  a  pronominal  adverb,  being  the 
Anglo-Saxon  thy,  the  instrumental  case  of  the  pronoun  thset,  that.  This  pronoun  is 
used  both  as  relative  {by  which,  by  how  much)  and  as  demonstrative  (by  that,  by  so 
much).    Thus  the  .  .  =  the  corresponds  exactly  to  quo  .  .  ,  eo. 


260  SYNTAX:    CONSTRUCTION  OF   CASES  [§§414,415 

Note.  —  To  this  construction  are  doubtless  to  be  referred  all  cases  of  quo  and  eo 
(hoc)  with  a  comparative,  even  when  they  have  ceased  to  be  distinctly  felt  as  degree 
of  difference  and  approach  the  Ablative  of  Cause :  — 

eoque  me  minus  paenitet  (N.  D.  i.  8),  and  for  that  reason  I  regret  less,  etc.  (by  so 

much  the  less  I  regret), 
haec  eo  facilius  faciebant,  quod  (B.  G.  iii.  12),  this  they  did  the  more  easily  for  this 
reason,  because,  etc.     [Of.  hoc  maiore  spe,  quod  (id.  iii.  9).] 

6.  The  Ablative  of  Comparison  (§  406)  and  the  Ablative  of  Degree 
of  Difference  are  sometimes  used  together  with  the  same  adjective  :  — 

paulo  miaus  ducentis  (B.  C.  iii.  28),  a  little  less  than  two  hundred. 
patria,  quae  mihi  vita  mea  multo  est  carior  (Cat.  i.  27),  my  country,  which 
is  much  dearer  to  me  than  life. 

But  the  construction  with  quam  is  more  common. 

Ablative  of  Quality 

415.  The  quality  of  a  thing  is  denoted  by  the  Ablative  with  an 
adjective  or  genitive  modifier. 

This  is  called  the  Descriptive  Ablative  or  Ablative  of  Quality :  —  ^ 
animS  meliore  sunt  gladiatores  (Cat.  ii,  26),  the  gladiators  are  of  a  better 

mind. 
quae  cum  esset  civitfis  aequissimo  lure  ac  foedere  (Arch.  6),  as  this  ivas  a 

city  with  perfectly  equal  constitutional  rights. 
mulierem  eximia  pulchritudine  (Verr.  ii,  1.  64),  a  woman  of  rare  beauty. 
Aristoteles,  vir  summo  ingenio,  scientia,  copia  (Tusc.  i.  7),  Aristotle,  a  man  of 

the  greatest  genius,  learning,  and  gift  of  expression. 
de  Domitio  dixit  versum  Graecum  eadem  sententia  (Deiot.  25),  concerning 
Domitius  he  recited  a  Greek  line  of  the  same  tenor. 
Note.  —  The  Ablative  of  Quality  (like  the  Genitive  of  Quality,  §  345)  modifies  a  sub- 
stantive by  describing  it.    It  is  therefore  equivalent  to  an  adjective,  and  may  be  either 
attributive  or  predicate.    In  this  it  differs  from  other  ablatives,  which  are  equivalent 
to  adverbs. 

a.  In  expressions  of  quality  the  Genitive  or  the  Ablative  may 
often  be  used  indifferently  ;  hut  physical  qualities  are  oftener  denoted 
by  the  Ablative  (cf.  §  345.  n.)  :  — 

capilld  sunt  promisso  (B.  G.  v.  14),  they  have  long  hair. 

ut  capita  opertd  sit  (Cat.  M.  34),  to  have  his  head  covered  (to  be  with  covered 

head), 
quam  f  uit  inbecillus  P.  Af  ricani  f  ilius,  quam  tenul  aut  nulla  potius  valetudine 

(id.  35),  hoiu  lueak  was  the  son  of  Africanus,  of  what  feeble  health,  or 

rather  none  at  all ! 

1  It  was  originally  instrumental  and  appears  to  have  developed  from  accompani- 
ment (§  413)  and  manner  (§  412). 


§§416,417]  ABLATIVE    OF   PRICE  261 

Ablative  of  Price 

416.  The  price  of  a  thing  is  put  in  the  Ablative :  — 

agrum  vendidit  sestertium  sex  milibus,  he  sold  the  land  for  6000  sesterces. 
Antonius  regna  addlxit  pecunia  (Phil.  vii.  15),  Antony  sold  thrones  for  money. 
logos  ridicules :  quis  cena  poscit  (PL  Stich.  221),  jokes  :  who  wants  them  fo7 

(at  the  price  of)  a  dinner  f 
magno  illi  ea  ctinctatio  stetit  (Liv.  ii.  36),  that  hesitation  cost  him  dear. 

Note.  —  To  this  head  is  to  be  referred  the  Ablative  of  the  Penalty  (§  353.  1) . 

417.  Certain  adjectives  of  quantity  are  used  in  the  Genitive  to 

denote  indefinite  value.     Such  are  magni,  parvi,  tanti,  quanti,  pluris, 

minoris :  — 

mea  magni  interest,  it  is  of  great  consequence  to  me. 

illud  parvi  refert  (Manil.  18),  this  is  of  small  account. 

est  mihi  tanti  (Cat.  ii.  15),  it  is  worth  the  price  (it  is  of  so  much). 

Verresne  tibi  tanti  fuit  (Verr.  ii.  1.  77),  was  Verves  of  so  much  account  to 

you  ? 
tantone  minoris  decumae  venierunt  (id.  iii.  106),  were  the  tithes  sold  for  so 

much  less  ? 
ut  te  redimas  captum  quam  queas  minimo  :  si  nequeas  paululo,  at  quanti  queas 

(Ter.  Eun.  74),  to  ransom  yourself  when  captured,  at  the  cheapest  rate 

you  can ;  if  you  canH  for  a  small  sum,  then  at  any  rate  for  what  you  can. 

Note.  — These  are  really  Genitives  of  Quality  (§  345.  b). 

a.  The  genitive  of  certain  colorless  nouns  is  used  to  denote  indefi- 
nite value.  Such  are  nihili  (nili),  iiothing;  assis,  a  farthing  (rare)  ; 
flocci  (a  lock  of  wool),  a  straw :  — 

nOn  flocci  faciO  (Att.  xiii.  50),  1  care  not  a  straw.     [Colloquial.] 
utinam  ego  istuc  abs  te  factum  nili  penderem  (Ter.  Eun.  94),  0  that  I  cared 
nothing  for  this  being  done  by  you !     [Colloquial.] 

b.  With  verbs  of  exchanging,  either  the  thing  taken  or  the  thing 
given  in  exchange  may  be  in  the  Ablative  of  Price.  Such  are  muto, 
commuto,  permuto,  verto  :  — 

fidem  suam  et  religionem  peciinia  commtitare  (Clu.  129),  to  barter  his  faith 

and  conscience  for  money. 
exsilium  patria  sede  niutavit  (Q.  C.  iii.  7.  11),  he  exchanged  his  native  land 

for  exile  (he  took  exile  in  exchange  for  his  native  land), 
velox  saepe  Lucretilem  mtitat  Lycaeo  Faunus  (Hor.  Od.  i.  17.  1),  nimble 

Faunus  often  changes  Lycoeus  for  Lucretilis.     [He  takes  Lucretilis  at 

the  price  o/Lycseus,  i.e.  he  goes  from  Lycseus  to  Lucretilis.] 
vertere  funeribus  triumphos  (id.  i.  35.  4),  to  change  the  triumph  to  the  funeral 

train  (exchange  triumphs  for  funerals).     [Poetical.] 


262  SYNTAX :    CONSTRUCTION   OF   CASES  [§§  417,  418 

Note,  —  With  verbs  of  exchanging  cum  is  often  used,  perhaps  with  a  different  con- 
ception of  the  action:  as,  —  aries  .  .  .  cum  croceo  mutabit  vellera  luto  (Eel.  iv.  44),  the 
ram  shall  change  his  fleece /or  [one  dyed  with]  the  yellow  safron. 

c.  With  verbs  of  buying  and  selling  the  simple  Ablative  of  Price 
must  be  used,  except  in  the  case  of  tanti,  quanti,  pluris,  minoris :  — 

quanti  earn  emit?  vili  .  .  .  quot  minis?  quadraginta  minis  (PL  Epid.  51), 
what  did  he  buy  her  for  ?     Cheap.     For  how  many  minoe  ?    Forty. 

Ablative  of  Specification 

418.  The  Ablative  of  Specification  denotes  that  in  respect  to 

which  anything  is  or  is  done :  — 

vlrtute  praecedunt  (B.  G.  i.  1),  they  excel  in  courage. 
claudus  altero  pede  (Nep.  Ages.  8),  lame  of  one  foot. 
lingua  haesitantes,  voce  absoni  (De  Or.  i.  115),  hesitating  in  speech.,  harsh  in 

voice. 
sunt  enim  homines  non  re  sed  nomine  (Off.  i.  105), /or  they  are  men  not  in 

fact.,  but  in  name. 
maior  natii,  older;  minor  natu,  younger  (cf.  §  131.  c). 
paulum  aetate  progress!  (Cat.  M.  33),  somewhat  advanced  in  age. 
corpore  senex  esse  poterit,  animo  numquam  erit  (id.  38),  he  may  be  an  old  man 

in  body,  he  never  will  be  [old]  at  heart. 

a.  To  this  head  are  to  be  referred  many  expressions  where  the  abla- 
tive expresses  that  in  accordance  with  which  anything  is  or  is  done :  — 

meo  iure,  with  perfect  right;  but,  meo  modo,  in  my  fashion. 

mea  sententia,  in  my  opinion;  but  also  more  formally,  ex  mea  sententia. 

[Here  the  sense  is  the  same,  but  the  first  ablative  is  specification,  the 

second  source.^ 
propinquitate  conitinctos  atque  natura  (Lael.  50),  closely  allied  by  kindred  and 

nature.     [Here  the  ablative  is  not  different  in  sense  from  those  above, 

but  no  doubt  is  a  development  of  means-l 
qui  vincit  viribus  (id.  55),  loho  surpasses  in  strength.     [Here  it  is  impossible 

to  tell  whether  viribus  is  the  means  of  the  superiority  or  that  in  respect 

to  which  one  is  superior.  ] 

Note.  —  As  the  Romans  had  no  such  categories  as  we  make,  it  is  impossible  to 
classify  all  uses  of  the  ablative.  The  ablative  of  specification  (originally  instru- 
mental) is  closely  akin  to  that  of  manner,  and  shows  some  resemblance  to  means  and 
cause. 

For  the  Supine  in  -u  as  an  Ablative  of  Specification,  see  §  510. 

b.  The  adjectives  dignus  and  indignus  take  the  ablative  :  — 

vir  patre,  avo,  maioribus  suTs  dignissimus  (Phil.  iii.  25),  a  man  most  worthy 

of  his  father,  grandfather,  and  ancestors. 
te  omni  honore  indignissimum  itidicavit  (Vat.  39),  he  judged  you  entirely 

unworthy  of  every  honor. 


§§  418,  419]  ABLATIVE  ABSOLUTE  263 

Note  1.  —  So  the  verb  dignor  in  poetry  and  later  prose :  as,  —  hand  equidem  tali  me 
dignor  honore  (Aeu.  i.  335),  I  do  not  deem  myself  lo  or  thy  of  such  an  honor. 

Note  2.  —  Dignus  and  indignus  sometimes  take  the  genitive  in  colloquial  usage  and 
in  poetry :  — 

curam  dignissimam  tuae  virtutis  (Balbus  in  Att.  viii.  15),  care  most  worthy  of 

your  noble  character. 
dignus  salutis  (Plant.  Trin.  1153),  worthy  of  safety. 

magnorum  hand  umquam  indignus  avorum  (Aen.  xii.  649),  never  unworthy  of  my 
great  ancestors. 

Ablative  Absolute 

419.  A  noun  or  pronoun,  with  a  participle  in  agreement,  may 

be  put  in  the  Ablative  to  define  the  time  or  circumstances  of  an 

action.     This  construction  is  called  the  Ablative  Absolute :  — ^ 

Caesar,  acceptis  litteris,  nuntium  inittit.(B,  G.  v.  46),  having  received  the 

letter,  CcBsar  sends  a  messenger  (the  letter  having  been  received), 
quibus  rebus  cognitis  Caesar  apud  milites  contionatur  (B.  C.  1.  7),  having 

learned  this,  CcBsar  makes  a  speech  to  the  soldiers. 
fugato  omnI  equitatu  (B.  G.  vii.  68),  all  the  cavalry  being  put  to  flight. 
interfecto  Indutiomaro  (id.  vi.  2),  upon  the  death  of  Indutiomarus. 
nondum  hieme  confecta  in  finis  Nerviorum  contendit  (id.  vi.  3),  though  the 

winter  was  not  yet  over,  he  hastened  into  the  territory  of  the  Nervii. 
compressi  [sunt]  conattis  nullo  tumultu  piiblice  concitato  (Cat.  i.   11),  the 

attempts  were  put  down  without  exciting  any  general  alarm. 
ne  vobis  quidem  omnibus  re  etiam  turn  probata  (id.  ii,  4),  since  at  that  time 
the  facts  were  not  yet  proved  even  to  all  of  you. 
Note. — The  ablative  absolute  is  an  adverbial  modifier  of  the  predicate.    It  is, 
however,  not  grammatically  dependent  on  any  word  in  the  sentence:  hence  its  name 
absolute  (absolutus,  i.e.  free  or  unconnected) .    A  substantive  in  the  ablative  absolute 
very  seldom  denotes  a  person  or  thing  elsewhere  mentioned  in  the  same  clause. 

a.  An  adjective,  or  a  second  noun,  may  take  the  place  of  the  parti- 
ciple in  the  Ablative  Absolute  construction  :  —  ^ 

exigua  parte  aestatis  reliqua  (B.  G.  iv.  20),  when  but  a  small  part  of  the  sum- 
mer was  left  (a  small  part  of  the  summer  remaining). 

L.  Domitio  Ap.  Claudio  cousulibus  (id.  v.  1),  in  the  consulship  of  Lucius  Bomi- 
tins  and  Appius  Claudius  (Lucius  Domitius  and  Appius  Claudius  [being] 
consuls).     [The  regular  way  of  expressing  a  date,  see  §  424.  g.] 

nil  desperandum  Teucro  duce  et  auspice  Teucro  (Hor.  Od.  i.  7.  27),  there 
should  be  no  despair  under  Teucer's  leadership  and-  auspices  (Teucer 
being  leader,  etc.). 

1  The  Ablative  Absolute  is  perhaps  of  instrumental  origin.  It  is,  however,  some- 
times explained  as  an  outgrowth  of  the  locative,  and  in  any  event  certain  locative 
constructions  (oi  place  and  time)  must  have  contributed  to  its  development. 

2  The  present  participle  of  esse,  wanting  in  Latin  (§  170.  6),  is  used  in  Sanskrit  and 
Greek  as  in  English. 


264  SYNTAX:    CONSTRUCTION   OF   CASES  [§§419,426 

6.  A  plirase  or  clause,  used  substantively,  sometimes  occurs  as 
ablative  absolute  with  a  participle  or  an  adjective :  — 

incerto  quid  peterent  (Liv.  xxviii.  36),  as  it  was  uncertain  what  they  should 

aim  at  (it  being  uncertain,  etc.). 
comperto  vanum  esse  formldinem  (Tac.  Ann.  i.  60),  when  it  was  found  that 
the  alarm  was  groundless. 
.     cur  praetereatur  demonstrato  (Inv.  ii.  34),  when  the  reason  for  omittiyig  it  has 
been  explained  (why  it  is  passed  by  being  explained). 
Note.  —  This  construction  is  very  rare  except  in  later  Latin. 

c.  A  participle  or  an  adjective  is  sometimes  used  adverbially  in 
the  ablative  absolute  without  a  substantive  :  — 

consulto  (Off.  i.  27),  on  purpose  (the  matter  having  been  deliberated  on), 
mihi  optato  veneris  (Att.  xiii.  28.  3),  you  will  come  in  accordance  with  my 

wish. 
sereno  (Liv.  xxxi.  12),  under  a  clear  sky  (it  [being]  clear). 
nee  auspicato  nee  litato  (id.  v.  38),  with  no  auspices  or  favorable  sacrifice. 
tranquillo,   ut   ^iunt,  quilibet   gubernator   est  (Sen.  Ep.   85.  34),  in  good 
weather,  as  they  say,  any  man 's  a  pilot. 

420.  The  Ablative  Absolute  often  takes  the  place  of  a  Sub- 
ordinate Clause. 

Thus  it  may  replace  — 

1.  A  Temporal  Clause  (§  541  ff.):  — 

patre  interfecto,  [his]  father  having  been  killed.  [This  corresponds  to  cum 
pater  interfectus  esset,  when  his  father  had  been  killed.] 

recentibus  sceleris  eius  vestlgiis  (Q.  C.  vii.  1.  1),  while  the  traces  of  the  crime 
were  fresh.     [Cf .  dum  recentia  sunt  vestigia.  ] 

2.  A  Causal  Clause  (§  540)  :  — 

at  ei  qui  Alesiae  obsidebantur  praeterita  die  qua  auxilia  su5rum  exspecta- 
verant,  c6nsumpt5  omni  frumento,  concilio  coficto  consultabant  (B.  G. 
vii.  77),  but  those  who  were  under  siege  at  Alesia,  since  the  time,  etc., 
had  expired,  and  their  grain  had  been  exhausted,  calling  a  council  (see  5 
below),  consulted  together.     [Cf.  cum  dies  praeterisset,  etc.] 

Dareus,  desperata  pace,  ad  reparandas  virls  intendit  animum  (Q.  C.  iv.  6.  1), 
Darius,  since  he  despaired  of  peace,  devoted  his  energies  to  recruiting 
his  forces.     [Cf.  cum  pacem  desperaret.] 

3.  A  Concessive  Clause  (§  527) :  — 

at  eo  repugnante  fiebat  (consul),  immo  vero  eo  fiebat  magis  (Mil.  34),  but 

though  he  (Clodius)  opposed,  he  (Milo)  ivas  likely  to  be  elected  consul; 

nay,  rather,  etc. 
turribus  excitatis,  tamen  has  altitudo  puppium  ex  barbaris  navibus  supe- 

rabat  (B.  G.  iii.  14),  although  towers  had  been  built  up,  still  the  high 

stems  of  the  enemy'' s  shivs  rose  above  them. 


§§420-422]  ABLATIVE   OF   PLACE  265 

4.  A  Conditional  Clause  (§  521):  — 

occurrebat  ei,  mancam  et  debilem  praettiram  futuram  suam,  consule  Milone 
(Mil.  25),  it  occurred  to  him  that  his  proetorship  would  be  maimed  and 
feeble^  if  Milo  were  consul,     [si  Milo  consul  esset.] 

qua  (regione)  subacta  licebit  decurrere  in  illud  mare  (Q.  C.  ix.  3.  13),  if  this 
region  is  subdued,  we  shall  be  free  to  run  down  into  that  sea. 

qua  quidem  detracta  (Arch.  28),  if  this  be  taken  away. 

5.  A  Clause  of  Accompanying  Circumstance  :  — 

ego  haec  a  Chrysogono  mea  sponte,  remoto  Sex.  Roscio,  quaero  (Rose.  Am. 
130),  of  my  own  accord,  without  reference  to  Sextus  Roscius  (Sextus 
Roscius  being  put  aside),  I  ask  these  questions  of  Chrysogonus. 

nee  imperante  nee  sciente  nee  praesente  domino  (Mil.  2i9),  without  their  master'' s 
giving  orders,  or  knowing  it,  or  being  present. 

Note.  —  As  the  English  Nominative  Absolute  is  far  less  common  than  the  Abla- 
tive Absolute  in  Latin,  a  change  of  form  is  generally  required  in  translation.  Thus 
the  present  participle  is  oftenest  to  be  rendered  in  English  by  a  relative  clause  with 
when  or  while;  and  the  perfect  passive  participle  by  the  perfect  active  participle. 
These  changes  may  be  seen  in  the  following  example :  — 

At  illi,  intermisso  spatio,  imprudenti-  But  they,  having  paused  a  space,  while 

bus  nostrls  atque  occupdtls  in  miimtione  our  men  were  U7iaware  and  busied  in  for- 
castrorum,  subito  se  ex  silvis  eiecerunt ;  tifying  the  camp,  suddenly  threw  them- 
impetuqae  in  eos  facto  qui  erant  in  sta-  selves  out  of  the  woods ;  then,  making  an 
tione  pro  castris  conlocati,  acriter  pug-  attack  upon  those  who  were  on  guard  in 
naverunt ;  dudbusque  missis  subsidio  front  of  the  camp,  they  fought  fiercely ; 
cohortibus  a  Caesare,  cum  hae  (perexi-  and,  though  two  cohorts  had  been  sent  by 
guo  intermisso  loci  spatio  inter  se)  con-  Caesar  as  reinforcements,  after  these  had 
stitissent,  novo  genere  pugnae  perterritls  taken  their  position  {leaving  very  little 
nostrls,  per  medios  audacissime  perrupe-  space  of  ground  between  them),  as  our 
runt  seque  inde  incolumis  receperunt.—  men  were  ak&med  by  the  strange  kind 
Caesar,  B.  G.  v.  15.  of  fighting,  they  dashed  most  daringly 

through  the  midst  of  them  and  got  off 
safe. 

For  the  Ablative  with  Prepositions,  see  §  220. 


THE  ABLATIVE  AS  LOCATIVE 
Ablative  of  Place 

421.  The  Locative  Case  was  originally  used  (literally)  to  denote  the  p^ace  where 
and  (figuratively)  to  denote  the  time  when  (a  development  from  the  idea  of  place) . 
But  this  case  was  preserved  only  in  names  of  towns  and  a  few  other  words,  and  the 
place  lohere  is  usually  denoted  by  the  Ablative.  In  this  construction  the  Ablative  was, 
no  doubt,  used  at  first  without  a  preposition,  but  afterwards  it  became  associated  in 
most  instances  with  the  preposition  in. 

422.  In  expressions  of  Time  and  Place  the  Latin  shows  a 
variety  of  idiomatic  constructions  (Ablative,  Accusative,  and  Loc- 
ative), which  are  systematically  treated  in  §  423  ff. 


266  SYNTAX ;    CONSTRUCTION   OF   CASES  [§§  423,  424 

TIME   AND   PLACE 
Time 

423.  Time  when,  or  within  which,  is  expressed  by  the  Abla- 
tive ;  time  how  long  by  the  Accusative. 

1.  Ablative :  — 

c5nstituta  die,  on  the  appointed  day  ;  prima  luce,  at  daybreak. 
quota  hora,  at  what  o''clock?  tertiavigilia,  in  the  third  watch. 
tribus  proximis  annis  (lug.  11),  within  the  last  three  years. 
diebus  viginti  quinque  aggerem  exstruxerunt  (B.  G.  vii.  24),  within  twenty- 
Jive  days  they  finished  building  a  mound. 

2.  Accusative :  — 

dies  continuos  trlginta,  for  thirty  days  together. 

cum  triduum  iter  fecisset  (B.  G.  ii.  16),  when  he  had  marched  three  days. 

Note.  —The  Ablative  of  Time  is  locative  in  its  origin  (§  421) ;  the  Accusative  is  the 
same  as  that  of  the  extent  of  space  (§  425). 

424.  Special  constructions  of  time  are  the  following :  — ^" 

a.  The  Ablative  of  time  ivithin  which  sometimes  takes  in,  and  the 
Accusative  of  time  how  long  per,  for  greater  precision :  — 
in  diebus  proximis  decern  (lug.  28),  within  the  next  ten  days. 
ludl  per  decern  dies  (Cat.  iii.  20),  games  for  ten  days. 

h.  Duration  of  time  is  occasionally  expressed  by  the  Ablative:  — 
milites  quinque  horis  proelium  sustinuerant  (B.  C.  i.  47),  the  men  had  sus- 
tained the  fight  five  hours. 

Note.  — In  this  use  the  period  of  time  is  regarded  as  that  within  which  the  act  is 
done,  and  it  is  only  implied  that  the  act  lasted  through  the  period.  Cf.  inter  annos 
quattuordecim  (B.  G.  i.  36) ,  for  fourteen  years. 

c.  Time  during  which  or  within  which  may.  be  expressed  by  the 
Accusative  or  Ablative  of  a  noun  in  the  singular,  with  an  ordinal 
numeral :  — 

quints  die,  within  [just]  four  days  (lit.  on  the  fifth  day).     [The  Romans 

counted  both  ends,  see  §  631.  d.] 
regnat  iam  sextum  annum,  he  has  reigned  going  on  six  years. 

d.  Many  expressions  have  in  Latin  the  construction  of  time  when, 
where  in  English  the  main  idea  is  rather  of  place :  — 

pCigna  CannensI  (or,  apud  Cannas),  in  the  fight  at  Cannoe. 
ludis  Romanis,  at  the  Roman  games. 
omnibus  Gallicis  bellls,  in  all  the.  Gallic  wars. 


§§  424,  425]  TIME   AND  PLACE  267 

e.  In  many  idiomatic  expressions  of  time,  the  Accusative  with  ad, 
in,  or  sub  is  used.     Such  are  the  following :  — 

supplicatio  decreta  est  in  Kalendas  lanuarias,  a  thanksgiving  was  voted  for 

the  first  of  January. 
convenerunt  ad  diem,  they  assembled  on  the  [appointed]  day. 
ad  vesperum,  till  evening  ;  sub  vesperum,  towards  evening. 
sub  idem  tempus,  about  the  same  time;  sub  noctem,  at  nightfall. 

/.  Distance  of  time  before  or  after  anything  is  variously  expressed : 

post  (ante)  tres  annos,  post  tertium  annum,  tres  post  annos,  tertiumpost 
annum,  tribus  post  annis,  tertio  post  anno  (§  414),  three  years  after. 

tribus  annis  (tertio  anno)  post  exsilium  (postquam  eiectus  est),  three  years 
after  his  exile. 

his  tribus  proximis  annis,  within  the  last  three  years. 

paucis  annis,  a  few  years  hence. 

abhinc  annos  tres  (tribus  annis),  ante  hos  tres  annos,  three  years  ago. 

triennium  est  cum  (tres  anni  sunt  cum),  it  is  three  years  since. 

octavo  mense  quam,  the  eighth  month  after  (see  §  434.  n,). 

g.  In  Dates  the  phrase  ante  diem  (a.  d.)  with  an  ordinal,  or  the 
ordinal  alone,  is  followed  by  an  accusative,  like  a  preposition ;  and 
the  phrase  itself  may  also  be  governed  by  a  preposition. 

The  year  is  expressed  by  the  names  of  the  consuls  in  the  ablative 
absolute,  usually  without  a  conjunction  (§  419.  a):  — 

is  dies  erat  a.  d.  v.  Kal.  Apr.  (quintum  Kalendas  Aprilis)  L.  Pisone  A.  Gabinio 

cQnsulibus  (B.  G.  i.  6),  that  day  loas  the  6th  before  the  calends  of  April 

(March  28),  in  the  consulship  of  Piso  and  Gabinius. 
in  a.  d.  v.  Kal.  Nov.  (Cat.  i.  7),  to  the  Uh  day  before  the  calends  of  November 

(Oct.  28). 
XV.  Kal.  Sextilis,  the  16th  day  before  the  calends  of  August  (July  18).    [Full 

form:  quinto  decimo  die  ante  Kalendas.] 

For  the  Koman  Calendar,  see  §  631, 

Extent  of  Space 

425.  Extent  of  Space  is  expressed  by  the  Accusative  :  — • 

fossas  quindecim  pedes  latas  (B.  G.  vii   72),  trenches  fifteen  feet  broad. 

progressus  milia  passuum  circiter  duodecim  (id.  v.  9)",  having  advanced  about 
twelve  miles. 

in  omni  vita  sua  quemque  a  recta  conscientia  transversum  unguem  non 
oportet  discedere  (quoted  in  Att.  xiii.  20),  in  all  one''s  life,  one  should 
not  depart  a  naiVs  breadth  from  straightforward  conscience. 

Note.  — This  Accusative  denotes  the  ohject  through  or  over  which  the  action  takes 
place,  and  is  kindred  with  the  Accusative  of  the  End  of  Motion  (§  427.  2). 


268  SYNTAX:    CONSTRUCTION   OF  CASES  [§§425,426 

a.  Measure  is  often  expressed  by  the  Genitive  of  Quality  (§  345.  h)  ■ 
vallum  duodecim  pedum  (B.  G.  vii.  72),  a  rampart  of  twelve  fed,  (in  height), 

h.  Distance  when  considered  as  extent  of  space  is  put  in  the  Accu- 
sative; when  considered  as  degree  of  difference^  in  the  Ablative 
(§414):- 

milia  passuum  tria  ab  eSrum  castris  castra  ponit  (B.  G.  i.  22),  he  pitches  his 

camp  three  miles  from  their  camp. 
quinque  dierum  iter  abest  (Liv.  xxx.  29),  it  is  distant  five  days''  march. 
triginta  mllibus  passuum  infra  eum  locum  (B.  G.  vl.  35),  thirty  miles  below 
that  place  (below  by  thirty  miles). 

Relations  of  Place 

426.    Relations  of  Place  ^  are  expressed  as  follows :  — 

1.  The  place  from  whichj  by  the  Ablative  with  ab,  de,  or  ex. 

2.  The  place  to  which  (or  end  of  motion) ^  by  the  Accusative  with 
ad  or  in. 

3.  The  place  where^  by  the  Ablative  with  in  {Locative  Ablative), 

Examples  are :  — 

1.  Place  from  which  :  — 

a  septentrione,  from  the  north. 

cum  a  v5bis  discessero  (Cat.  M.  79),  when  I  leave  you, 
de  provincia  decedere,  to  come  away  from  one'' s  province. 
de  monte,  down  from  the  mountain. 

negotiator  ex  Africa  (Verr.  ii.  1.  14),  a  merchant  from  Africa. 
ex  Britannia  obsides  miserunt  (B.  G.  iv.  38),  they  sent  hostages  from  Britain. 
Mosa  profluit  ex  monte  Vosego  (id.  iv.  10),  the  Meuse  (flows  from)  rises  in 
the  Vosges  mountains. 

2.  Place  to  which  (end  of  motion'):  — 

nocte  ad  Nervios  pervenerunt  (B.  G.  ii.  17),  they  came  by  night  to  theNeroii. 
adibam  ad  istum  fundum  (Caec.  82),  I  was  going  to  that  estate. 
in  Africam  navigavit,  he  sailed  to  Africa  ;  in  Italiam  profectus,  gone  to  Italy. 
legatum  in  Trever5s  mittit  (B.  G.  iii.  11),  he  sends  his  lieutenant  into  the 
[country  of  the]  Treveri. 

1  Originally  all  these  relations  were  expressed  by  the  cases  alone.  The  accusative, 
in  one  of  its  oldest  functions,  denoted  the  end  of  motion ;  the  ablative,  in  its  proper 
meaning  of  separation,  denoted  the  place  from  ivhich,  and,  in  its  locative  function,  the 
place  where.  The  prepositions,  originally  adverbs,  were  afterwards  added  to  define 
more  exactly  the  direction  of  motion  (as  in  to  upward,  toward  its),  and  by  long  asso- 
ciation became  indispensable  except  as  indicated  below. 


§§  426,  427]  RELATIONS   OF  PLACE  269 

3.  Place  where:  — 
in  hac  urbe  vitam  degit,  he  passed  his  life  in  this  city. 
si  in  Gallia  remanerent  (B.  G.  iv.  8),  if  they  remained  in  Gaul. 
dum  haec  in  Venetis  geruntur  (id.  ill.  17),  while  this  was  going  on  among  the 

Veneti. 
oppidum  in  insula  positum  (id.  vii.  58),  a  town  situated  on  an  island. 

427.  With  names  of  towns  and  small  islands,  and  with  domus 
and  rus,  the  Relations  of  Place  are  expressed  as  follows :  — 

1.  The  2^ lace  from  la hick,  by  the  Ablative  without  a  preposition.  . 

2.  The  place  to  which,  by  the  Accusative  without  a  preposition. 

3.  The  place  where,  by  the  Locative.^ 
Examples  are :  — 

1 .  Place  from  which  :  — 

Roma  profectus,  having  set  out  from  Rome;  Roma  abesse,  to  be  absent  from 

Rome. 
domo  abire,  to  leave  home;  rure  reversus,  having  returned  from  the  country. 

2.  Place  to  which:  — 

cum  Romam  sexto  die  Mutina  venisset  (Fam.  xi.  6.  1),  when  he  had  come  to 

Rome  from  Modena  in  Jive  days  (on  tlie  sixth  day). 
Dels  Rhodum  navigare,  to  sail  from  JDelos  to  Rhodes. 
riis  ibo,  I  shall  go  into  the  country. 
domum  iit,  he  went  home.^     [So,  suas  demos  abire,  to  go  to  their  homes."] 

3.  Place  where  (or  at  which):  — 

Romae,  at  Rome  (Roma).  Athenis,  at  Athens  (Athenae). 

Rhodi,  at  Rhodes  (Rbodus).  Lanuvi,  at  Lanuvium. 

Sami,  at  Samos.  Cypri,  at  Cyprus. 

Tiburi  or  Tibure,  at  Tibur.  Ciiribus,  at  Cures. 

Philippis,  at  Philippi.  Capreis,  at  Capri  (Capreae). 

domi  (rarely  domui),  at  home.  riiri,  in  the  country. 

a.  The  Locative  Case  is  also  preserved  in  the  following  nouns, 
which  are  used  (like  names  of  towns)  without  a  preposition  :  — 
belli,  militiae  (in  contrast  to  domi),  abroad,  in  military  service. 
humi,  on  the  ground.  vesperi  (-e),  in  the  evening. 

foris,  out  of  doors.  anirai  (see  §  358). 

heri  (-e),  yesterday.  temperi,  betimes. 

Cf.  infelici  arbori  (Liv.  i.  26),  on  the  ill-omened  (barren)  tree;  terra  marique, 
by  land  and  sea. 

1  The  Locative  has  in  the  singular  of  the  first  and  second  declensions  the  same  form 
as  the  Genitive,  in  the  plural  and  in  the  third  declension  the  same  form  as  the  Dative 
or  Ablative.     (See  p.  34,  footnote.) 

2  The  English  home  in  this  construction  is,  like  domum,  an  old  accusative  of  the 
eyid  of  motion. 


270  SYNTAX:    CONSTRUCTION   OF   CASES  [§428 

428.  Special  uses  of  ^lace  from  which,  to  which,  and  where  are 
the  following :  — 

a.  With  names  of  towns  and  small  islands  ab  is  often  used  tc 
denote  from  the  vicinity  of,  and  ad  to  denote  towards,  to  the  neigltbor- 
hood  of:  — 

ut  a  Mutina  discederet  (Phil.  xiv.  4),  that  he  should  retire  from  Modena 
(which  he  was  besieging). 

erat  a  Gergovia  despectus  in  castra  (B.  G.  vii.  45),  there  was  from  about 
Gergovia  a  view  into  the  camp. 

ad  Alesiam  proficiscuntur  (id.  vii.  76),  they  set  out  for  Alesia. 

ad  Alesiam  perveniunt  (id.  vii.  79),  they  arrive  at  Alesia  (i.e.  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  the  town). 

D.  Laelius  cum  classe  ad  Brundisium  venit  (B.  C.  iii.  100),  Dechnus  LcbHus 
came  to  Brundisium  with  a  fleet  (arriving  in  the  harbor). 

b.  The  general  words  urbs,  oppidum,  insula  require  a  preposition 
to  express  the  place  from  which,  to  which,  or  where :  — 

ab  (ex)  urbe,  from  the  city.  in  urbe,  in  the  city. 

ad  urbem,  to  the  city.  Romae  in  urbe,  in  the  city  of  Rome. 

in  urbem,  into  the  city.  Roma  ex  urbe,  from  the  city  of  Borne. 

ad  urbem  Romam  (Romam  ad  urbem),  to  the  city  of  Rome. 

c.  With  the  name  of  a  country,  ad  denotes  to  the  borders  ;  in  with 
the  accusative,  into  the  country  itself.  Similarly  ab  denotes  away 
from  the  outside  ;  ex,  out  of  the  interior. 

Thus  ad  Italiam  pervenit  would  mean  he  came  to  the  frontier,  regardless  of 
the  destination ;  in  italiam,  he  went  to  Italy,  i.e.  to  a  place  within  it,  to  Rome, 
for  instance. 

So  ab  Italia  profectus  est  would  mean  he  came  away  from  the  frontier,  regard- 
less of  the  original  starting-point;  ex  Italia,  h^  came  from  Italy,  from  within,  as 
from  Rome,  for  instance. 

d.  With  all  names  of  places  at,  meaning  near  (not  in),  is  expressed 
by  ad  or  apud  with  the  accusative. 

piigna  ad  Cannas,  the  fight  at  Cannae. 

conchas  ad  Caietam  legunt  (De  Or.  ii.  22),  at  Caieta  (along  the  shore), 
ad  (apud)  inferos,  in  the  world  below  (near,  or  among,  those  below), 
ad  foris,  at  the  doors.  ad  ianuam,  at  the  door. 

Note  1.  — In  the  neighborhood  of  may  be  expressed  by  circa  with  the  accusative; 
among,  by  apud  with  the  accusative :  — 

apud  Graecos,  among  the  Greeks.  apud  me,  at  my  house. 

apud  Solensis  (Leg.  ii.  41),  at  Soli.        cire^  Capuam,  round  about  Capua. 
Note  2.  —  In  citing  an  author,  apud  is  regularly  used ;  in  citing  a  particular  work, 
in.    Thus,  —  apud  Xenophontem,  in  Xenophon;  but,  in  Xenophontis  Oeconomico,  in 
Xenophon's  (Economicus. 


§428]  RELATIONS   OF  PLACE  271 

e.  Large  islands,  and  all  places  when  thought  of  as  a  territory  and 
not  as  a  locality ^  are  treated  like  names  of  countries  :  — 
in  Sicilia,  in  Sicily. 

in  Ithaca  lepores  illati  moriuntur  (Plin.  H.  N.  viii.  226),  in  Ithaca  hares,  when 
carried  there,  die.     [Ulysses  lived  at  Ithaca  would  require  Ithacae.] 

/.  The  Ablative  without  a  preposition  is  used  to  denote  the  place 
from  tvhich  in  certain  idiomatic  expressions  :  — 

cessisset  patria  (Mil.  68),  he  ivoiild  have  left  his  country. 

patria  pellere,  to  drive  out  of  the  country. 

manu  mittere,  to  emancipate  (let  go  from  the  hand). 

g.  The  poets  and  later  writers  often  omit  the  preposition  with  the 
place  from  which  or  to  which  when  it  would  be  required  in  classical 
prose :  — ■ 

manis  Acheronte  remissos  (Aen.  v.  99),  the  spirits  returned  from  Acheron. 

Scythia  profecti  (Q.  C.  iv.  12.  11),  setting  outfr  m  Scythia. 

Italiam  Laviuiaque  venit  litora  (Aen.  i.  2),  he  came  to  Italy  and  the  Lavinian 

shores. 
terram  Hesperiam  venies  (id.  ii.  781  _ ,  you  shall  come  to  the  Hesperian  land. 
Aegyptum  proficlscitur  (Tac.  Ann.  ii.  59),  he  sets  out  for  Egypt. 

h.  In  poetry  the  place  to  which  is  often  expressed  by  the  Dative, 
occasionally  also  in  later  prose  :  — 

it  clamor  caelo  (Aen.  v.  451),  a  shout  goes  up  to  the  sky. 
facilis  descensus  Averno  (id.  vi.  126),  easy  is  the  descent  to  Avernus. 
diadema  capiti  reponere  iussit  (Val.  Max.  v.  1.  9),  ^e  ordered  him  to  put  back 
the  diadem  on  his  head. 

i.  The  preposition  is  not  used  with  the  supine  in  -um  (§  509)  and 
in  the  following  old  phrases :  — 

exsequias  ire,  to  go  to  the  funeral.  Infitias  Ire,  to  resort  to  denial. 

pessum  ire,  to  go  to  ruin.  pessum  dare,  to  ruin  (cf.  perdo). 

venum  dare,  to  sell  (give  to  sale).     [Hence  vendere.] 

Yennm  Ire,  to  be  sold  (go  to  S2i\e).     [Hence  venire.] 

foras  (used  as  adverb),  out:  as,  — foras  egredl,  to  go  out  of  doors. 

suppetias  advenire,  to  come  to  one's  assistance. 

J,  When  two  or  more  names  of  place  are  used  with  a  verb  of  motion, 
each  must  be  under  its  own  construction :  — 

quadriduo  quo  haec  gesta  sunt  res  ad  Chrysogonum  in  castra  L.  Sullae  Vola- 
terras  defertur  (Rose.  Am.  20),  within  four  days  after  this  was  done,  the 
matter  was  reported  to  Chrysogonus  in  Sulla^s  camp  at  Volaterrce. 

Note.  —  The  accusative  with  or  without  a  preposition  is  often  used  in  Latin  when 
motion  to  a  place  is  implied  but  not  expressed  in  English  (see  k,tf.). 


272  SYNTAX:    CONSTRUCTION  OF   CASES  [§§428,429 

k,  Domum  denoting  the  place  to  which,  and  the  locative  domi,  may 
be  modified  by  a  possessive  pronoun  or  a  genitive  :  — 

domum  regis  (Deiot.  17),  to  the  king''s  house.     [But  also  in  M.  Laecae  domum 

(Cat.  i.  8),  to  Marcus  LcBca^s  fiouse.] 
domi  meae,  at  my  house ;  domi  Caesaris,  at  Ccesar^s  house. 
domi  suae  vel  alienae,  at  his  own  or  another'' s  house. 
Note.  —  At  times  when  thus  modified,  and  regularly  when  otherwise  modified,  in 
domum  or  in  domo  is  used :  — 

in  domum  privatam  conveniunt  (Tac.  H.  iv.  55) ,  they  come  together  in  a  private  house . 
in  Marci  Crassi  castissima  domo  (Gael.  9),  in  the  chaste  home  of  MarciLS  Crassus. 
[Cf.  ex  Anniana  Milonis  domo,  §  302.  e.] 

429.  The  place  where  is  denoted  by  the  Ablative  without  a 
preposition  in  the  following  instances :  — 

1.  Often  in  indefinite  words,  such  as  loco,  parte,  etc. :  — 
quibus  loco  positis  (De  Or.  ill.  153),  when  these  are  set  in  position. 

qua  parte  belli  vicerant  (Liv.  xxi.  22) ,  the  branch  of  warfare  in  which  they 
were  victorious. 

locis  certis  horrea  constituit  (B.  C.  iii.  32),  he  established  granaries  in  par- 
ticular places. 

2.  Frequently  with  nouns  which  are  qualified  by  adjectives  (regu- 
larly when  lotus  is  used) :  — 

media  urbe  (Liv.  i.  33),  in  the  middle  of  the  city. 
tota  Sicilia  (Verr.  iv.  51),  throughout  Sicily  (in  the  whole  of  Sicily), 
tola  Tarracina  (De  Or.  ii.  240),  in  all  Tarracina. 

ctincta  Asia  atque  Graecia  (Manil.  12),  throughout  the  whole  of  Asia  and 
Greece  too. 

3.  In  many  idiomatic  expressions  which  have  lost  the  idea  of  place  ; 
pendemus  animis  (Tusc.  i.  96),  we  are  in  suspense  of  mind  (in  our  minds), 
socius  periculis  vobiscum  adero  (lug.  85.  47),  I  will  be  present  with  you,  a 

companion  in  dangers. 

4.  Freely  in  poetry :  — 

litore  curvo  (Aen.  iii.  16),  on  the  winding  shore. 

antro  seclusa  relinquit  (id.  iii.  446),  she  leaves  them  shut  up  in  the  cave. 

Epiro,  Hesperia  (id.  iii.  603),  in  Epirus,  in  Hespei'ia. 

premit  altum  corde  dolorem  (id.  i.  209),  he  keeps  down  the  pain  deep  in  his  heart. 

a.  The  ivay  by  which  is  put  in  the  Ablative  without  a  preposition : 
via  breviore  equites  praemisl  (Fam.  x.  9),  J  sent  forward  the  cavalry  by  a 

shorter  road. 
Aegaeo  man  traiecit  (Liv.  xxxvii.  14),  he  crossed  by  way  of  the  ^^gean  Sea.- 
provehimur  pelago  (Aen.  iii.  506),  we  sail  forth  over  the  sea. 

Note.  — In  this  use  the  toay  by  which  is  conceived  as  the  means  of  passage. 


§§429-431]  RELATIONS   OF   PLACE  273 

h.  Position  is  frequently  expressed  by  the  Ablative  with  ab  (rarely 

ex),  properly  meaning /ro/zi;  —  ^ 

a  tergo,  in  the  rear ;  a  sinistra,  on  the  left  hand.     [Cf .  hinc,  on  this  side.  ] 

a  parte  Pompeiana,  on  the  side  of  Pompey. 

ex  altera  parte,  on  the  other  side. 

magna  ex  parte,  in  a  great  degree  {from,  i.e.  in,  a  great  part). 

430.  Verbs  of  placing^  though  implying  motion,  take  the  con- 
struction of  the  place  where :  — 

Such  are  pono,  loco,  colloco,  statuo,  constituo,  etc. :  — 

qui  in  sede  ac  domo  collocavit  (Par.  25),  who  put  [one]  into  his  place  and 

home. 
statuitur  eques  Romanns  in  Aproni  convivio  (Verr.  iii.  62),  a  Roman  knight 

is  brought  into  a  banquet  of  Aproiiius. 
insula  Delos  in  Aegaeo  mari  posita  (Manil.  55),  the  island  of  Belos,  situated  in 

the  ^gean  Sea. 
si  in  tino  Pompeid  omnia  poneretis  (id.  59),  if  you  made  everything  depend  on 

Pompey  alone. 

Note,  — Compounds  of  pono  take  various  constructions  (see  the  Lexicon  under 
each  word) . 

431.  Several  verbs  are  followed  by  the  Ablative. 

These  are  acquiesce,  delector,  laetor,  gaudeo,  glorior,  nitor,  sto,  maneo, 
fido,  confido,  consisto,  contineor. 

nSminibus  veterum  gloriantur  (Or.  169),  they  glory  in  the  names  of  the  ancients. 

[Also,  de  divitiis  (in  virtute,  circa  rem,  aliquid,  haec)  gloriarl.] 
spe  niti  (Att.  iii.  9),  to  rely  on  hope. 
prudentia  fidens  (Off.  i.  81),  trusting  in  inudence. 

Note.  — The  ablative  with  these  verbs  sometimes  takes  the  preposition  in  (but 
fIdo  in  is  late),  and  the  ablative  with  them  is  probably  locative.  Thus,  —  in  quibus 
causa  nititur  (Gael.  25),  on  whom  the  case  depends. 

With  several  of  these  verbs  the  neuter  Accusative  of  pronouns  is  often  found.  For 
fido  and  confido  with  the  Dative,  see  §  367. 

a.  The  verbals  fretus,  contentus,  and  laetus  take  the  Locative  Abla- 
tive :  — 

fretus  gratia  Brut!  (Att.  v.  21.  12),  relying  on  the  favor  of  Brutus. 
laetus  praeda,  rejoicing  in  the  booty. 

contentus  softe,  content  with  his  lot.     [Possibly  Ablative  of  Cause.] 
non  fuit  contentus  gloria  (Dom.  101),  he  was  not  content  with  the  glory. 

Note.— So  intentus.  rarely:  as.— aliqufl  negotio  intentus  (Sail.  Cat.  2),  intent 
on  some  occupation. 

1  Apparently  the  direction  whence  the  sensuous  impression  comeSo 


274  SYNTAX:    CONSTRUCTION   OF   CASES  [§432 

SPECIAL   USES   OF  PREPOSITIONS  i 

Adverbs  and  Prepositions 

432.  Certain  Adverbs  and  Adjectives  are  sometimes  used  as 
Prepositions :  — 

a.  The  adverbs  pridie,  postridie,  propius,  proxime,  less  frequently  the 
adjectives  propior  and  proximus,  may  be  followed  by  the  Accusative :  — 

pridie  Nonas  Maias  (Att.  ii.  11),  the  day  before  the  Nones  of  May  (see  §  631). 

postridie  ludos  (Att.  xvi.  4),  the  day  after  the  games. 

propius  periculum  (Liv.  xxi.  1),  nearer  to  danger. 

propior  montem  (lug.  49),  nearer  the  hill. 

proximus  mare  oceanum  (B.  G.  iii.  7),  nearest  the  ocean. 

Note.  — Pridie  and  postridie  take  also  the  Genitive  (§  359.  b) .  Propior,  propius,  proxi- 
mus, and  proximo,  take  also  the  Dative,  or  the  Ablative  with  ab :  — 

propius  Tiberi  quam  Thermopylis  (Nep.  Hann.  8),  nearer  to  the  Tiber  than  to  Ther- 
mopylae. 
Sugambri  qui  sunt  proximi  Rheno  (B.  G.  vi.  35),  the  Sugambri,  who  are  nearest 

to  the  Rhine. 
proximus  a  postremo  (Or.  217),  next  to  the  last. 

b.  Usque  sometimes  takes  the  Accusative,  but  usque  ad  is  much 

more  common :  — 

terminos  iisque  Libyae  (lust.  i.  1.  5),  to  the  bounds  of  Libya. 
usque  ad  castra  hostium  (B.  G.  i.  51),  to  the  enemy's  camp. 

c.  The  adverbs  palam,  procul,  simul,  may  be  used  as  prepositions 
and  take  the  Ablative :  — 

rem  creditorl  palam  populo  solvit  (Liv.  vi.  14),  he  paid  the  debt  to  his  creditor 

in  the  presence  of  the  people. 
baud  procul  castris  in  modum  municipi  exstructa  (Tac.  H.  iv.  22),  not  far 

from  the  camp,  built  up  like  a  town. 
simul  nobis  habitat  barbarus  (Ov.  Tr.  v.  10.  29),  close  among  us  dwells  the 
barbarian. 
Note.  —  But  simul  regularly  takes  cum ;  procul  is  usually  followed  by  ab  in  classic 
writers  ;  and  the  use  of  palam  as  a  preposition  is  comparatively  late. 

d.  The  adverb  clam  is  found  in  early  Latin  with  the  Accusative, 
also  once  with  the  Genitive  and  once  in  classical  Latin  with  the 
Ablative :  — 

clam  matrem  suam  (PI.  Mil.  112),  unknown  to  his  mother. 
clam  patris  (id.  Merc.  43),  without  his  father'' s  knoioledge. 
clam  vobis  (B.  C.  ii.  32.  8),  without  your  knowledge. 

1  For  a  list  of  Prepositions  with  their  ordinary  uses,  see  §  221. 


§§433-435]  ADVERBS  AND   PREPOSITIONS  275 

433.  Prepositions  often  retain  their  original  meaning  as  Ad- 
verbs :  — 

1.  Ante  and  post  in  relations  of  time  :  — 

quos  paulo  ante  diximus  (Brut.  32),  whom  I  mentioned  a  little  while  ago. 
post  tribus  diebus,  three  days  after  (cf.  §  424.  /). 

2.  Adversus,  circiter,  prope  :  — 

nemo  adversus  ibat  (Liv.  xxxvii.  13.  8),  no  one  went  out  in  opposition. 
circiter  pars  quarta  (Sail.  Cat.  56),  about  the  fourth  part. 
prope  exanimatus,  nearly  lifeless. 

3.  A  or  ab,  off,  in  expressions  of  distance,  with  the  Ablative  of 
Degree  of  Difference  (§  414) :  — 

a  milibus  passuum  circiter  duobus  Romanorum  adventum  exspectabant 
(B.  G.  V.  32),  at  a  distance  of  about  two  miles  (about  two  miles  off)  they 
awaited  the  approach  of  the  Romans. 

4.  In  general,  prepositions  ending  in  -a :  — 
Aeolus  haec  contra  (Aen.  i.  76),  thus  ^olus  in  reply. 

forte  fuit  iuxta  tumulus  (id.  iii.  22),  there  happened  to  be  a  mound  close  by. 

434.  Some  Prepositions  and  Adverbs  which  imply  comparison 
are  followed,  like  comparatives,  by  quam,  which  may  be  separated 
by  several  words,  or  even  clauses. 

Such  words  are  ante,  prius,  post,  postea,  pridie,  postridie ;  also  magis 
and  prae  in  compounds  :  — 

neque  ante  dimlsit  eum  quam  fidem  dedit  (Liv.  xxxix.  10),  nor  did  he  let  him 

go  until  he  gave  a  pledge. 
post  diem  tertium  quam  dixerat  (Mil.  44),  the  third  day  after  he  said  it. 
Cato  ipse  iam  servire  quam  pugnare  mavult  (Att.  vii.  15),  Cato  himself  by  this 

time  had  rather  be  a  slave  than  fight. 
Gallorum  quam  Romanorum  imperia  praeferre  (B.  G.  i.  17),  [they]  prefer  the 
rule  of  Gauls  to  that  of  Romans. 

,  Note. — The  ablative  of  time  is  sometimes  followed  by  quam  in  the  same  way 
(§  424./) :  as,  — octavo  mense  quam  (Liv.  xxi.  15),  within  eight  months  after,  etc. 

435.  The  following  Prepositions  sometimes  come  after  their 
nouns :  ad,  citra,  circum,  contra,  de,  e  (ex),  inter,  iuxta,  penes,  propter, 
ultra ;  so  regularly  tenus  and  versus,  and  occasionally  others :  — 

[tisus]  quem  penes  arbitrium  est  et  ius  et  norma  loquendl  (Hor.  A.  P.  72), 
custom,  under  whose  control  is  the  choice,  right,  and  rule  of  speech. 

cuius  a  me  corpus  est  crematum,  quod  contra  decuit  ab  illo  meum  (Cat.  M. 
84),  vihose  body  I  burned  [on  the  funeral  pile],  while  on  the  contrary 
(contrary  to  which)  mine  should  have  been  burned  by  him. 


276  SYNTAX:    THE  VERB  [§436 

SYNTAX  OF  THE   VERB 
MOODS  AND   TENSES 

436.  The  Syntax  of  the  Verb  relates  chiefly  to  the  use  of  the  Moods  (which  express 
the  manner  in  which  the  action  is  conceived)  and  the  Tenses  (which  express  the  time  of 
the  action).  There  is  no  difference  in  origin  between  mood  and  tense ;  and  hence  the 
uses  of  mood  and  tense  frequently  cross  each  other.  Thus  the  tenses  sometimes  have 
modal  significations  (compare  indicative  in  apodosis,  §  517.  c ;  future  for  imperative, 
§  449.  6);  and  the  moods  sometimes  express  time  (compare  subjunctive  in  future  con- 
ditions, §  516.  &,  and  notice  the  want  of  a  future  subjunctive). 

The  parent  language  had,  besides  the  Imperative  mood,  two  or  more  forms  with 
modal  signification.  Of  these,  the  Subjunctive  appears  with  two  sets  of  termina- 
tions, -a-m,  -a-s,  in  the  present  tense  (moneam,  dicam),  and  -e-m,  -e-s,  in  the  present 
(amem)  or  other  tenses  (essem,  dixissem).  The  Optative  was  formed  by  ie-,  i-,  with  the 
present  stem  (sim,  duim)  or  the  perfect  (dixerim).     (See  details  in  §§  1G8,  1G9.) 

Each  mood  has  two  general  classes  or  ranges  of  meaning.  The  uses  of  the  Sub- 
junctive may  all  be  classed  under  the  general  ideas  of  will  or  desire  and  of  action 
vividly  conceived ;  and  the  uses  of  the  Optative  under  the  general  ideas  of  wish  and 
of  action  vaguely  conceived. 

It  must  not  be  supposed,  however,  that  in  any  given  construction  either  the  sub- 
jimctive  or  the  optative  was  deliberately  used  because  it  denoted  conception  or  possi- 
bility. On  the  contrary,  each  construction  has  had  its  own  line  of  development  from 
more  tangible  and  literal  forms  of  thought  to  more  vague  and  ideal;  and  by  this 
process  the  mood  used  came  to  have  in  each  case  a  special  meaning,  which  was  after- 
wards habitually  associated  with  it  in  that  construction.  Similar  developments  have 
taken  place  in  English.  Thus,  the  expression  I  would  do  this  has  become  equivalent 
to  a  mild  command,  while  by  analysis  it  is  seen  to  be  the  apodosis  of  a  present  condi- 
tion contrary  to  fact  (§  517) :  if  I  loere  you,  etc.  By  further  analysis,  /  would  do  is 
seen  to  have  meant,  originally,  /  should  have  wished  (or  I  did  wish)  to  do. 

In  Latin,  the  original  Subjunctive  and  the  Optative  became  confounded  in  meaning 
and  in  form,  and  were  merged  in  the  Subjunctive,  at  first  in  the  present  tense.  Then 
new  tense-forms  of  the  subjunctive  were  formed,i  and  to  these  the  original  as  well  as 
the  derived  meanings  of  both  moods  became  attached  (see  §  438).  All  the  independent 
uses  of  the  Latin  subjunctive  are  thus  to  be  accounted  for. 

The  dependent  uses  of  the  subjunctive  have  arisen  from  the  employment  of  some 
independent  subjunctive  construction  in  connection  with  a  main  statement.  Most  fre- 
quently the  main  statement  is  prefixed  to  a  sentence  containing  a  subjunctive,  as 
a  more  complete  expression  of  a  complex  idea  (§  268).  Thus  a  question  implying  a 
general  negative  (quin  rogem?  why  shouldn't  I  ask?)  might  have  the  general  nega- 
tive expressed  in  a  prefixed  statement  (nulla  causa  est,  there  is  no  reason) ;  or  abeat, 
let  him  go  away,  may  be  expanded  into  sine  abeat.  When  such  a  combination  comes 
into  habitual  use,  the  original  meaning  of  the  subjunctive  partially  or  wholly  dis- 
appears and  a  new  meaning  arises  by  implication.  Thus,  in  misit  legatos  qui  dicerent, 
he  sent  ambassadors  to  say  (i.e.  who  should  say),  the  original  hortatory  sense  of  the 
subjunctive  is  partially  lost,  and  the  mood  becomes  in  part  an  expression  of  purpose. 
Similar  processes  may  be  seen  in  the  growth  of  Apodosis.  Thus,  tolle  banc  opinionem, 
luctum  sustuleris,  remove  this  notion,  you  will  have  done  away  with  grief  (i.e.  if  you 
remove,  etc.). 

1  For  the  signification  of  the  tense-endings,  see  §§  168, 169. 


§§  436,  437] 


INDICATIVE   MOOD 


277 


II.  Subjunctive; 


Independent 

Uses  ; 


Dependent 

Uses  ; 


1.  Conditions 


The  Infinitive  is  originally  a  verbal  noun  (§  451),  modifying  a  verb  like  other  nouns : 
volo  videre,  lit.  '*  I  wish  for-seeing  " :  compare  English  "what  went  ye  out  for  to  see  ?  " 
But  in  Latin  it  has  been  surprisingly  developed,  so  as  to  have  forms  for  tense,  and  some 
proper  modal  characteristics,  and  to  be  used  as  a  substitute  for  finite  moods. 

The  other  noun  and  adjective  forms  of  the  verb  have  been  developed  in  various 
ways,  which  are  treated  under  their  respective  heads  below. 

The  proper  Verbal  Constructions  may  be  thus  classified :  — 
I.   Indicative:  Direct  Assertion  or  Question  (§437). 

1.  Exhortation  or  Command  (§439). 

2.  Concession  (§440). 

3.  Wish  (§441). 

4.  Question  of  Doubt  etc.  (§444). 

5.  Possibility  or  Contingency  (§446). 
Future  (less  vivid)  (§  516.  6,  c). 
Contrary  to  Fact  (§  517). 

2.  Purpose  (with  ut,  ne)  (§531). 

3.  Characteristic  (Relative  Clause)  (§535). 

4.  Result  (with  ut,  ut  non)  (§537). 

5.  Time  (with  cum)  (§546). 

6.  Intermediate  (Indirect  Discourse)  (§592). 

7.  Indirect  Questions  or  Commands   (§§  574, 
588). 

1.  Direct  Commands  (often  Subjunctive)  (§448). 

2.  Statutes,  Laws,  and  Wills  (§449.  2). 

3.  Prohibitions  (early  or  poetic  use)  (§  450.  a). 

a.  Subject  of  esse  and  Impersonal  Verbs  (§§  452,  454). 

b.  Objective        r  1.  Complementary  Infinitive  (§  456) . 
Construe-  \  2.  Indirect  Discourse  (with  Subject  Accusative) 

(§580). 
Purpose  (poetic  or  Greek  use)  (§  460) . 
Exclamation    (with    Subject     Accusative) 

(§462). 
Historical  Infinitive  (§  463) . 


IIL   Imperative ; 


IV.   Infinitive: 


tions : 


c.  Idiomatic 


MOODS 


INDICATIVE   MOOD 

437.  The  Indicative  is  the  mood  of  direct  assertions  or  ques- 
tions when  there  is  no  modification  of  the  verbal  idea  except  that 
of  time. 

a.  The  Indicative  is  sometimes  used  where  the  English  idiom 
would  suggest  the  Subjunctive  :  — 

longum  est,  it  would  be  tedious  [if,  etc.];  satins  erat,  itioould  have  been  bet- 
ter [if,  etc.];  persequi  possum,  I  might  follow  up  [in  detail]. 

Note.  — Substitutes  for  the  Indicative  are  (1)  the  Historical  Infinitive  (§463),  and 
(2)  the  Infinitive  in  Indirect  Discourse  (§580). 

For  the  Indicative  in  Conditions,  see  §§  515,  516 ;  for  the  Indicative  in  implied  Com- 
mands, see  §  449.  6. 


278  SYNTAX:    THE  VERB  [§§438,439 

SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD 

438.  The  Subjunctive  in  general  expresses  the  verbal  idea  with 
some  modification  1  such  as  is  expressed  in  English  by  auxiliaries, 
by  the  infinitive,  or  by  the  rare  subjunctive  (§  157.  h). 

a.  The  Subjunctive  is  used  independently  to  express  — 

1.  An  Exhortation  or  Command  {Hortatory  Subjunctive:  §  439). 

2.  A  Concession  {Concessive  Subjunctive:  §440). 

3.  A  Wish  {Optative  Subjunctive:  §441). 

4.  A  Question  of  Doubt  etc.  (^Deliberative  Subjunctive :  §  444). 

5.  A  Possibility  or  Contingency  {Potential  Subjunctive :  §  446). 
For  the  special  idiomatic  uses  of  the  Subjunctive  in  Apodosis,  see  §  514. 

6.  The  Subjunctive  is  used  in  dependent  clauses  to  express  — 

1.  Condition:  future  or  contrary  to  fact  (§§  516.  6,  c,  517). 

2.  Purpose  {Final,  §  531). 

3.  Characteristic  (§  535). 

4.  Result  (^Consecutive,  §  537). 

5.  Time  {Temporal,  §  546). 

6.  Indirect  Question  (§  574). 

c.  The  Subjunctive  is  also  used  with  Conditional  Particles  of  Com 
parison  (§  524),  and  in  subordinate  clauses  in  the  Indirect  Discourse 
(§  580). 

Subjunctive  in  Independent  Sentences 
Hortatory  Subjunctive 

439.  The  Hortatory  Subjunctive  is  used  in  the  present  tense 

to  express  an  exhortation  or  a  command.     The  negative  is  ne. 

hos  latrones  interficiamus  (B.  G.  vii.  38),  let  us  kill  these  robbers. 
caveant  intemperantiam,  meminerint  verecundiae  (Off.  i.  122),  let  them  shun 
excess  and  cherish  modesty. 

Note  1.  —  The  hortatory  subjunctive  occurs  rarely  in  the  perfect  (except  in  pro- 
hibitions: §450) :  as,  —  Epicurus  hoc  viderit  (Acad.  ii.  19),  let  Epicurus  look  to  this. 

Note  2.  —  The  term  hortatory  subjunctive  is  sometimes  restricted  to  the  first  per- 
son plural,  the  second  and  third  persons  beinji:  designated  as  the  jussive  subjunctive; 
but  the  constructions  are  substantially  identical. 

1  These  modifications  are  of  various  kinds,  each  of  which  has  had  its  own  special 
development  (cf.  §  4136).  The  subjunctive  in  Latin  has  also  many  idiomatic  uses  (as  in 
clauses  of  Result  and  Time)  where  the  English  does  not  modify  the  verbal  idea  at  all, 
but  expresses  it  directly.  In  such  cases  the  Latin  merely  takes  a  different  view  of 
the  action  and  has  developed  the  construction  differently  from  the  English. 


§§439,440]  HORTATORY   SUBJUNCTIVE  279 

Note  3.  —  Once  in  Cicero  and  occasionally  in  the  poets  and  later  writers  the  nega- 
tive with  the  hortatory  subjiuictive  is  non :  as,  —  a  legibus  non  recedamus  (Clu.  155),  let 
us  not  abandon  the  laws. 

a.  The  Second  Person  of  the  hortatory  subjunctive  is  used  only 
of  an  indefinite  subject,  except  in  prohibitions,  in  early  Latin,  and  in 
poetry  :  — • 

iuiurias  fortunae,  quas  ferre  nequeas,  def ugiendo  relinquas  (Tusc.  v.  118),  the 
wrongs  of  fortune,  which  you  cannot  bear,  leave  behind  by  flight. 

exoriare  aliquis  ultor  (Aen.  iv.  625),  rise,  sojjie  avenger. 

isto  bono  utare  dum  adsit,  cum  absit  ne  requiras  (Cat.  M.  33),  use  this  bless- 
ing while  it  is  present;  when  it  is  wanting  do  not  regret  it. 

doceas  iter  et  sacra  ostia  pandas  (Aen.  vi.  109),  show  us  the  way  and  lay  open 
the  sacred  portals. 
For  Negative  Commands  (prohibitions),  see  §450. 

6.  The  Imperfect  and  Pluperfect  of  the  hortatory  subjunctive 
denote  an  nnfiilfilled  obligation  in  jDast  time :  — 

moreretur,  inquies  (Rab.  Post.  29),  he  should  have  died,  you  will  say. 
potius  doceret  (Off.  ill.  88),  he  should  rather  have  taught. 
ne  poposcisses  (Att.  ii.  1.  3),  you  should  not  have  asked. 
saltern  aliquid  de  pondere  detraxisset  (Fin.  iv.  57),  at  least  he  should  have 
taken  something  from  the  weight. 
Note  1.  —  In  this  construction  the  Pluperfect  usually  differs  from  the  Imperfect 
only  in  more  clearly  representing  the  time  for  action  as  momentary  or  as  past. 

Note  2.  —  This  use  of  the  subjunctive  is  carefully  to  be  distinguished  from  the 
potential  use  (§  446) .  The  difference  is  indicated  by  the  translation,  should  or  ought 
(not  would  or  might). 

440.  The  Hortatory  Subjunctive  is  used  to  express  a  conces- 
sion.^ The  Present  is  used  for  present  time,  the  Perfect  for  past. 
The  negative  is  ne. 

sit  fur,  sit  sacrilegus:  at  est  bonus  imperator  (Verr.  v.  4),  grant  he  is  a 

thief,  a  godless  wretch :  yet  he  is  a  good  general. 
fuerit  alils ;  tibi  quando  esse  coepit  (Verr.  ii.  1.  37),  suppose  he  was  [so]  to 

others ;  when  did  he  begin  to  be  to  you  f 
nemo  is  umquam  fnit:  ne  fuerit  (Or.  101),  there  never  was  such  a  one  [you 

will  say]  :  granted  (let  there  not  have  been), 
ne  sit  summum  malum  dolor,  malum  certe  est  (Tusc.  ii.  14),  granted  that 
pain  is  not  the  greatest  evil,  at  least  it  is  an  evil. 
Note.  —  The  concessive  subjunctive  with  quamvis  and  licet  is  originally  hortatory 
(§527.  a,  6). 

For  other  methods  of  expressing  Concession,  see  §  527. 

For  the  Hortatory  Subjunctive  denoting  a  Proviso,  see  §  528.  a. 

1  Many  scholars  regard  the  concessive  subjunctive  as  a  development  of  the  Optative 
Subjunctive  in  a  wish. 


280  SYNTAX :    THE  VERB  [§§  441,  442 

Optative  Subjunctive 

441.  The  Optative  Subjunctive  is  used  to  express  a  Wish.    The 

present  tense  denotes  the  wish  as  possible,  the  imperfect  as  ^mae- 

complished  in  present  time,  the  pluperfect  as  unaccomplished  in 

past  time.     The  negative  is  ne :  — 

ita  vivam  (Att.  v.  15),  as  true  as  I  live,  so  may  I  live. 

ne  vivam  si  scio  (id.  iv.  16.  8),  I  wish  I  may  not  live  if  I  know. 

dl  te  perduint  (Deiot.  21),  the  gods  confound  thee! 

valeant,  valeant  elves  mei ;  sint  iiicolumes  (Mil.  93),  farewell,  farewell  to  my 

fellow-citizens;  may  they  be  secure  from  harm. 
di  facerent  sine  patre  forem  (Ov.  M.  viii.  72),  would  that  the  gods  allowed  me 

to  he  without  a  father  (but  they  do  not)  1 

a.  The  perfect  subjunctive  in  a  wish  is  archaic  :  — 
dl  faxint  (Fam.  xiv.  3.  3),  may  the  gods  grant. 

quod  di  omen  averterint  (Phil.  xii.  14,  in  a  religious  formula),  and  may  the 
gods  avert  this  omen. 

442.  The  Optative  Subjunctive  is  often  preceded  by  the  par- 
ticle utinam ;  so  regularly  in  the  imperfect  and  pluperfect ;  — 

falsus  utinam  vates  sim  (Liv.  xxi.  10.  10),  I  wish  I  may  be  a  false  prophet. 
utinam  Clodius  viveret  (Mil.  103),  would  that  Clodius  were  now  alive. 
utinam  me  mortuum  vidisses  (Q.  Fr.  i.  3.  1),  would  you  had  seen  me  dead. 
utinam  ne  vere  scriberem  (Fam.  v.  17.  3),  would  that  I  were  not  writing  the 
truth. 
Note.  —  Utinam  non  is  occasionally  used  instead  of  utinam  ne;  as, — utinam  sus- 
ceptus  non  essem  (Att.  ix.  9.  3),  would  that  I  had  not  been  born. 

a.  In  poetry  and  old  Latin  uti  or  ut  often  introduces  the  optative 
subjunctive ;  and  in  poetry  si  or  6  si  with  the  subjunctive  sometimes 
expresses  a  wish  :  — 

ut  pereat  positum  roblgine  telum  (Hor.  S.  ii,  1.  43),  may  the  weapon  unused 

perish  with  rust. 
6  si  angulus  ille  accedat  (id.  ii.  6.  8),  0  if  that  corner  might  only  be  added! 
si  nunc  se  nobis  ille  aureus  ramus  ostendat(Aen.  vi.  187),  if  now  that  golden 
branch  would  only  show  itself  to  us ! 

Note  1.  — The  subjunctive  with  uti  (ut)  or  utinam  was  originally  deliberative, 
meaning  how  may  I,  etc.  (§  444).  The  subjunctive  with  si  or  5  si  is  a  protasis  (§  512.  a), 
the  apodosis  not  being  expressed. 

Note  2.  —  The  subjunctive  of  wish  without  a  particle  is  seldom  found  in  the  imper- 
fect or  pluperfect  except  by  sequence  of  tenses  in  Indirect  Discourse  (§  585):  as,  —  ac 
venerata  Ceres,  ita  culmo  surgeret  alto  (Hor.  S.  ii.  2. 124),  and  Ceres  worshipped  [with 
libations]  that  so  she  might  rise  with  tall  stalk.  [In  addressing  the  goddess  directly 
the  prayer  would  be :  ita  surgas.] 


§§442-444]  DELIBERATIVE   SUBJUNCTIVE  281 

h,  Velim  and  vellem,  and  their  compounds,  with  a  subjunctive  or 
infinitive,  are  often  equivalent  to  an  optative  subjunctive  :  — 

velim  tibi  persuadeas  (Fam.  ix.  13.  2),  I  should  like  to  have  you  believe  (I 

should  wish  that  you  would  persuade  yourself). 
dg  Menedemo  vellem  verum  fuisset,  de  regina  velim  verum  sit  (Att.  xv.  4.  4), 
about  Menedemus  I  wish  it  had  been  true;  about  the  queen  I  wish  it  may  be. 
nollem  accidisset  tempus  (Fam.  iii.  10.  2),  I  wish  the  time  never  had  come. 
mallem  Cerberum  metueres  (Tusc.  i.  12),  I  had  rather  have  had  you  afraid 
of  Cerberus  (I  should  have  preferred  that  you  feared  Cerberus). 
Note.  —  Velim  etc.,  In  this  use,  are  either  potential  subjunctives,  or  apodoses  with 
the  protasis  omitted  (§  447. 1.  N.).    Tlie  thing  wished  may  be  regarded  as  a  substantive 
clause  used  as  object  of  the  verb  of  wishing  (§  565.  N.i). 

Deliberative  Subjunctive 

443.  The  Subjunctive  was  used  in  sentences  of  interrogative  form,  at  first  when 
the  speaker  wished  information  in  regard  to  the  will  or  desire  of  the  person  addressed. 
The  mood  was  therefore  hortatory  in  origin.  But  such  questions  when  addressed  by 
the  speaker  to  himself,  as  if  asking  his  own  advice,  become  deliberative  or,  not  infre- 
quently, merely  exclamatory.  In  such  cases  the  mood  often  approaches  the  meaning 
of  the  Potential  (see  §  445) .  In  these  uses  the  subjunctive  is  often  called  Deliberative 
or  Dubitative. 

444.  The  Subjunctive  is  used  in  questions  implying  (1)  doubt, 
indignation,  or  (2)  an  impossibility  of  the  thing's  being  done. 
The  negative  is  non. 

quid  agam,  iudices?  quo  me  vertam  (Verr.  v.  2),  what  am  I  to  do,  judges? 

whither  shall  I  turn  ? 
etiamne  earn  salutem  (PI.  Rud.  1275),  shall  I  greet  her  ? 
quid  hoc  homine  facias?  quod  supplicium  dignum  libidini  gius  invenias  (Verr. 
ii.  40),  what  are  you  to  do  with  this  man?  what  fit  penalty  can  you  devise 
for  his  wantonness  ? 
an  ego  non  venirem  (Phil.  ii.  3),  what,  should  I  not  have  come  ? 
quid  dicerem  (Att.  vi.  3.  9),  what  was  I  to  say  ? 

quis  enim  celaverit  Ignem  (Ov.  H.  xv.  7),  who  could  conceal  the  flame? 
Note.  —  The  hortatory  origin  of  some  of  these  questions  is  obvious.  Thus,  —  quid 
faciamus?=:faciamus  [aliquid],  quid?  let  us  do — vjhat:?  (Compare  the  expanded  form 
quid  vis  faciamus  ?  what  do  you  wish  us  to  do  ?)  Once  established,  it  was  readily  trans- 
ferred to  the  past:  quid  faciam?  lohat  am  I  to  do?  quid  facerem?  lohat  was  I  to  do? 
Questions  implying  impossibility,  however,  cannot  be  distinguished  from  Apodosis 
(cf.§517). 

a*  In  many  cases  the  question  has  become  a  mere  exclamation, 
rejecting  a  suggested  possibility  : 

mihi  umquam  bonorum  praesidium  defuturura  putarem  (Mil.  94),  could  I 
think  that  the  defence  of  good  men  would  ever  fail  me ! 
Note.  —  The  indicative  is  sometimes  used  in  deliberative  questions :  as,  —  quid  ago, 
what  am  I  to  do  ? 


282  SYNTAX:    THE   VERB  [§§445-447 

Potential  Subjunctive 

445.  Of  the  two  principal  uses  of  the  Subjunctive  in  independent  sentences  (cf. 
§436),  the  second,  or  Potential  Subjunctive,i  is  found  in  a  variety  of  sentence-forms 
having  as  their  common  element  the  fact  that  the  mood  represents  the  action  as  merely 
conceived  or  possible,  not  as  desired  (hortatory,  optative)  or  real  {indicative) .  Some 
of  these  uses  are  very  old  and  may  go  back  to  the  Indo-European  parent  speech,  but 
no  satisfactory  connection  between  the  Potential  and  the  Hortatory  and  Optative 
Subjunctive  has  been  traced.  There  is  no  single  English  equivalent  for  the  Potential 
Subjunctive;  the  mood  must  be  rendered,  according  to  circumstances,  by  the  auxi^ 
iaries  loould,  should,  may,  might,  can,  could. 

446.  The  Potential  Subjunctive  is  used  to  suggest  an  action 
as  possible  or  conceivable.     The  negative  is  non. 

In  this  use  the  Present  and  the  Perfect  refer  without  distinction  to 
the  immedisite  future ;  the  Imperfect  (occasionally  the  Perfect)  to 2yast 
time ;  the  Pluperfect  (which  is  rare)  to  what  might  have  happened. 

447.  The  Potential  Subjunctive  has  the  following  uses :  — 

1.  In  cautious  or  modest  assertions  in  the  first  person  singular  of 
expressions  of  saying,  thinking,  or  icishing  (present  or  perfect)  :  — 

pace  tua  dixerim  (Mil.  103),  I  would  say  by  your  leave. 

baud  sciam  an  (Lael.  51),  I  should  incline  to  think. 

in  velim  sic  existimes  (Fam.  xii.  6),  I  should  like  you  to  think  so. 

certum  affirmfire  non  ausim  (Liv.  ill.  23),  I  shoidd  not  dare  to  assert  as  sure. 

Note.  —  Vellem,  nollem,  or  mallem  expressing  an  unfulfilled  wish  in  present  time 
may  be  classed  as  independent  potential  subjunctive  or  as  the  apodosis  of  an  unex- 
pressed condition  (§521):  as  —  vellem  adesset  M.  Antonius  (Phil.  i.  16),  I  could  wish 
Antony  were  here. 

2.  In  the  indefinite  second  person  singular  of  verbs  of  saying,  think- 
ing, and  the  like  (present  or  imperfect)  :  — 

credas  non  de  puero  scriptum  sed  a  puero  (Plin.  Ep.  iv.  7.  7),  you  would 
think  that  it  ivas  written  not  about  a  boy  but  by  a  boy. 

crederes  victos  (Liv.  ii.  43.  9),  you  would  have  thought  them  conquered. 

reos  diceres  (id.  ii.  35.  5),  you  looidd  have  said  they  were  culprits. 

videres  susurros  (Hor.  S.  ii.  8.  77),  you  might  have  seen  them  whispering  (lit. 
whispers). 

frets  assimilare  possis  (Ov.  M.  v.  0),  you  might  compare  it  to  a  sea. 

3.  With  other  verbs,  in  all  persons,  when  some  word  or  phrase  in 
the  context  implies  that  the  action  is  expressed  as  merely  possible  or 
conceivable :  — 

1  The  name  Potential  Subjunctive  is  not  precisely  descriptive,  but  is  fixed  in 
grammatical  usage. 


§§  447,  448]  IMPERATIVE   MOOD  283 

nil  ego  contulerim  iucimdo  sanus  amico  (Hor,  S.  i.  5.  44),  when  in  my  senses 

I  should  compare  nothing  with  an  interesting  friend. 
fortunam  citius  reperias  quam  retineas  (Pub.  Syr.  168),  you  may  sooner  find 

fortune  than  keep  it. 
aliquis  dicat  (Ter.  And.  640),  somebody  may  say. 

Note.  —  In  this  use  the  suhjunctive  may  be  regarded  as  the  apodosis  of  an  unde- 
veloped protasis.  When  the  conditional  idea  becomes  clearer,  it  finds  expression  in 
a  formal  protasis,  and  a  conditional  sentence  is  developed. 

a.  Forsitan,  perhaps,  regularly  takes  the  Potential  Subjunctive 
except  in  later  Latin  and  in  poetry,  where  the  Indicative  is  also 
common :  — 

forsitan  quaeratis  qui  iste  terror  sit  (Rose.  Am.  6),  you  may  perhaps  inquire 

what  this  alarm  is. 
forsitan  temere  fecerim  (id.  31),  perhaps  I  have  acted  rashly. 

Note.  —  The  subjunctive  clause  with  forsitan  (=fors  sit  an)  was  originally  an  Indi- 
rect Question:  it  would  be  a  chance  whether,  etc. 

b.  Fortasse,  perhaps,  is  regularly  followed  by  the  Indicative ;  some- 
times, however,  by  the  Subjunctive,  but  chiefly  in  later  Latin:  — 

quaeres  fortasse  (Earn.  xv.  4.  13),  perhaps  you  will  ask. 

Note.— Other  expressions  for  perhaps  are  (1)  forsan  (chiefly  poetical;  construed 
with  the  indicative  or  the  subjunctive,  more  commonly  the  indicative),  fors  (rare  and 
poetical;  construed  with  either  the  indicative  or  the  subjunctive).  Forsit  (or  fors  sit) 
occurs  once  (Hor.  S.  i.  6. 49)  and  takes  the  subjimctive.  Fortasse  is  sometimes  followed 
by  the  infinitive  with  subject  accusative  in  Plautus  and  Terence.  Fortassis  (rare ;  con- 
strued like  fortasse)  and  fortasse  an  (very  rare;  construed  with  the  subjunctive)  are 
also  found. 

IMPERATIVE  MOOD 

448.  The  Imperative  is  used  in  Commands  and  Entreaties  :  — 

consulite  vobis,  prospicite  patriae,  conservate  vos  (Cat.  iv.  3),  have  a  care  for 

yourselves,  guard  the  country,  preserve  yourselves. 
die,  Marce  Tuili,  sententiam,  Marcus  Tullius,  state  your  opinion. 
te  ipsum  concute  (Hor.  S.  i.  3.  35),  examine  yourself. 
Vive,  valeque  (id.  ii.  5.  110),  farewell,  bless  you  (live  and  be  well) ! 
miserere  anim!  nondigna  ferentis  (Aen.  ii.  144:),  pity  a  soul  bearing  undeserved 

.misfortune. 

a.  The  third  person  of  the  imperative  is  antiquated  or  poetic  :  — 

ollls  salus  popull  suprema  lex  est5  (Legg.  iii.  8),  the  safety  of  the  people  shall 

be  their  first  law. 
itista  imperia  sunt5,  eisque  cives  raodeste  parents  (id.  iii.  6),  let  there  be  law- 
ful authorities,  and  let  the  citizens  strictly  obey  them. 
Note.  —  In  prose  the  Hortatory  Subjunctive  is  commonly  used  instead  (§  439). 


284  SYNTAX:    THE  VERB  [§449 

449.  The  Future  Imperative  is  used  in  commands,  etc.,  where 

there  is  a  distinct  reference  to  future  time  :  — 

1.  In  connection  with  some  adverb  or  other  expression  that  indi- 
cates at  what  time  in  the  future  the  action  of  the  imperative  shall  take 
2)lace.  So  especially  with  a  future,  a  future  perfect  indicative,  or 
(in  poetry  and  early  Latin)  with  a  present  imperative  :  — 

eras  petito,  dabitur  (PL  Merc.  769),  ask  to-morrow  [and]  it  shall  be  given. 
cum  valetudini  consulueris,  turn  c5nsulito  navigation!  (Fam.  xvi.  4.  3),  when 

you  have  attended  to  your  health,  then  look  to  your  sailing. 
Phyllida  mitte  mihi,  mens  est  natalis,  lolla ;  cum  faciam  vitula  pro  frugibus, 

ipse  venito  (Eel.  iii.  76),  send  Phyllis  to  me,  it  is  my  birthday,  lollas; 

when  I  [shall]  sacrifice  a  heifer  for  the  harvest,  come  yourself. 
die  quibus  in  terrls,  etc.,  et  Phyllida  solus  habeto  (id.  iii.  107),  tell  in  whai 

lands,  etc.,  and  have  Phyllis  for  yourself. 

2.  In  general  directions  serving  for  all  time,  as  Precepts,  Statutes, 
and  Wills :  — 

is  iuris  civilis  cilstos  esto  (Legg.  iii.  8),  let  him  (the  praetor)  be  the  guardian 

of  civil  right. 
Borea  flante,  ne  arato,  semen  ne  iacito  (Plin.  H.  N.  xviii.  334),  when  the  north 

wind  blows,  plough  not  nor  sow  your  seed. 

a.  The  verbs  scio,  memini,  and  habeo  (in  the  sense  of  consider)  regu- 
larly use  the  Future  Imperative  instead  of  the  Present :  — 

filiolo  me  auctum  scito  (Att.  i.  2),  learn  thai,  I  am  blessed  with  a  little  boy. 

sic  habeto,  mi  Tiro  (Fam.  xvi.  4.  4),  so  understand  it,  my  good  Tiro. 

de  palla  memento,  ainabo  (PI.  Asin.  939),  remember,  dear,  about  the  gown. 

h.  The  Future  Indicative  is  sometimes  used  for  the  imperative ; 
|and  quin  (why  not  ?)  with  the  Present  Indicative  may  have  the  force 
(of  a  command :  — 

si  quid  acciderit  novl,  fades  ut  sciam  (Fam.  xiv.  8),  you  wiU  let  me  know  if 

anything  new  happens. 
quin  accipis  (Ter.  Haut.  832),  here,  take  it  (why  not  take  it?). 

c.  Instead  of  the  simple  Imperative,  cura  ut,  fac  (fac  ut),  or  velim, 
followed  by  the  subjunctive  (§  565),  is  often  used,  especially  in  col- 
loquial language : — 

cura  ut  Romae  sis  (Att.  i.  2),  take  care  to  be  at  Borne. 

fac  ut  valetudinem  cures  (Fam.  xiv.  17),  see  that  you  take  care  of  your  heatth. 

domi  adsltis  facite  (Ter.  Eun.  506),  be  at  home,  do. 

eum  mihi  velim  mittas  (Att.  viii.  11),  I  wish  you  would  send  it  to  me. 
For  commands  in  Indirect  Discourse,  see  §  588. 
For  the  Imperative  with  the  force  of  a  Conditional  Clause,  see  §  521=  6. 


§450]  PROHIBITION  (NEGATIVE   COMMAND)  285 

Prohibition  (Negative  Command) 

450.  Prohibition  is  regularly  expressed  in  classic  prose  (1)  by 
noli  with  the  Infinitive,  (2)  by  cave  with  the  Present  Subjunctive, 
or  (3)  by  ne  with  the  Perfect  Subjunctive  :  — ^ 

(1)  noli  putare  (Lig.  33),  do  not  suppose  (be  unwilling  to  suppose). 
noli  impudens  esse  (Fam.  xii.  30.  1),  don't  he  shameless. 

nolite  cogere  socios  (Verr.  ii.  1.  82),  do  not  compel  the  allies. 

(2)  cave  putes  (Att.  vii.  20),  don't  suppose  (take  care  lest  you  suppose), 
cave  ignoscas  (Lig.  14),  do  not  pardon. 

cave  festlnes  (Fam.  xvi.  12.  6),  do  not  be  in  haste. 

(3)  ne  necesse  habueris  (Att.  xvi.  2.  5),  do  not  regard  it  as  necessary. 
ne  sis  admiratus  (Fam.  vii.  18.  3),  do  not  he  surprised. 

hoc  facito;  hoc  ne  feceris  (Div.  ii.  127),  thoushalt  do  this,  thou  shall  not  do  that. 

ne  Apellae  quidem  dixeris  (Fam.  vii.  25.  2),  do  not  tell  Apella  even. 

ne  vos  quidem  mortem  timueritis  (Tusc.  i.  98),  nor  must  you  fear  death. 

All  three  of  these  constructions  are  well  established  in  classic  prose.  The  first, 
which  is  the  most  ceremonious,  occurs  oftenest ;  the  third,  though  not  discourteous,  is 
usually  less  formal  and  more  peremptory  than  the  others. 

Note  1.  —  Instead  of  noli  the  poets  sometimes  use  other  imperatives  of  similar 
meaning  (cf .  §  457.  a) :  — 

parce  pias  scelerare  maniis  (Aen.  iii.  42), /orftear  to  defile  your  pious  hands. 
cetera  mitte  loqui  (Hor.  Epod.  13.  7), /or&ear  to  say  the  rest. 
fuge  quaerere  (Hor.  Od.  i.  9.  13),  do  not  inquire. 
Note  2.  —  Cave  ne  is  sometimes  used  in  prohibitions ;  also  vide  ne  and  (colloquially) 
fac  ne :  as,  —  fac  ne  quid  aliud  cures  (Fam.  xvi.  11),  see  that  you  attend  to  nothing  else. 
Note  3.  —  The  present  subjunctive  with  ne  and  the  perfect  with  cave  are  found  in 
old  writers ;  ne  with  the  present  is  common  in  poetry  at  all  periods :  — 
ne  exspectetis  (PI.  Ps.  1234),  do  not  wait. 
ne  metuas  (Mart.  Ep.  i.  70.  13),  do  not  fear. 
cave  quicquam  responderis  (PL  Am.  608),  do  not  make  any  reply. 
Note  4.  —  Other  negatives  sometimes  take  the  place  of  ne:  — 
nihil  ignoveris  (Mur.  65),  grant  no  pardon  (pardon  nothing), 
nee  mihi  illud  dixeris  (Fin.  i.  25),  and  do  not  say  this  to  me. 
Note  5.  —  The  regular  connective,  and  do  not,  is  neve. 

a.  The  Present  Imperative  with  ne  is  used  in  prohibitions  by  early 
writers  and  the  poets  :  — 

ne  time  (PI.  Cure.  520),  don't  he  afraid. 

nimium  ne  crede  colori  (Eel.  ii.  17),  trust  not  too  much  to  complexion. 

equo  ne  credite  (Aen.  ii.  48),  trust  not  the  horse. 

h.  The  Future  Imperative  with  ne  is  used  in  prohibitions  in  laws 
and  formal  precepts  (see  §  449.  2). 

1  In  prohibitions  the  subjunctive  with  ne  is  hortatory;  that  with  cave  is  an  object 
clause  (cf.  §§  450.  n.  2,  565.  n.  i); 


286  SYNTAX :    THE  VERB  [§§  451,  452 


INFINITIVE  MOOD 

45 1 .  The  Infinitive  is  properly  a  noun  denoting  tlie  action  of  the  verb  abstractly. 
It  differs,  however,  from  other  abstract  nouns  in  the  following  points:  (1)  it  often 
admits  the  distinction  of  tense;  (2)  it  is  modified  by  adverbs,  not  by  adjectives;  (3)  it 
governs  the  same  case  as  its  verb ;  (4)  it  is  limited  to  special  constructions. 

The  Latin  Infinitive  is  the  dative  or  locative  case  of  such  a  noupi  and  was  origi- 
nally used  to  denote  Purpose ;  but  it  has  in  many  constructions  developed  into  a  sub- 
stitute for  a  finite  verb.    Hence  the  variety  of  its  use. 

In  its  use  as  a  verb,  the  Infinitive  may  take  a  Subject  Accusative  (§  397.  e),  origi- 
nally the  object  of  another  verb  on  which  the  Infinitive  depended.  Thus  iubeo  te  valere 
is  literally  /  command  you  for  being  well  (cf.  substantive  clauses,  §  562.  n.). 

Infinitive  as  Noun 

452.  The  Infinitive,  with  or  without  a  subject  accusative,  may 
be  used  with  est  and  similar  verbs  (1)  as  the  Subject,  (2)  in  Appo- 
sition with  the  subject,  or  (3)  as  a  Predicate  Nominative.^ 

1.  As  Subject:  — 

dolere  malum  est  (Fin.  v.  84),  to  suffer  pain  is  an  evil. 

bellum  est  sua  vitia  nosse  (Att.  ii.  17),  ifs  a  fine  thing  to  know  one^s  own 

faults. 
praestat  componere  fluctus  (Aen.  i.  135),  it  is  better  to  calm  the  waves. 

2.  In  Apposition  with  the  Subject :  — 

proinde  quasi  iniiiriam  facere  id  demum  esset  imperio  uti  (Sail.  Cat.  12), 
just  as  if  this  and  this  alone,  to  commit  injustice.,  were  to  use  power. 
[Here  facere  is  in  apposition  with  id.] 

3.  As  Predicate  Nominative  :  — 

id  est  convenienter  natiirae  vivere  (Fin.  iv.  41),  that  is  to  live  in  conformity 
with  nature.      [Cf.  uti  in  the  last  example.] 

Note  1.  —  An  infinitive  may  be  used  as  Direct  Object  in  connection  with  a  Predi- 
cate Accusative  (§  393),  or  as  Appositive  with  such  Direct  Object:  — 

istuc  ipsum  non  esse  cum  fueris  miserrimum  puto  (Tusc.  i.  12), /or  I  think  this 
very  thing  most  wretched,  not  to  be  lohen  one  has  been.  [Here  istuc  ipsum 
belongs  to  the  noun  non  esse.] 
miserari,  invidere,  gestire,  laetari,  haec  omnia  morbos  Graeci  appellant  (id.  iii.  7), 
to  feel  pity,  envy,  desire,  joy,  —  all  these  things  the  Greeks  call  diseases. 
[Here  the  infinitives  are  in  apposition  with  haec] 

1  The  ending -6  (amare,  monere,  regere,  audire)  was  apparently  locative,  the  ending  -i 
(amari,  moneri,  regi,  audiri)  apparently  dative ;  but  this  difference  of  case  had  no  signifi- 
cance for  Latin  syntax.  The  general  Latin  restriction  of  the  i-infinitives  to  the  passive 
was  not  a  primitive  distinction,  but  grew  up  in  the  course  of  time. 

2  In  these  constructions  the  abstract  idea  expressed  by  the  infinitive  is  represented 
as  having  so7ne  quality  or  belonging  to  some  thing. 


§§  452-454]     INFINITIVE  AS   SUBJECT   OF   IMPERSONALS  287 

Note  2.  —  An  Appositive  or  Predicate  noun  or  adjective  used  with  an  infinitive  in 
any  of  these  constructions  is  put  in  the  Accusative,  whether  the  infinitive  has  a  sub- 
ject expressed  or  not.  Thus,  —  non  esse  cupidum  pecunia  est  (Par.  51),  to  he  free  from 
desires  (not  to  be  desirous)  is  money  in  hand.     [No  Subject  Accusative.] 

a.  The  infinitive  as  subject  is  not  common  except  with  est  and 
similar  verbs.  But  sometimes,  especially  in  poetry,  it  is  used  as  the 
subject  of  verbs  which  are  apparently  more  active  in  meaning :  — 

quos  omnis  eadem  cupere,  eadera  odisse,  eadem  metuere,  in  imum  coegit 
(lug.  31),  all  of  whom  the  fact  of  desiring,  hating,  and  fearing  the  same 
things  has  united  into  one. 

ingenuas  didicisse  fideliter  artis  emoUit  mores  (Ov.  P.  11.  9.  4S),  faithfully  to 
have  learned  liberal  arts  softens  the  manners. 

posse  loqui  eripitur  (Ov.  M.  11.  483),  the  power  of  speech  is  taken  away. 

453.  Rarely  the  Infinitive  is  used  exactly  like  the  Accusative 
of  a  noun :  — 

beate  vivere  alli  in  alio,  vos  in  voluptate  ponitis  (Fin.  11.  86),  a  happy  life 
different  [philosophers]  base  on  different  things,  you  on  pleasure. 

quam  multa  .  .  .  f aclmus  causa  amicorum,  precari  ab  indlgno,  supplicate,  etc. 
(Lael.  57),  hovj  many  things  we  do  for  our  friends'^  sake,  ask  favors  from 
an  unworthy  person,  resort  to  entreaty,  etc. 

nihil  exploratum  habeas,  ne  amare  quldem  aut  amari  (Id.  97),  you  have  noth- 
ing assured,  not  even  loving  and  being  loved. 

Note.  —  Many  complementary  and  other  constructions  approach  a  proper  accusa- 
tive use  of  the  infinitive,  but  their  development  has  been  different  from  that  of  the 
examples  above.  Thus,  —  avaritia  .  .  .  superbiam,  crudelitatem,  deos  neglegere,  omnia 
venalia  habere  edocuit  (Sail.  Cat.  10),  avarice  taught  pride,  cruelty,  to  neglect  the  gods, 
and  to  hold  everything  at  a  price. 

Infinitive  as  Apparent  Subject  of  Impersonals 

454.  The  Infinitive  is  used  as  the  apparent  Subject  with  many 
impersonal  verbs  and  expressions : 

Such  are  libet,  licet,  oportet,  decet,  placet,  visum  est,  pudet,  piget, 
necesse  est,  opus  est,  etc. :  — 

llbet  mlhl  considerate  (Quinct.  48),  it  suits  me  to  consider. 

necesse  est  mori  (Tusc.  ii.  2),  it  is  necessary  to  die. 

quid  attinet  glorlose  loqui  nisi  constanter  loquare  (Fin.  11.  89),  what  good  does 

it  do  to  talk  boastfully  unless  you  speak  consistently  f 
neque  me  vixisse  paenltet  (Id.  84),  I  do  not  feel  sorry  to  have  lived. 
gubemare  me  taedebat  (Att.  il.  7.  4),  J  was  tired  of  being  pilot. 

Note.  —  This  use  is  a  development  of  the  Complementary  Infinitive  (§456);  but 
the  infinitives  approach  the  subject  construction  and  may  be  conveniently  regarded  as 
the  subjects  of  the  impersonals. 


288  SYNTAX:    THE  VERB  [§455 

455.  With  impersonal  verbs  and  expressions  that  take  the  In- 
finitive as  an  apparent  subject,  the  personal  subject  of  the  action 
may  be  expressed  — 

1.  By  a  Dative,  depending  on  the  verb  or  verbal  phrase :  — 
rogant  ut  id  sibi  facere  liceat  (B.  G.  i.  7),  they  ask  that  it  be  allowed  them  to 

do  this. 
non  lubet  enim  mihi  deplorare  vitam  (Cat.  M.  84),  for  it  does  not  please  me 

to  lament  my  life. 
visum  est  mihi  de  senectiite  aliquid  conscribere  (  id.  1),  it  seemed  good  to 

me  to  write  something  about  old  age. 
quid  est  tarn  secundum  naturam  quam  senibus  emori  (id.  71),  what  is  so 

much  in  accordance  with  nature  as  for  old  men  to  die  ? 
exstingui  homini  suo  tempore  optabile  est  (id.  85),  for  a  man  to  die  at  the 

appointed  time  is  desirable. 

2.  By  an  Accusative  expressed  as  the  subject  of  the  infinitive  or 
the  object  of  the  impersonal :  — 

si  licet  vivere  eum  quern  Sex.  Naevius  non  volt  (Quinct.  94),  if  it  is  allovjed 

a  man  to  live  against  the  will  of  Sextus  NcBvius. 
nonne  oportuit  praescisse  me  ante  (Ter.  And.  239),  ought  I  not  to  have  known 

beforehand  f 
oratorem  irasci  minime  decet  (Tusc.  iv.  54),  it  is  particularly  unbecoming  for 

an  orator  to  lose  his  temper. 
puderet  me  dicere  (N.  D.  i.  109),  I  should  be  ashamed  to  say. 
consilia  ineunt  quorum  eos  in  vestlgio  paenitere  necesse  est  (B.  G.  iv.  5),  they 

form  plans  for  which  they  must  at  once  be  sorry. 
Note.  —  Libet,  placet,  and  visum  est  take  the  dative  only;  oportet,  pudet,  piget,  and 
generally  decet,  the  accusative  only ;  licet  and  necesse  est  take  either  case. 

a.  A  predicate  noun  or  adjective  is  commonly  in  the  Accusative ; 
but  with  licet  regularly,  and  with  other  verbs  occasionally,  the  Dative 
is  used :  — 

expedit  bonas  esse  vobis  (Ter.  Haut.  388),  it  is  for  your  advantage  to  be  good. 
licuit  esse  6ti6s5  Themistocli  (Tusc.  i.  33),  Themistocles  might  have  been  inac- 
tive (it  was  allowed  to  Themistocles  to  be  inactive), 
mihi  neglegenti  esse  non  licet  (Att.  i.  17.  6),  I  must  not  be  negligent.     [But 

also  neglegentem.  ] 
our  his  esse  liberos  non  licet  (Flacc.  71),  why  is  it  not  allowed  these  men  to 

be  free  1 
non  est  onmibus  stantibus  necesse  dicere  (Marc.  33),  it  is  not  necessary  for 
all  to  speak  standing. 

Note. —When  the  subject  is  not  expressed,  as  being  indefinite  (one,  anybody),  a 
predicate  noun  or  adjective  is  regularly  in  the  accusative  (cf.  §4.-52.  3.  n."^):  as. — 
vel  pace  vol  hello  clarum  fieri  licet  (Sail.  Cat.  3),- one  can  become  illustrious  either  in 
peace  or  in  war- 


§§  456,  467]  COMPLEMENTARY  INFINITIVE  289 

Complementary  Infinitive 

456.  Verbs  which  imply  another  action  of  the  same  subject  to 
complete  their  meaning  take  the  Infmitive  without  a  subject 
accusative. 

Such  are  verbs  denoting  to  he  able,  dare,  ^mdertake,  remember,  for- 
get, be  accustomed,  begin,  continue,  cease,  hesitate,  learn,  know  how, 
fear,  and  the  like  :  — 

hoc  queo  dicere  (Cat.  M.  32),  this  I  can  say. 

mitto  quaerere  (Rose.  Am.  53),  I  omit  to  ask. 

vereor  laudare  praesentem  (N.  D.  i.  58),  I  fear  to  praise  a  man  to  his  face. 

oro  ut  matures  venire  (Att.  iv.  1),  I  beg  you  will  make  haste  to  come. 

oblivisci  non  possum  quae  volo  (Ein.  ii.  104),  I  cannot  forget  that  which  1 

wish. 
desine  id  me  docere  (Tusc.  ii.  29),  cease  to  teach  me  that. 
dicere  solebat,  he  used  to  say. 
audeo  dicere,  I  venture  to  say. 
loqui  posse  coepi,  I  began  to  be  able  to  speak. 

Note.  —  The  peculiarity  of  the  Complementary  Infinitive  construction  is  that  no 
Subject  Accusative  is  in  general  admissible  or  conceivable.  But  some  infinitives 
usually  regarded  as  objects  can  hardly  be  distinguished  from  this  construction  when 
they  have  no  subject  expressed.  Thus  vol5  dicere  and  volo  me  dicere  mean  the  same 
thing,  I  ivish  to  speak,  but  the  latter  is  object-infinitive,  while  the  former  is  not 
apparently  different  in  origin  and  construction  from  queo  dicere  (complementary  infin- 
itive), and  again  volo  eum  dicere,  /  wish  him  to  speak,  is  essentially  different  from 
either  (cf.  §563.  b). 

457.  Many  verbs  take  either  a  Subjunctive  Clause  or  a  Com- 
plementary Infinitive,  without  difference  of  meaning. 

Such  are  verbs  signifying  willingness,  necessity,  propriety,  resolve, 
command,  prohibition,  effort,  and  the  like  (cf.  §  563)  :  — 

decernere  optabat  (Q.  C.  ill.  11.  1),  he  was  eager  to  decide. 
optavit  ut  tolleretur  (Off.  iii.  94),  he  was  eager  to  be  taken  up. 
oppugnare  contendit  (B.  G.  v.  21),  he  strove  to  take  by  storm. 
contendit  ut  caperet  (id,,  v.  8),  he  strove  to  take. 
bellum  gerere  constituit  (id.  iv.  6),  he  decided  to  carry  on  war. 
constitueram  ut  manerem  (Att.  xvi.  10.  1),  I  had  decided  to  remain. 

Note  1,  —  For  the  infinitive  with  subject  accusative  used  with  some  of  these  verbs 
instead  of  a  compleme7itary  infinitive,  see  §  503. 

Note  2.  —  Some  verbs  of  these  classes  never  take  the  subjunctive,  but  are  identi- 
cal in  meaning  with  others  which  do :  — 

eos  quos  tutari  debent  deserunt  (Off.  1.  28),  they  forsake  those  whom  they  ought  to 

protect. 
aveo  pugnare  (Att.  ii.  18.  3),  /'m  anxious  to  fight. 


290  SYNTAX:    THE  VERB  [§§457-460 

a.  In  poetry  and  later  writers  many  verbs  may  have  the  infini- 
tive, after  the  analogy  of  verbs  of  more  literal  meaning  that  take 
it  in  prose  :  — 

furit  te  reperire  (Hor.  Od.  i.  15.  27),  he  rages  to  find  thee.     [A  forcible  way 

of  saying  cupit  (§§457,  563.  6).] 
saevit  exstinguere  nomen  (Ov.  M.  i.  200),  he  rages  to  blot  out  the  name. 
fuge  quaerere  (Hor.  Od.  i.  9.  IS),  forbear  to  ask  (cf.  §  450.  n.  i). 
parce  pias  scelerare  manus  (Aen.  iii.  42),  forbear  to  defile  your  pious  hands. 

458.  A  Predicate  Noun  or  Adjective  after  a  complementary 
infinitive  takes  the  case  of  the  subject  of  the  main  verb :  — 

fierique  studebam  gius  prudentia  doctior  (Lael.  1),  I  was  eager  to  become 

more  wise  through  his  wisdom. 
scio  quam  soleas  esse  occupatus  (Fam.  xvi.  21.  7),  J  know  how  busy  you 

usually  are  (are  wont  to  be). 
brevis  esse  laboro,  obsciirus  fio  (Hor.  A.  P.  25),  I  struggle  to  be  brief,  I  become 

obscure. 

Infinitive  virith  Subject  Accusative 

459.  The  Infinitive  with  Subject  Accusative  is  used  with  verbs 

and  other  expressions  of  knowing.,  thinking,  telling,  and  perceiving 

(Indirect  Discourse,  §  579)  :  — 

dicit  montem  ab  bostibus  teneri  (B.  G.  i.  22),  he  says  that  the  hill  is  held  by 
the  enemy.     [Direct :  mons  ab  bostibus  tenetur.] 

Infinitive  of  Purpose 

460.  In  a  few  cases  the  Infinitive  retains  its  original  meaning 
of  Purpose. 

a.  The  infinitive  is  used  in  isolated  passages  instead  of  a  subjunc- 
tive clause  after  habeo,  do,  ministro :  — 

tantum  babeO  polliceri  (Fam.  i.  5  a.  3),  so  much  I  have  to  promise.     [Here 

the  more  formal  construction  would  be  quod  pollicear.] 
ut  lovi  bibere  ministraret  (Tusc.  i.  65),  to  sei-ve  Jove  with  wine  (to  drink), 
nieridie  bibere  dato  (Cato  R.  R.  89),  give  (to)  drink  at  noonday. 

h.  Paratus,  suetus,  and  their  compounds,  and  a  few  other  partici- 
ples (used  as  adjectives),  take  the  infinitive  like  the  verbs  from  which 
they  come :  — 

id  quod  parilti  sunt  facere  (Quint.  8),  that  which  they  are  ready  to  do. 

adsuefacti  superari  (B.  G.  vi.  24),  used  to  being  conquered. 

currii  succedere  suetl  (Aen.  iii.  541),  used  to  being  harnessed  to  the  chariot. 

cOpias  bellare  c5nsuetas  (B.  Afr.  73),  forces  accustomed  to  fighting. 


§§  460,  461]  PECULIAR   INFINITIVES  291 

Note.  —  In  prose  these  words  more  commonly  take  the  Gerund  or  Gerundive  con* 
struction  (§  503  ff.)  either  in  tiie  genitive,  the  dative,  or  the  accusative  with  ad:  — 
insuetus  navigandi  (B.  G.  v.  6),  unused  to  making  voyages. 
alendis  liberls  sueti  (Tac.  Ann.  xiv.  27),  accustomed  to  supporting  children. 
corpora  insueta  ad  onera  portanda  (B.  C.  i.  78),  bodies  unused  to  carry  burdens. 

c.  The  poets  and  early  writers  often  use  the  infinitive  to  express 
purpose  when  there  is  no  analogy  with  any  prose  construction :  — 
fUius  Intro  lit  videre  quid  agat  (Ter.  Hec.  345),  your  son  has  gone  in  to  see  what 

he  is  doing.     [In  prose  :  the  supine  visum.] 
non  ferro  Libycos  populate  Penatis  venimus  (Aen.  i.  627),  we  have  not  come 

to  lay  waste  with  the  sword  the  Libyan  homes. 
loricam  donat  habere  virS  (id.  v.  262),  he  gives  the  hero  a  breastplate  to  wear. 
[In  prose:  habendam.] 

Note.  —  So  rarely  in  prose  writers  of  the  classic  period. 

For  the  Infinitive  used  instead  of  a  Substantive  Clause  of  Purpose,  see  §  457. 

For  tempus  est  abire,  see  §  504.  n.  2. 

Peculiar  Infinitives 

461.  Many  Adjectives  take  the  Infinitive  in  poetry,  following  a 
Greek  idiom :  — 

diirus  componere  versiis  (Hor.  S.  1.  4.  8),  harsh  in  composing  verse. 
cantari  dignus  (Eel.  v.  64),  worthy  to  be  sung.     [In  prose:  qui  cantetur.] 
fortis  tractate  serpentis  (Hor.  Od.  i.  37.  26),  brave  to  handle  serpents. 
cantare  periti  (Eel.  x.  32),  skilled  in  song. 
faciles  aurem  praebete  (Prop.  ill.  14.  15),  ready  to  lend  an  ear. 
nescia  vinci  pectora  (Aen.  xii.  627),  hearts  not  knowing  how  to  yield. 
te  videte  aegroti  (Plaut.  Trin.  75),  sick  of  seeing  you. 

a,  Earely  in  poetry  the  infinitive  is  used  to  express  result:  — 
fingit  equum  docilem  magister  ite  viam  qua  monstret  eques  (Hor.  Ep.  i.  2.  64), 

the  trainer  makes  the  horse  gentle  so  as  to  go  in  the  road  the  rider  points 

out 
hie  levare  .  .  .  pauperem  laboribus  vocatus  audit  (Hor.  Od.  ii.  18.  38),  he, 

when  called,  hears,  so  as  to  relieve  the  poor  man  of  his  troubles. 

Note.  —  These  poetic  constructions  were  originally  regular  and  belong  to  the  Infin- 
itive as  a  noun  in  the  Dative  or  Locative  case  (§  451).  They  had  been  supplanted, 
however,  by  other  more  formal  constructions,  and  were  afterwards  restored  in  part 
through  Greek  influence. 

6.  The  infinitive  occasionally  occurs  as  a  pure  noun  limited  by  a 
demonstrative,  a  possessive,  or  some  other  adjective:  — 

hoc  non  dolere  (Fin.  ii.  18),  this  freedom  from  pain.     [Cf.  totum  hOc  heate 

vivere  (Tusc.  v.  33),  this  whole  matter  of  the  happy  life.] 
nostrum  vivete  (Pers.  i.  9),  our  life  (to  live). 
scire  tuum  (id.  i.  27),  your  knowledge  (to  know). 


292  SYNTAX :    THE  VERB  [§§  462,  463 

Exclamatory  Infinitive  - 

462.  The  Infinitive,  with  Subject  Accusative,^  may  be  used  in 
Exclamations  (of.  §  397.  (^) :  — 

te  in  tantas  aerumnas  propter  mg  incidisse  (Fam.  xiv.   1),  alas,  that  you 

should  have  fallen  into  such  grief  for  me ! 
mene  incepto  desistere  victam  (Aen.  i.  37),  what !  I  beaten  desist  from  my 
purpose  f 
Note  1.  —  The  interrogative  particle  -ne  is  often  attached  to  the  emphatic  word  (as 
in  the  second  example). 

Note  2.  —  The  Present  and  the  Perfect  Infinitive  are  used  in  this  construction  with 
their  ordinary  distinction  of  time  (§  486) . 

a,  A  subjunctive  clause,  with  or  without  ut,  is  often  used  ellip- 
tically  in  exclamatory  questions.  The  question  may  be  introduced 
by  the  interrogative  -ne :  — 

quamquam  quid  loquor?  te  ut  ulla  res  frangat  (Cat.  i.  22),  yet  why  do  I 

speak  ?  [the  idea]  that  anything  should  bend  you ! 
egone  ut  te  interpellem  (Tusc.  ii.  42),  what,  I  interrupt  you  ? 
ego  tibi  irascerer  (Q.  Fr.  i.  3),  I  angry  with  you  f 

Note.  —  The  Infinitive  in  exclamations  usually  refers  to  something  actually  oc- 
curring; the  Subjunctive,  to  something  contemplated. 

Historical  Infinitive 

463.  The  Infinitive  is  often  used  for  the  Imperfect  Indicative 
in  narration,  and  takes  a  subject  in  the  Nominative :  — 

turn  Catilina  polliceri  novas  tabulas  (Sail.  Cat.  21),  then  Catiline  promised 
abolition  of  debts  (clean  ledgers). 

ego  instate  ut  uiihi  responderet  (Verr.  ii.  188),  I  kept  urging  him  to  answer  me. 

pai's  cedere,  alii  insequi ;  neque  signa  neque  ordines  observare  ;  ubi  quemque 
periculum  ceperat,  ibi  resistere  ac  propulsare ;  arma,  tela,  equi,  viri, 
hostes  atque  elves  permixti;  nihil  consilio  neque  imperio  agi;  fors 
omnia  regere  (lug.  51),  a  part  give  way,  others  press  on ;  they  hold  neither 
to  standards  nor  ranks;  where  danger  overtook  them,  there  each  would 
stand  and  fight ;  arms,  weapons,  horses,  men,  foe  and  friend,  mingled 
in  confusion;  nothing  went  by  counsel  or  command;  chance  ruled  all. 

Note. — This  construction  is  not  strictly  historical,  but  rather  descriptive,  and  is 
never  used  to  state  a  mere  historical  fact.  It  is  rarely  found  in  subordinate  clauses. 
Though  occurring  in  most  of  the  writers  of  all  periods,  it  is  most  frequent  in  the  his- 
torians Sallust,  Livy,  Tacitus.    It  does  not  occur  in  Suetonius. 

1  This  construction  is  elliptical ;  that  is,  the  thought  is  quoted  in  Indirect  Discourse, 
though  no  verb  of  saying  etc.  is  expressed  or  even,  perhaps,  implied  (compare  the 
French  dire  que).  Passages  like  hancine  ego  ad  rem  natam  miseram  me  memorabo? 
(Plant.  Rud.  188)  point  to  the  origin  of  the  construction. 


I 


464,  465]  TENSES  OF  THE   INDICATIVE  293 


TENSES 

464.  The  number  of  possible  Tenses  is  very  great.  For  in  each  of  the  three  times, 
Present,  Past,  and  Future,  an  action  may  be  represented  as  going  on,  completed,  or 
beginning;  as  habitual  or  isolated;  as  defined  in  time  or  indefinite  (aoristic) ;  as 
determined  with  reference  to  the  time  of  the  speaker,  or  as  not  itself  so  determined 
but  as  relative  to  some  time  which  is  determined ;  and  the  j)ast  and  future  times  may 
be  near  or  remote.    Thus  a  scheme  of  thirty  or  more  tenses  might  be  devised. 

But,  in  the  development  of  forms,  which  always  takes  place  gradually,  no  language 
finds  occasion  for  more  than  a  small  part  of  these.  The  most  obvious  distinctions, 
according  to  our  habits  of  thought,  appear  in  the  following  scheme :  — 

1.  Definite  (fixing  the  time  of  the  action)  2.  Indefinite 

INCOMPLETE  COMPLETE  NARRATIVE 

Present:  a.  I  am  writing.  d.  I  have  written.  g.  I  write. 

*     Past:       b.  I  was  writing.  e.  I  had  written.  h.  I  wrote. 

Future:    c.  I  shall  be  loritirig.         f.  I  shall  have  icritten.        i.   I  shall  lorite. 

Most  languages  disregard  some  of  these  distinctions,  and  some  make  other  distinc- 
tions not  here  given.  The  Indo-European  parent  speech  had  a  Present  tense  to  express 
a  and  g,  a  Perfect  to  express  d,  an  Aorist  to  express  h,  a  Future  to  express  c  and  i,  and 
an  Imperfect  to  express  b.  The  Latin,  however,  confounded  the  Perfect  and  Aorist 
in  a  single  form  (the  Perfect  scripsi),  thus  losing  all  distinction  of  form  between  d  and 
h,  and  probably  in  a  great  degree  the  distinction  of  meaning.  The  nature  of  this  con- 
fusion may  be  seen  by  comparing  dixi,  dicavi,  and  didici  (all  Perfects  derived  from  the 
same  root,  Die),  with  ^dei^a,  Skr.  adiksham,  dideixo-,  Skr.  didega.  Latin  also  devel- 
oped two  new  forms,  those  for  e  (scripseram)  and/  (scripsero),  and  thus  possessed  six 
tenses,  as  seen  in  §  154.  c. 

The  lines  between  these  six  tenses  in  Latin  are  not  hard  and  fast,  nor  are  they  pre- 
cisely the  same  that  we  draw  in  English.  Thus  in  many  verbs  the  form  corresponding 
to  /  have  written  (cT)  is  used  for  those  corresponding  to  lam  writing  (a)  and  I  write  (g) 
in  a  slightly  dififerent  sense,  and  the  form  corresponding  to  /  had  written  (e)  is  used  in 
like  manner  for  that  corresponding  to  I  was  writing  (6).  Again,  the  Latin  often  uses 
the  form  for  /  shall  have  written  (/)  instead  of  that  for  I  shall  write  (i).  Thus,  novi,  I 
have  learned,  is  used  for  /  know;  constiterat,  he  had  taken  his  position,  for  he  stood; 
cognovero,  I  shall  have  learned,  for  I  shall  be  aware.  In  general  a  writer  may  take  his. 
own  point  of  view. 


TENSES  OF  THE   INDICATIVE 

Incomplete  Action 

PRESENT  TENSE 

465.  The  Present  Tense  denotes  an  action  or  state  (1)  as  now 
taking  place  or  existing,  and  so  (2)  as  incomplete  in  present  time, 
or  (3)  as  indefinite,  referring  to  no  particular  time,  but  denoting  a 
general  truth :  — 


294  SYNTAX  :    THE  VERB  [§§  465,  466 

senatus  haec  intellegit,  consul  videt,  hie  tamen  vivit  (Cat.  i.  2),  the  senate 

knows  this^  the  consul  sees  it,  yet  this  man  lives. 
tibi  concedo  meas  sedis  (Div.  i.  104),  I  give  you  my  seat  (an  offer  wbich  may 

or  may  not  be  accepted). 
exspecto  quid  veils  (Ter,  And,  34),  1  await  your  'pleasure  (what  you  wish), 
tu  actionem  instituis,  ille  aciem  instruit  (Mur.  22),  you  arrange  a  case,  he 

arrays  an  army.     [The  present  is  here  used  of  regular  employment.'] 
minora  di  neglegunt  (N.   D.  iii.  86),  the  gods  disregard  trifles.     [General 

truth.] 
obsequium  amicos,  Veritas  odium  parit  (Ter.  And.  68),  flattery  gains  fi^iends, 

truth  hatred.     [General  truth.  ] 
Note.  —  The  present  of  a  general  truth  is  sometimes  called  the  Gnomic  Present. 

a.  The  present  is  regularly  used  in  quoting  writers  whose  works 
are  extant :  — 

Epicurus  vero  ea  dicit  (Tusc.  ii.  17),  but  Epicurus  says  such  things. 

apud  ilium  Ulixes  lamentatur  in  volnere  (id.  ii.  49),  in  Mm  (Sophocles) 

Ulysses  laments  over  his  wound. 
Polyphemum  Homerus  cum  ariete  colloquentem  facit  (id.  v.  115),  Homer 
brings  in  (makes)  Polyphemus  talking  with  his  ram. 

Present  with  iam  diu  etc. 

466.  The  Present  with  expressions  of  duration  of  time  (espe- 
cially iam  diu,  iam  dudum)  denotes  an  action  continuing  in  the  pres- 
ent, but  begun  in  the  past  (cf.  §  471.  5). 

In  this  use  the  present  is  commonly  to  be  rendered  by  the  perfect 
in  English :  — 

iam  diii  ignoro  quid  agas  (Earn.  vii.  9),  for  a  long  time  I  have  not  known  what 

you  were  doing. 
te  iam  dudum  hortor  (Cat.  i.  12),  I  have  long  been  urging  you. 
patimur  multos  iam  annos  (Verr.  v.  126),  we  suffer  now  these  many  years. 

[The  Latin  perfect  would  imply  that  we  no  longer  suffer.'] 
anni  sunt  octo  cum  ista  causa  versatur  (cf.  Clu.  82),  it  is  now  eight  years 

that  this  case  has  been  in  hand. 
annum  iam  audis  Cratippum  (Off.  i.  1),  for  a  year  you  have  been  a  hearer  of 

Cratippus. 
adhuc  Plancius  me  retinet  (Fam.  xiv.  1.  3),  so  far  Plancius  has  kept  me  here. 

Note  1.  —  The  difference  in  the  two  idioms  is  that  the  English  states  the  beginning 
and  leaves  the  continuance  to  be  inferred,  while  the  Latin  states  the  continuance  and 
leaves  the  beginning  to  be  inferred.  Compare  he  has  long  suffered  (and  still  suffers) 
with  he  still  suffers  {and  has  suffered  long). 

Note  2.  —  Similarly  the  Present  Imperative  with  iam  dudum  indicates  that  the 
action  commanded  ought  to  have  been  done  or  was  wished  for  long  ago  (cf.  the  Per- 
fect Imperative  in  Greek):  as,  —  iam  dudmn  sumite  poenas  (Aen.  ii.  103),  exact  the 
penalty  long  delayed. 


! 


§§467-469]  PRESENT  TENSE  295 

Conative  Present 

467.  The  Present  sometimes  denotes  an  action  attempted  or 
begun  in  present  time,  but  never  completed  at  all  ( Conative  Pres- 
ented. §471.  (?):  — 

iam  iamque  manu  tenet  (Aen.  ii.  530),  and  now,  even  now,  he  attempts  to 

grasp  him. 
densos  fertur  in  hostis  (id.  ii.  511),  he  starts  to  rush  into  the  thickest  of  the  foe. 
decerno  qulnquaginta  dierum  supplicationes  (Phil.  xiv.  29),  I  move  for  fifty 

days''  thanksgiving.     [Cf .  senatus  decrevit,  the  senate  ordained.  ] 

Present  for  Future 

•  468.  The  Present,  especially  in  colloquial  language  and  poetry, 
is  often  used  for  the  Future ;  — 

imusne  sessum  (De  Or.  iii.  17),  shall  we  take  a  seat  ?  (are  we  going  to  sit  ?) 
hodie  uxorem  duels  (Ter.  And.  321),  are  you  to  be  married  to-day  ? 
quod  si  fit,  pereo  funditus  (id.  244),  if  this  happens,  I  am  utterly  undone. 
ecquid  me  adiuvas  (Clu.  71),  won''t  you  give  me  a  little  help  ? 
in  iiis  voco  te.     non  eo.     non  is  (PI.  Asin.  480),  I  summon  you  to  the  court. 
I  wonH  go.     You  won't  f 

Note. — Eo  and  its  compounds  are  especially  frequent  in  this  use  (cf.  lohere  are 
you  going  to-morrow?  and  the  Greek  elfii  in  a  future  sense).  Verbs  of  necessity, 
possibility,  loish,  and  the  like  (as  possum,  volo,  etc.)  also  have  reference  to  the  future. 

For  other  uses  of  the  Present  in  a  future  sense,  see  under  Conditions  (§  516.  a.  n.), 
antequam  and  priusquam  (§  551.  c),  dum  (§  553.  N.2),  and  §  444.  a.  n. 

Historical  Present 

469.  The  Present  in  lively  narrative  is  often  used  for  the  His- 
torical Perfect :  — 

affertur  niintius  Syracusas  j  curritur  ad  praetorium ;  Cleomenes  in  publico 
esse  non  audet ;  includit  se  domi  (Verr.  v.  92),  the  news  is  brought  to  Syra- 
cuse ;  they  run  to  headquarters ;  Cleomenes  does  not  venture  to  be  abroad  ; 
he  shuts  himself  up  at  home. 
Note.  —  This  usage,  common  in  all  languages,  comes  from  imagining  past  events 
as  going  on  before  our  eyes  (repraesentdtio,  §  585.  b.  n.). 
For  the  Present  Indicative  with  dum,  while,  see  §  556. 

a.  The  present  may  be  used  for  the  perfect  in  a  summary  enumera- 
tion of  past  events  (^Annalistic  Present)  :  — 

Roma  interim  crescit  Albae  minis :  duplicatur  civium  numerus ;  Caelius 
additur  urbi  mons  (Liv.  i.  30),  Bovie  meanwhile  grows  as  a  result  of  the 
fall  of  Alba:  the  number  of  citizens  is  doubled;  the  Codian  hill  is  added 
to  the  town. 


296  SYNTAX :    THE   VERB  [§§  470,  471 

IMPERFECT   TENSE 

470.  The  Imperfect  denotes  an  action  or  a  state  as  continued 
or  repeated  in  past  time  :  — • 

liunc  audiebant  antea  (Manil.  13),  they  used  to  hear  of  him  before. 
[Socrates]  ita  censebat  itaque  disseruit  (Tusc.  i.  72),  Socrates  thought  so  (habit- 
ually), and  so  he  spoke  (then), 
prudens  esse  putabatur  (Lael.  6),  he  was  (generally)  thought  wise.     [The  per- 
fect would  refer  to  some  particular  case,  and  not  to  a  state  of  things.  ] 
iamque  rubescebat  Aurora  (Aen.  iii.  521),  and  now  the  dawn  was  blushing. 
ara  vetus  stabat  (Ov.  M.  vi.  326),  an  old  altar  stood  there. 
Note. — The  Imperfect  is  a  descriptive  tense  and  denotes  an  action  conceived  as 
in  progress  or  a  state  of  things  as  actually  observed.    Hence  in  many  verbs  it  does 
not  differ  in  meaning  from  the  Perfect.    Thus  rex  erat  and  rex  fuit  may  often  be  us«d 
indifferently ;  but  the  former  describes  the  condition  while  the  latter  only  states  it. 
The  English  is  less  exact  in  distinguishing  these  two  modes  of  statement.    Hence  the 
Latin  Imperfect  is  often  translated  by  the  English  Preterite :  — 

Haedui  graviter  ferebant,  neque  legatos  ad  Caesarem  mittere  audebant  (B.  G.  v. 
6),  the  Hsedui  were  displeased,  and  did  not  dare  to  send  envoys  to  Csesar. 
[Here  the  Imperfects  describe  the  state  of  things.]     But,  — 
id  tulit  factum  graviter  Indutiomarus  (id.  v.  4),  Indutiomarus  was  displeased  at 

this  action.     [Here  the  Perfect  merely  states  the  fact.] 
aedificia  vicosque  habebant  (id.  iv.  4),  they  had  buildings  and  villages. 

471.  The  Imperfect  represents  a  present  tense  transferred  to 
past  time.  Hence  all  the  meanings  which  the  Present  has  derived 
from  the  continuance  of  the  actioji  belong  also  to  the  Imperfect  in 
reference  to  past  time. 

a.  The  Imperfect  is  used  in  descriptions  :  — 

erant  omnino  itinera  duo  .  .  .  mons  altissimus  impendebat  (B.  G.  i.  6),  there 
were  in  all  two  ways  .  .  .  a  very  high  mountain  overhung. 

b.  With  lam  diu,  lam  dudum,  and  other  expressions  of  duration  of 
time,  the  Imperfect  denotes  an  action  continuing  in  the  past  but  be- 
gun at  some  previous  time  (cf.  §  466). 

In  this  construction  the  Imperfect  is  rendered  by  the  English  Plu- 
perfect :  — 

iam  dudum  flebam  (Ov.  M.  iii.  656),  I  had  been  weeping  for  a  long  time. 
copias  quas  diii  comparabant  (Fam.  xi.  13.  6),  the  forces  which  they  had  long 
been  getting  ready. 

c.  The  Imperfect  sometimes  denotes  an  action  as  begun  (Inceptive 
Imperfect),  or  as  attempted  or  only  intended  (Conative  Imperfect;  cf. 
§467):  — 


§  471]  IMPERFECT  TENSE  297 

in  exsilium  eiciebam  quern  iam  ingressum  esse  in  bellum  videbam  (Cat.  ii. 

14),  ivas  I  trying  to  send  into  exile  one  who  I  saw  had  already  gone 

into  war  f 
hunc  igitur  diem  sibi  proponeus  Milo,  cruentis  manibus  ad  ilia  augusta  cen- 

turiarum  auspicia  veniebat  (Mil.  43),  was  Milo  coming  (i.e.  was  it  likely 

that  he  would  come),  etc.  ? 
si  licitum  esset  veniebant  (Verr.  v.  129),  they  were  coming  if  it  had  been  allowed 

(they  were  on  the  point  of  coming,  and  would  have  done  so  if,  etc.). 

Note.  — To  this  head  may  be  referred  the  imperfect  with  iam,  denoting  the  begin- 
ning of  an  action  or  state:  as,  — iamque  arva  tenebant  ultima  (Aen.  vi.  477),  ajid  now 
they  were  just  getting  to  the  farthest  fields. 

d.  The  Imperfect  is  sometimes  used  to  express  a  surprise  at  the 
present  discovery  of  a  fact  already  existing  :  — 

o  tti  quoque  aderas  (Ter.  Ph.  858),  oA,  you  are  here  too ! 
ehem,  tun  hic  eras,  mi  Phaedria  (Ter.  Eun.  86),  what!  you  here,  PhcBdriaf 
a  miser!  quanta  laborabas  Charybdi  (Hor.  Od.  i.  27.  19),  unhappy  hoy,  what 
a  whirlpool  you  are  struggling  in  [and  I  never  knew  it] ! 

e.  The  Imperfect  is  often  used  in  dialogue  by  the  comic  poets 
where  later  writers  would  employ  the  Perfect :  — 

ad  amicum  Calliclem  quoi  rem  aibat  mandasse  hic  suam  (PI.  Trin.  956),  to 
his  friend  Callicles,  to  whom,  he  said,  he  had  intrusted  his  property. 

praesagibat  mi  animus  frustra  me  ire  quom  exibam  domo  (PL  Aul.  178),  77iy 
mind  mistrusted  when  I  went  from  home  that  I  went  in  vain. 

Note.  —  So,  in  conversation  the  imperfect  of  verbs  of  saying  (cf .  as  I  was  a-saying) 
is  common  in  classic  prose :  — 

at  medic!  quoque,  ita  enim  dicebas,  saepe  falluntur  (N.  D.  iii.  15),  hut  physicians 

also, — for  that  is  what  you  were  saying  just  now,  —  are  often  mistaken. 
haec  mihi  fere  in  mentem  veniebant  (id.  ii.  67,  168),  this  is  about  what  occurred 
to  me,  etc.     [In  a  straightforward  narration  this  would  be  venerunt.] 

/.  The  Imperfect  with  negative  words  often  has  the  force  of  the 
English  auxiliary  could  or  would :  — 

itaque  (Damocles)  nee  pulchros  illos  ministratores  aspiciebat  (Tusc.  v.  62), 
therefore  he  could  not  look  upon  those  beautiful  slaves.  [In  this  case  did 
not  would  not  express  the  idea  of  continued  p)revention  of  enjoyment  by 
the  overhanging  svv^ord.] 

nee  enim  dum  eram  vobiscum  animum  meum  videbatis  (Cat.  M.  79),  for,  you 
know,  while  I  was  with  you,  you  could  not  see  my  soul.  [Here  the  Per- 
fect would  refer  only  to  one  moment] 

Lentulus  satis  erat  fortis  orator,  sed  cogitandi  non  ferebat  laborem  (Brut.  268), 
Lentulus  loas  bold  enough  as  an  orator,  but  could  not  endure  the  exertion 
of  thinking  hard. 

For  the  Epistolary  Imperfect,  see  §  479 ;  for  the  Imperfect  Indicative  in  apodosis 
contrary  to  fact,  see  §  517.  h,  c. 


298  SYNTAX :    THE  VERB  [§§  472,  473 

FUTURE   TENSE 

472.  The  Future  denotes  an  action  or  state  that  will  occur 
hereafter. 

a.  The  Tiiture  may  have  the  force  of  an  Imperative  (§  449.  h). 

b.  The  Future  is  often  required  in  a  subordinate  clause  in  Latin 
where  in  English  futurity  is  sufficiently  expressed  by  the  main  clause  : 

cum  aderit  videbit,  when  he  is  there  he  will  see  (cf.  §  547). 

sanabimur  si  volemus  (Tusc.  iii.  13),  we  shall  be  healed  if  we  wish  (cf.  §  516.  a). 

Note.  —  But  the  Present  is  common  in  future  protases  (§516.  a  n  ). 

Completed  Action 

PERFECT   tense 
Perfect  Definite  and  Historical  Perfect 

473.  The  Perfect  denotes  an  action  either  as  7iow  completed 
{Perfect  Definite),  or  as  having  taken  place  at  some  undefined  point 
of  past  time  [Historical  or  Aoristic  Perfect). 

The  Perfect  Definite  corresponds  in  general  to  the  English  Perfect 
with  have;  the  Historical  Perfect  to  the  English  Preterite  (or  Past) : 

(1)  ut  ego  feci,  qui  Graecas  litteriis  senex  didici  (Cat.  M.  26),  as  I  have  done, 

who  have  learned  Greek  in  my  old  age. 
diuturni  silenti  finem  hodiernus  dies  attulit  (Marc.  1),  this  day  has  put  an 
end  to  my  long-continued  silence. 

(2)  tantum  bellum  extrema  hieme  apparavit,  ineunte  vere  suscepit,  media 

aestate  confecit  (Manil.  35),  so  great  a  war  he  made  ready  for  at  the  end 
of  winter,  undertook  in  early  spring,  and  finished  by  midsummer. 

Note. — The  distinction  between  these  two  uses  is  represented  by  two  forms  in 
most  other  Indo-European  languages,  but  was  almost  if  not  wholly  lost  to  the  minds 
of  the  Romans.  It  must  be  noticed,  however,  on  account  of  the  marked  distinction 
in  English  and  also  because  of  certain  differences  in  the  sequence  of  tenses. 

a.  The  Indefinite  Present,  denoting  a  customary  action  or  a  general 
truth  (§  465),  often  has  the  Perfect  in  a  subordinate  clause  referring 
to  time  antecedent  to  that  of  the  main  clause  :  — 

qui  in  compedibus  corporis  semper  fuerunt,  etiam  cum  soliiti  sunt  tardius 
ingrediuntur  (Tusc.  i.  75),  they  who  have  always  been  in  the  fetters  of  the 
body,  even  when  released  move  more  slowly. 

simul  ac  mihi  coUibitum  est,  praesto  est  imago  (N.  D.  i.  108),  as  soon  as  I 
have  taken  a  fancy,  the  image  is  before  my  eyes. 


§§473-476]  PERFECT  TENSE  299 

haec  morte  effugiuntur,  etiam  si  non  evenerunt,  tamen  quia  possunt  evenire 
(Tusc.  i.  86),  these  things  are  escaped  by  death  even  if  they  have  not  [yet] 
happened,  because  they  still  may  happen. 

Note. — This  use  of  the  perfect  is  especially  common  in  the  protasis  of  General 
Conditions  in  i)resent  time  (§  518.  6). 

474.  The  Perfect  is  sometimes  used  emphatically  to  denote  that 
a  thing  or  condition  of  things  that  once  existed  no  longer  exists  : 

fuit  ista  quondam  in  hac  re  piibllca  virtiis  (Cat.  i.  3),  there  was  once  such  vir- 
tue in  this  commonwealth. 

habuit,  non  habet  (Tusc.  i.  87),  he  had,  he  has  no  longer. 

filium  habeo  .  .  .  immo  hatmi ;  nunc  liabeam  necne  incertumst  (Ter.  Haut. 
93),  I  have  a  son,  no,  I  had  one;  whether  I  have  now  or  not  is  uncertain. 

fuimus  Troes,  fuit  Ilium  (Aen.  ii.  325),  we  have  ceased  to  be  Trojans,  Troy  is 
no  more. 

Special  Uses  of  the  Perfect 

475.  The  Perfect  is  sometimes  used  of  a  general  truth,  espe- 
cially with  negatives  ( Gnomic  Perfect) :  — 

qui  studet  contingere  metam  multa  tulit  fecitque  (Hor.  A.  P.  412),  he  who 
aims  to  reach  the  goal,  first  bears  and  does  many  things. 

non  aeris  acervus  et  auri  deduxit  corpore  febris  (id.  Ep.  i.  2.  47),  the  pile  of 
brass  and  gold  removes  not  fever  from  the  frarne. 

Note.  —  The  gnomic  perfect  strictly  refers  to  past  time ;  hut  its  use  implies  that 
something  which  never  did  happen  in  any  known  case  never  does  happen,  and  never 
will  (cf.  the  English  "Faint  heart  never  v^  on  fair  lady") ;  or,  without  a  negativ^e, 
that  what  has  once  happened  will  always  happen  under  similar  circumstances. 

a.  The  Perfect  is  often  used  in  expressions  containing  or  implying 
a  negation,  where  in  affirmation  the  Imperfect  would  be  preferred  :  — 

dicebat  melius  quam  scripsit  Hortensius  (Or.  132),  Hortensius  spoke  better 
than  he  wrote.  [Here  the  negative  is  implied  in  the  comparison  :  com- 
pare the  use  of  quisquam,  ullus,  etc.  (§§  311,  312),  and  the  French  ne 
after  comparatives  and  superlatives.  ] 

476.  The  completed  tenses  of  some  verbs  are  equivalent  to  the 
incomplete  tenses  of  verbs  of  kindred  meaning. 

Such  are  the  preteritive  verbs  odi,  I  hate;  memini,  I  remember;  novi, 
I  know ;  consuevi,  I  am  accustomed,^  with  others  used  preteritively, 
as  venerat  (=  aderat,  he  teas  at  hand,  etc.),  constiterunt,  they  stand  firm 
(have  taken  their  stand),  and  many  inceptives  (see  §  263.  1) :  — 

1  Cf.  detestor,  reminiscor,  scio,  soleo. 


300  SYNTAX:    THE  VERB  [§§476-478 

qui  diesaestus  maximos  efficere  consuevit  (B.  G.  iv.  29),  which  day  generally 

makes  the  highest  tides  (is  accustomed  to  make), 
cuius  splendor  obsoievit  (Quinct.  69),  whose  splendor  is  now  all  faded. 
Note.  —  Many  other  verbs  are  occasionally  so  used :  as,  —  dum  oculos  certamen 
averterat  (Liv.  xxxii.  24),  while  the  contest  had  turned  their  eyes  (kept  them  turned). 
[Here  averterat  =  tenebat.] 

PLUPERFECT   TENSE 

477.  The  Pluperfect  is  used  (1)  to  denote  an  action  or  state 
completed  in  past  time ;  or  (2)  sometimes  to  denote  an  action  in 
indefinite  time,  but  prior  to  some  past  time  referred  to :  — 

(1)  loci  natura  erat  haec,  quern  locum  nostri  castrls  delegerant  (B.  G.  ii.  18), 

this  was  the  nature  of  the  ground  which  our  men  had  chosen  for  a  camp. 
Viridovix  summam  imperi  tenebat  eiirum  omnium  civitatum  quae  defece- 
rant  (id.  iii.  17),  Viridovix  held  the  chief  command  of  all  those  tribes  which 
had  revolted. 

(2)  neque  vero  cum  aliquid  mandaverat  confectum  putabat  (Cat.  iii.  16),  hut 

when  he  had  given  a  thing  in  charge  he  did  not  look  on  it  as  done. 
quae  si  quando  adepta  est  id  quod  ei  fuerat  concupitum,  tum  fert  alacritatem 
(Tusc.  iv.  15),  if  it  (desire)  ever  has  gained  what  it  had  [previously] 
desired,  then  it  produces  joy. 
For  the  Epistolary  Pluperfect,  see  §  479. 

FUTURE  PERFECT   TENSE 

478.  The  Future  Perfect  denotes  an  action  as  completed  in  the 
future :  — 

ut  sementem  feceris,  ita  metes  (De  Or.  ii.  261),  as  you  sow  (shall  have  sown), 

so  shall  you  reap. 
carmina  turn  melius,  cum  venerit  ipse,  canemus  (Eel.  ix.  67),  then  shall  we 

sing  our  songs  better,  when  he  himself  has  come  (shall  have  come), 
si  illius  iusidiae  clariores  hilc  luce  fuerint,  tum  denique  obsecrabo  (Mil.  6), 
wJien  the  plots  of  that  man  have  been  shown  to  be  as  clear  as  daylight, 
then,  and  not  till  then,  shall  I  conjure  you. 
ego  certe  meum  officium  praestitero  (B.  G.  iv.  25),  I  at  least  shall  have  done 
my  duty  (i.e.  when  the  time  comes  to  reckon  up  the  matter,  I  shall  be 
found  to  have  done  it,  whatever  the  event). 
Note. — Latin  is  far  more  exact  than  English  in  distinguishing  between  mere 
future  action  and  action  completed  in  the  future.    Hence  the  Future  Perfect  is  much 
commoner  in  Latin  than  in  English.    It  may  even  be  used  instead  of  the  Future,  from 
the  fondness  of  the  Romans  for  representing  an  action  as  completed :  — 

quid  inventum  sit  paulo  post  videro  (Acad.  ii.  70),  wJiat  has  been  found  out  I  shall 

see  presently. 
qui  Antonium  oppresserit  bellum  taeterrimum  confecerit  (Fam.  x.  19),  whoever 
crushes  (shall  have  crushed)  Antony  will  finish  (will  have  finished)  a  most 
loathsome  war. 


§§  479-481]  TENSES   OF  THE   SUBJUNCTIVE  301 

EPISTOLARY   TENSES 

479.  In  Letters,  the  Perfect  Historical  or  the  Imperfect  may 
be  used  for  the  present,  and  tlie  Pluperfect  for  any  past  tense,  as 
if  the  letter  were  dated  at  the  time  it  is  supposed  to  be  received: — 

neque  tamen,  haec  cum  scribebam,  eram  nescius  quantis  oneribus  premerere 

(Earn.  V.  12.  2),  nor  while  I  write  this  am  I  ignorant  under  what  burdens 

you  are  loeighed  down. 
ad  tuas  omnis  [epistulas]  rescripseram  pridie  (Att.  ix.  10.  1),  I  answered  all 

your  letters  yesterday. 
cum  quod  scrlberem  ad  te  nihil  haberem,  tamen  has  dedi  litteras  (Att.  ix.  16), 

though  I  have  nothing  to  write  to  you.,  still  I  write  this  letter. 

Note.  —  In  this  use  these  tenses  are  called  the  Epistolary  Perfect,  Imperfect,  and 
Pluperfect.  The  epistolary  tenses  are  not  employed  with  any  uniformity,  but  only 
when  attention  is  particularly  directed  to  the  time  of  writing  (so  especially  scribebam, 
dabam,  etc.). 

TENSES    OF   THE   SUBJUNCTIVE 

480.  The  tenses  of  the  Subjunctive  in  Independent  Clauses  de- 
note time  in  relation  to  the  time  of  the  speaker. 

The  Present  always  refers  to  future  (or  indefinite)  time^  the  Im- 
perfect to  either  past  or  present.,  the  Perfect  to  either  future  or 
past.,  the  Pluperfect  always  to  past. 

481.  The  tenses  of  the  Subjunctive  in  Dependent  Clauses  were 
habitually  used  in  certain  fixed  connections  with  the  tenses  of  the 
main  verb. 

These  connections  were  determined  by  the  time  of  the  main 
verb  and  the  time  of  the  dependent  verb  together.  They  are 
known,  collectively,  as  the  Sequence  of  Tenses. 

Note. — The  so-called  Sequence  of  Tenses  is  not  a  mechanical  law.  Each  tense 
of  the  subjunctive  in  dependent  clauses  (as  in  independent)  originally  denoted  its 
own  time  in  relation  to  the  time  of  the  speaker,  though  less  definitely  than  the  corre- 
sponding tenses  of  the  indicative.  Gradually,  however,  as  the  complex  sentence  was 
more  strongly  felt  as  a  unit,  certain  types  in  which  the  tenses  of  the  dependent 
clause  seemed  to  accord  with  those  of  the  main  clause  were  almost  unconsciously 
regarded  as  regular,  and  others,  in  which  there  was  no  such  agreement,  as  excep- 
tional. Thus  a  pretty  definite  system  of  correspondences  grew  up,  which  is  codi- 
fied in  the  rules  for  the  Sequence  of  Tenses.  Tliese,  however,  are  by  no  means 
rigid.  They  do  not  apply  with  equal  stringency  to  all  dependent  constructions,  and 
they  were  frequently  disregarded,  not  only  when  their  strict  observance  would  have 
obscured  the  sense,  but  for  the  sake  of  emphasis  and  variety,  or  merely  from  care- 


302  SYNTAX :    THE  VERB  [§§  482,  483 

Sequence  of  Tenses 

482.  The  tenses  of  the  Subjunctive  in  Dependent  Clauses  fol- 
low special  rules  for  the  Sequence  of  Tenses. 

With  reference  to  these  rules  all  tenses  when  used  in  independ- 
ent clauses  are  divided  into  two  classes, — Primary  -dud  Secondary. 

1.  Primary.  —  The  Primary  Tenses  include  all  forms  that  express 
present  or  future  time.  These  are  the  Present,  Future,  and  Future 
Perfect  Indicative,  the  Present  and  Perfect  Subjunctive,  and  the 
Present  and  Future  Imperative. 

2.  Secondary.  —  The  Secondary  Tenses  include  all  forms  that  re- 
fer to  past  time.  These  are  the  Imperfect,  Perfect,  and  Pluperfect 
Indicative,  the  Imperfect  and  Pluperfect  Subjunctive,  and  the  His- 
torical Infinitive. 

Note.  —  To  these  may  be  added  certain  forms  less  commonly  used  in  independent 
clauses :  —  (1)  Primary :  Present  Infinitive  in  Exclamations ;  (2)  Secondary :  Perfect 
Infinitive  in  Exclamations  (see  §§462,  485.  a.  N.). 

The  Perfect  Definite  is  sometimes  treated  as  primary  (see  §485.  a). 

For  the  Historical  Present,  see  §  485.  e ;  for  the  Imperfect  Subjunctive  in  Apodosis, 
see  §  485.  h. 

483.  The  following  is  the  general  rule  for  the  Sequence  of 
Tenses: — ^ 

In  complex  sentences  a  Primary  tense  in  the  main  clause  is 
followed  by  the  Present  or  Perfect  in  the  dependent  clause,  and 
a  Secondary  tense  by  the  Imperfect  or  Pluperfect :  — 

Primary  Tenses 

rogo,  I  ask^  am  asking      '\  quid  facias,  what  you  are  doing,      i'  -^  - 

rogabo,  I  shall  ask  I  quid  feceris,  what  you  did,  ivere  doing,  i^\ 

rogavi  (sometimes),  I  have  asked  \       have  done,  have  been  doing. 

quid  facturus  sis,  what  you  will  do.  ''-'■    ^  '  )- 

ut  nos  moneat,  to  warn  us. 

ut  nos  moneas,  to  warn  us. 

quasi  oblitus  sit,  as  if  he  had  forgotten. 

I 

1  The  term  is  sometimes  extended  to  certain  relations  between  the  tenses  of  sub- 
ordinate verbs  in  the  indicative  and  those  of  the  main  verb.  These  relations  do  not 
differ  in  principle  from  those  which  we  are  considering;  but  for  convenience  the  term 
Sequence  of  Tenses  is  in  this  book  restricted  to  subjunctives,  in  accordance  with  the 
usual  practice. 


rogavero, 

I  shall  have  asked 

scribit, 

he  writes 

scribet. 

he  will  write 

scribe  (scribito), 

write 

BCribit, 

he  writes 

§§483^85]  SEQUENCE   OF  TENSES  303 

Secondary  Tenses 

rogabam,  I  asked,  loas  asking  ^  quid  faceres,  what  you  were  doing. 

.  .  T      7   ^  I,  7   J       cruid  fecisses,  what  you  had  done,  had 

rogavi,  I  asked,  have  asked    }      ,         -,  .  ' 

been  doing. 

rogaveram,  I  had  asked  J  quid  facturus  esses,  what  you  would  do. 

scripsit,  he  wrote  ut  nos  moneret,  to  warn  us. 

scripsit,  he  wrote  quasi  oblitus  esset,  as  if  he  had  forgotten. 

484.  In  applying  the  rule  for  the  Sequence  of  Tenses,  observe  — 

(1)  Whether  the  main  verb  is  (a)  primary  or  (b)  secondary. 

(2)  Whether  the  dependent  verb  is  to  denote  completed  action  (i.e. 
past  with  reference  to  the  main  verb)  or  incomplete  action  (i.e.  pres- 
ent or  future  with  reference  to  the  main  verb).     Then  — 

a.  If  the  leading  verb  is  primary,  the  dependent  verb  must  be  in 
the  Present  if  it  denotes  incomplete  action,  in  the  Perfect  if  it  denotes 
completed  action. 

b.  If  the  leading  verb  is  secondary,  the  dependent  verb  must  be  in 
the  Imperfect  if  it  denotes  incomplete  action,  in  the  Pluperfect  if  it 
denotes  completed  action :  — • 

(1)  He  writes  [primary]  to  warn  [incomplete  action]  us,  scribit  ut  nos  moneat. 
I  ask  [primary]  what  you  were  doing  [now  past],  rogo  quid  feceris. 

(2)  He  wrote  [secondary]  to  warn  [incomplete]  us,  scripsit  ut  nos  moneret. 
r  asked  [secondary]  what  you  were  doing  [incomplete],  rogavi  quid  faceres. 

c.  Kotice  that  the  Future  Perfect  denotes  action  completed  (at 
the  time  referred  to),  and  hence  is  represented  in  the  Subjunctive  by 
the  Perfect  or  Pluperfect :  — 

He  shows  that  if  they  come  (shall  have  come),  many  will  perish,  demonstrat,  si 

veDerint,  nmltos  interituros. 
He  showed  that  if  they  should  come  (should  have  come),  maw/  would  perish, 

demonstravit,  si  venissent,  multos  interituros. 

485.  In  the  Sequence  of  Tenses  the  following  special  points 
are  to  be  noted :  — 

a.  The  Perfect  Indicative  is  ordinarily  a  secondary  tense,  but 
allows  the  primary  sequence  when  the  present  time  is  clearly  in  the 
writer's  mind :  — 

ut  satis  esset  praesid!  provisum  est  (Cat.  ii.  26),  provision  has  been  made  that 

there  should  be  ample  guard.     [Secondary  sequence.] 
adduxi  hominem  in  quo  satisfacere  exteris  nationibus  possetis  (Verr.  i.  2),  I 
have  brought  a  man  in  whose  person  you  can  make  satisfaction  to  foreign 
nations.     [Secondary  sequence.] 


304  SYNTAX:    THE  VERB  [§485 

est  enim  res  iam  in  eum  locum  adducta,  ut  quamquam  multum  intersit  inter 
eorum  causas  qui  dimicant,  tamen  inter  victorias  non  multum  interfu- 
turum  putem  (Fam.  v.  21.  3),  for  affairs  have  been  brought  to  such  a  pass 
that,  though  there  is  a  great  difference  between  the  causes  of  those  who  are 
fighting,  still  I  do  not  think  there  will  be  much  difference  between  their  vic- 
tories.    [Primary  sequence.] 

ea  adhibita  doctrina  est  quae  vel  vitiosissimam  nattiram  excolere  possit  (Q.  Fr. 
i.  1.  7),  such  instruction  has  been  given  a^  can  train  even  the  faultiest 
nature.     [Primary  sequence.] 
Note.  —  The  Perfect  Infinitive  in  exclamations  follows  the  same  rule :  ~ 

quemquamne  fuisse  tarn  sceleratum  qui  hoc  fingeret  (Phil.  xiv.  14),  was  any  one  so 
abandoned  as  to  imagine  this?    [Secondary.] 

adeon  rem  redisse  patrem  ut  extimescam  (Ter.  Ph.  153) ,  to  think  that  things  have 
come  to  such  a  pass  that  I  should  dread  my  father!    [Primary.] 

b.  After  a  primary  tense  the  Perfect  Subjunctive  is  regularly  used  to 
denote  any  past  action.    Thus  the  Perfect  Subjunctive  may  represent — 

1.  A  Perfect  Definite:  — 

non  dubito  quin  omnes  tui  scripserint  (Fam.  v.  8),  7  do  not  doubt  that  all 
your  friends  have  written.     [Direct  statement :  scripserunt.  ] 

qua  re  non  ignoro  quid  accidat  in  ultimis  terrls,  cum  audierim  in  Italia  que- 
rellas  civium  (Q.  Fr.  i.  1.  33),  therefore  I  know  well  what  happens  at  the 
ends  of  the  eaiih,  when  I  have  heard  in  Italy  the  complaiixts  of  citizens. 
[Direct  statement :  audivi.  ] 

2.  A  Perfect  Historical :  — 

me  autem  hic  laudat  quod  rettulerim,  non  quod  patefecerim  (Att.  xii.  21),  me 
he  praises  because  I  brought  the  matter  [before  the  senate],  not  because  I 
brought  it  to  light.     [Direct  statement :  rettulit.] 

3.  An  Imperfect :  — 

si  forte  ceciderunt,  tum  intellegitur  quam  fuerint  inopes  amicorum  (Lael.  53), 

if  perchance  they  fall  (have  fallen),  then  one  can  see  how  poor  they  were 

in  friends.     [Direct  question :  quam  inopes  erant  ?] 
qui  status  rerum  fuerit  cum  has  litteras  dedi,  scire  poteris  ex  C.  Titio  Stra- 

bone  (Fam.  xii.  6),  what  the  condition  of  affairs  was  when  I  ivrote  this 

letter,  you  can  learn  from  Strabo.     [Direct  question:  qui  status  erat?] 
quam  civitati  carus  fuerit  maerore  funeris  indicatum  est  (Lael.  11),  hoio  dear 

he  was  to  the  state  has  been  shoivn  by  the  grief  at  his  funeral.     [Direct 

question  :  quam  carus  erat  ?] 
ex  epistulis  intellegi  licet  quam  frequens  fuerit  Platonis  auditor  (Or.  15),  it 

may  be  understood  from  his  letters  how  constant  a  hearer  he  was  of  Plato. 

[Direct  question  :  quam  frequens  erat  ?] 

Note.  —  Thus  the  Perfect  Subjunctive  may  represent,  not  only  a  Perfect  Definite 
or  a  Perfect  Historical  of  a  direct  statement  or  question,  hut  an  Imperfect  as  well. 
This  comes  from  the  want  of  any  special  tense  of  the  subjunctive  for  continued  past 
action  after  a  primary  tense.  Thus,  miror  quid  fecerit  may  mean  (1)  I  wonder  what  he 
has  donCf  (2)  Iioonder  vjhat  he  did  (hist,  perf.),  or  (3)  I  wonder  what  he  was  doing. 


§485]  SEQUENCE   OF  TENSES  305 

c.  In  clauses  of  Eesiilt,  the  Perfect  Subjunctive  is  regularly  (the 
Present  rarely)  used  after  secondary  tenses :  — 

Hortensius  ardebat  dicendi  cupiditate  sic  ut  in  nuUo  umquam  flagrantius 
stiidium  viderim  (Brut.  302),  Hortensius  was  so  hot  with  desire  of  speak- 
ing that  I  have  never  seen  a  more  burning  ardor  in  any  man. 

[Siciliam  Verres]  per  triennium  ita  vexavit  ac  perdidit  ut  ea  restitui  in  anti- 
quum statuni  ntillo  modo  possit  (Verr.  i.  12),'/o**  three  years  Verres  so 
racked  and  ruined  Sicily  that  she  can  in  no  way  be  restored  to  her  former 
state.     [Here  the  Present  describes  a  state  of  things  actually  existing.] 

videor  esse  cdnsecutus  ut  n5n  possit  Dolabella  in  Italiam  pervenire  (Fam. 
xii.  14.  2),  I  seem  to  have  brought  it  about  that  Dolabella  cannot  come  into 
Italy. 

Note  1.  —  This  construction  emphasizes  the  result ;  the  regular  sequence  of  tenses 
would  subordinate  it. 

Note  2. — There  is  a  special  fondness  for  the  Perfect  Subjunctive  to  represent  a 
Perfect  Indicative :  — 

Thorius  erat  ita  non  superstitiosus  ut  ilia  pliirima  in  sua  patria  et  sacrificia  et 
fana  contemneret ;  ita  non  timidus  ad  mortem  ut  in  acie  sit  ob  rem  publicam 
interfectus  (Fin.  ii.  63),  Thorius  loas  so  little  superstitious  that  he  despised 
[contemnebat]  the  many  sacrifices  and  shrines  in  his  country ;  so  little  timor- 
ous about  death  that  he  was  killed  [interfectus  est]  ^?^  battle,  in  defence  of 
the  state. 

d.  A  general  truth  after  a  past  tense  follows  the  sequence  of  tenses : 
ex  his  quae  tribuisset,  sibi  quam  mtitabilis  asset  reputabat  (Q.  C.  iii.  8.  20), 

from  what  she  (Fortune)  had  bestowed  on  him,  he  reflected  how  inconstant 
she  is.     [Direct :  mutabilis  est.  ] 
ibi  quantam  vim  ad  stimulandos  animos  Ira  haberet  apparuit  (Li v.  xxxiii.  37), 
here  it  appeared  what  power  anger  has  to  goad  the  mind.    [Direct :  habet.  ] 
Note.  —  In  English  the  original  tense  is  more  commonly  kept. 

e.  The  Historical  Present  (§  469)  is  sometimes  felt  as  a  primary, 
sometimes  as  a  secondary  tense,  and  accordingly  it  takes  either  the 
primary  or  the  secondary  sequence  :  — 

rogat  ut  curet  quod  dixisset  (Quinct.  18),  he  asks  him  to  attend  to  the  thing  he 
had  spoken  of.     [Both  primary  and  secondary  sequence.  ] 
Note. — After  the  historical  present,  the  subjunctive  with  cum  temporal  must 
follow  the  secondary  sequence :  — 

quo  cum  venisset  cogn5scit  (B.  C.  i.  34),  when  he  had  come  there  he  learns. 
cum  esset  pugnatum  horis  quinque,  nostrique  gravius  premerentur,  impetum  in 
cohortis  faciunt  (id.  i.  46),  tohen  they  had  fought  for  five  hours,  and  our 
me7i  were  pretty  hard  pressed,  they  make  an  attack  on  the  cohorts. 

/.  The  Historical  Infinitive  regularly  takes  the  secondary  se- 
quence :  — 

interim  cotidie  Caesar  Haeduos  frtimentum,  quod  assent  polliciti,  flagitare 
(B.  G.  i.  16),  meanwhile  Coesar  demanded  of  the  Hoedui  every  day  the  grain 
which  they  had  promised. 


306  SYNTAX:    THE  VERB  [§485 

g.  The  Imperfect  and  Pluperfect  in  conditions  contrary  to  fact 
(§  517)  and  in  the  Deliberative  Subjunctive  (§  444)  are  not  affected 
by  the  sequence  of  tenses  :  — 

quia  tale  sit,  ut  vel  si  ignorarent  id  homines  vel  si  obmutuissent  (Fin.  ii.  49), 
because  it  is  such  that  even  if  men  were  ignorant  of  it,  or  had  been 
silent  about  it. 
quaero  a  te  cur  C.  Cornelium  non  defenderem  (Vat.  5),  I  ask  you  why  I  was 
not  to  defend  Caius  Cornelius?     [Direct:  cur  non  defenderem?] 

h.  The  Imperfect  Subjunctive  in  present  conditions  contrary  to 
fact  (§517)  is  regularly  followed  by  the  secondary  sequence :  — 
si  alii  consules  assent,  ad  te  potissimum,  Paule,  mitterem,  ut  eos  mihi  quam 
amicissimos  redderes  (Fam.  xv,  13.  3),  if  there  were  other  consuls,  I  should 
send  to  you,  Paulus,  in  preference  to  all,  that  you  might  make  them  as 
friendly  to  me  as  possible. 
si  solos  eos  diceres  miseros  quibus  moriendum  esset,  neminem  exciperes 
(Tusc.  i.  9),  if  you  were  to  call  only  those  wretched  who  must  die,  you 
would  except  no  one. 

i.  The  Present  is  sometimes  followed  by  a  secondary  sequence, 
seemingly  because  the  writer  is  thinking  of  past  time :  — 

sed  si  res  coget,  est  quiddam  tertium,  quod  neque  Selicio  nee  mihi  displice- 
bat:  ut  neque  iacere  rem  pateremur,  etc.  (Fam.  i.  5  a.  3),  but  if  the  case 
shall  demand,  there  is  a  third  [course]  which  neither  Selicius  nor  myself 
disapproved,  that  we  should  not  allow,  etc.  [Here  Cicero  is  led  by  the 
time  of  displicebat.] 

sed  tamen  ut  scires,  haec  tibi  scribo  (Fam.  xiii.  47),  but  yet  that  you  may  know,  I 
ivrite  thus.    [As  if  he  had  used  the  epistolary  imperfect  scribebam  (§  479).] 

cuius  praecepti  tanta  vis  est  ut  ea  non  homini  cuipiam  sed  Delphico  deo 
tribueretur  (Legg.  i.  58),  such  is  the  force  of  this  precept,  that  it  was 
ascribed  not  to  any  man,  but  to  the  Delphic  god.  [The  precept  was  an 
old  one.] 

J,  When  a  clause  depends  upon  one  already  dependent,  its  se- 
quence may  be  secondary  if  the  verb  of  that  clause  expresses  past 
time,  even  if  the  main  verb  is  in  a  primary  tense :  — 

sed  tamen  qua  re  accident  ut  ex  meis  superioribus  litteris  id  suspicarere  nescio 

(Fam.  ii.  16),  but  yet  how  it  happened  that  you  suspected  this  from  my 

previous  letter,  I  donH  know. 
tantum  profecisse  videmur  ut  a  Graecis  n6  verborum  quidem  c6pia  vincere- 

mur  (N.  D.  i.  8),  we  seem  to  have  advanced  so  far  that  even  in  abundance 

of  words  we  are  not  surpassed  by  the  Greeks. 

Note.  —  So  regularly  after  a  Perfect  Infinitive  which  depends  on  a  primary  ten^e 

(§585,  a). 


486]  TENSES   OF   THE   INFINITIVE  30? 


TENSES    OF   THE   INFINITIVE 

486.  Except  in  Indirect  Discourse,  only  tiie  Present  and  Per- 
fect Infinitives  are  used. 

The  Present  represents  the  action  of  the  verb  as  in  progress  with- 
out distinct  reference  to  time,  the  Perfect  as  completed. 

For  the  Tenses  of  the  Infinitive  in  Indirect  Discourse  see  §  584. 

a.  With  past  tenses  of  verbs  of  7iecessity,  propriety,  and  possibility 

(as  debui,  oportuit,  potui),  the  Present  Infinitive  is  often  used  in 

Latin  where  the  English  idiom  prefers  the  Perfect  Infinitive :  — 

numne,  si  Coriolanus  habuit  amicos,  ferre  contra  patriam  arrna  illi  cum 

Coriolano  debuerunt  (Lael.  36),  if  Coriolanus  had  friends,  ought  they  to 

have  borne  arms  with  him  against  their  fatherland  f 

pecunia,  quam  his  oportuit  civitatibus  pro  frumento  dari  (Verr.  ill.  174), 

money  which  ought  to  have  been  paid  to  these  states  for  grain, 
consul  esse  qui  potui,  nisi  eum  vltae  cursum  tenuissem  a  pueritia  (Rep.  i.  10), 
how  could  I  have  become  consul  had  I  not  from  boyhood  followed  that 
course  of  life  f 

6.  With  verbs  of  necessity,  propriety,  and  possibility,  the  Perfect 

Infinitive  may  be  used  to  emphasize  the  idea  of  completed  action  :  — 

tametsi  statim  vicisse  debeo  (Rose.  Am.  73),  although  I  ought  to  win  my  case 

at  once  (to  be  regarded  as  having  won  it), 
bellum  quod  possumus  ante  hiemem  perfecisse  (Li v.  xxxvii.  19.  5),  a  war 

which  we  can  have  completed  before  winter. 
nil  ego,  si  peccem,  possum  nescisse  (Ov.  H.  xvi.  47),  if  I  should  go  wrong, 
I  cannot  have  done  it  in  ignorance  (am  not  able  not  to  have  known). 

Note.  —  With  the  past  tenses  of  these  verbs  the  perfect  infinitive  is  apparently- 
due  to  attraction :  — 

quod  iam  pridem  factum  esse  oportuit  (Cat.  i.  5),  (a  thing)  which  ought  to  have 

been  done  long  ago. 
haec  facta  ah  illo  oportebat  (Ter.  Haut.  536),  this  ought  to  have  been  done  by  him. 
turn  decuit  metuisse  (Aen.  x.  94),  then  was  the  time  to  fear  (then  you  should  have 
feared) . 

c.  In  archaic  Latin  and  in  legal  formulas  the  Perfect  Active  Infini- 
tive is  often  used  with  nolo  or  volo  in  prohibitions :  — 

Chaldaeum  nequem  consuluisse  velit  (Cato  R.  R.  v.  4),  let  him  not  venture  to 

have  consulted  a  soothsayer. 
nolito  devellisse  (PI.  Poen.  872),  do  not  have  them  plucked. 
nequis  humasse  velit  Aiacem  (Hor.  S.  ii.  3.  187),  let  no  one  venture  to  have 

buried  Ajax. 
NEiQvis  EORVM  BACANAL  HABViSE  VELET  (S.  C.  de  Bac.  1),  let  no  One  of  them 
venture  to  have  had  a  place  for  Bacchanalian  worship. 


308  SYNTAX:    THE  VERB  [§486 

d.  With  verbs  of  tvishing^  the  Perfect  Passive  Infinitive  (com- 
monly without  esse)  is  often  used  emphatically  instead  of  the  Present: 

doraestica  cura  te  levatum  volo  (Q.  Fr.  iii.  9.  3),  I  wish  you  relieved  of  private 

care. 
illos  monitos  volo  (Cat.  ii.  27),  I  wish  them  thoroughly  warned. 
qui  illam  [patriam]  exstinctam  cupit  (Fin.  iv.  6G),  who  is  eager  for  h&t  utter 

destruction. 
illud  te  esse  admonitum  volo  (Gael,  8),  I  wish  you  to  be  well  advised  of  this. 
qui  se  at)  omnibus  desertos  potius  quam  abs  te  defenses  esse  malunt  (Caeoil. 

21),  who  prefer  to  be  deserted  by  all  rather  than  to  be  defended  by  you. 

Note.  —  The  participle  in  this  case  is  rather  in  predicate  agreement  (with  or  with- 
out esse)  than  used  to  form  a  strict  perfect  infinitive,  though  the  full  form  can  hardly 
be  distinguished  from  that  construction. 

e.  In  late  Latin,  and  in  poetry  (often  for  metrical  convenience), 
rarely  in  good  prose,  the  Perfect  Active  Infinitive  is  used  emphatically 
instead  of  the  Present,  and  even  after  other  verbs  than  those  of  wish- 
ing :  — 

nSm5  eorum  est  qui  nSn  perlsse  te  cupiat  (Verr.  ii.  149),  there  is  no  one  of 
them  who  is  not  eager  for  your  death. 

baud  equidem  premendo  alium  me  extuliase  velim  (Liv.  xxii.  59.  10),  1 
would  not  by  crushing  another  exalt  myself. 

sunt  qui  nolint  tetigisse  (Hor.  S.  i.  2.  28),  there  are  those  who  would  not  touch. 

commisisse  cavet  (Hor.  A.  P.  168),  he  is  canitious  of  doing. 

nunc  quem  tetigisse  timerent,  anguis  eras  (Ov.  M.  viii.  738),  again  you  be- 
came a  serpent  which  they  dreaded  to  touch. 

fratresque  tendentes  opaco  Pelion  imposuisse  Olympo  (Hor.  Od.  iii.  4.  51), 
and  the  brother's  striving  to  set  Pelion  on  dark  Olympus. 

/.  After  verbs  of  feeling  the  Perfect  Infinitive  is  used,  especially 
by  the  poets,  to  denote  a  completed  action. 

So  also  with  satis  est,  satis  habeo^  melius  est,  contentus  sum,  and  in 
a  few  other  cases  where  the  distinction  of  time  is  important :  — 

non  paenitebat  intercapedinem  scribendi  fecisse  (Fam.  xvi.  21),  I  was  not 

sorry  to  have  made  a  respite  of  writing. 
pudet  me  non  praestitisse  (id.  xiv.  8),  I  am  ashamed  not  to  Aove  shown. 
sunt  quos  pulverem  Olympicum  coUegisse  iuvat  (Hor.  Od.  i.  1,  3),  some 

delight  to  have  stirred  up  the  dust  at  Olympia. 
quiesse  erit  melius  (Liv.  iii.  48),  it  will  be  better  to  have  kept  quiet. 
ac  si  quis  amet  scripsisse  (Hor.  S.  i.  10.  60),  than  if  one  should  choose  to  have 

written. 
id  solum  dixisse  satis  habeo  (Veil.  ii.  124),  I  am  content  to  have  said  only 

this. 

1  Volo,  and  less  frequently  nolo,  malo,  and  cuitio. 


§§  487-490] 


PARTICIPLES 


309 


I.  Participles: 


NOUN  AND  ADJECTIVE  FOEMS  OF  THE  VERB 

487.    The  several  Noun  and  Adjective  forms  associated  with  the  verb  are  employed 
as  follows:—! 

f  1.  Attributive  (§494). 

2.  Simple  Predicate  (§495). 

3.  Periphrastic  Perfect  (passive)  (§495.  n.). 

4.  Predicate  of  Circumstance  (§  49(5). 

5.  Descriptive  (Indirect  Discourse)  (§497d). 

1,  Periphrastic  with  esse  (§498.  a). 

2.  Periphrastic  with  fui  (=  Pluperfect  Subjunc- 
tive) (§498.  b). 

1.  As  Descriptive  Adjective  (§500.  1). 

2.  Periphrastic  with  esse  (§500.  2). 

3.  Of  Purpose  with  certain  verbs  (§  500.  4). 

1.  Genitive  as  Subjective  or  Objective  Genitive  (§504). 

2.  Dative,  with  Adjectives  (of  Fitness),  Nouns,  Verbs  (§505). 

3.  Accusative,  with  certain  Prepositions  (§  506). 

4.  Ablative,  of  Means,  Comparison,  or  with  Prepositions  (§  507). 

1.  Accusative  Supine  (in  -um),  with  Verbs  of  Motion  (§509). 

2.  Ablative  Supine  (in  -u),  chiefly  with  Adjectives  (§510). 


II. 


Gerund  or 
Gerundive : 


Present  and 
Perfect : 


b.  Future 


c.  Gerundive 


III.   Supine: 


PARTICIPLES 

488.  The  Participle  expresses  the  action  of  the  verb  in  the  form 
of  an  Adjective,  but  has  a  partial  distinction  of  tense  and  may 
govern  a  case. 

Note. — Thus  the  participle  combines  all  the  functions  of  an  adjective  with  some 
of  the  functions  of  a  verb.  As  an  Adjective,  it  limits  substantives  and  agrees  with 
them  in  gender,  number,  and  case  (§286).  As  a  Verb,  it  has  distinctions  of  time 
(§  489)  and  often  takes  an  object. 

Distinctions  of  Tense  in  Participles 

489.  Participles  denote  time  as  present,  past,  or  future  with 
respect  to  the  time  of  the  verb  in  their  clause. 

Thus  the  Present  Participle  represents  the  action  as  in  progress  at 
the  time  indicated  by  the  tense  of  the  verb,  the  Perfect  as  completed, 
and  the  Future  as  still  to  take  place. 

490.  The  Present  Participle  has  several  of  the  special  uses  of 
the  Present  Indicative.     Thus  it  may  denote  — 

1.  An  action  continued  in  the  present  but  begun  in  the  past  (§  466) : 
quaerenti  mihi  iam  diu  certa  res  nulla  veniebat  in  mentem  (Fam.  iv.  13), 
though  I  had  long  sought,  no  certain  thing  came  to  my  mind. 

1  For  the  Syntax  of  the  Infinitive,  see  §§  451  ff.,  486. 


310  SYNTAX:    THE  VERB  [§§490-493 

2.  Attempted  action  (§  467) :  — 

C.  Flaminio  restitit  agrum  Picentera  dividenti  (Cat.  M,  11),  he  resisted  Fla- 
minius  when  attempiing  to  divide  the  Picene  territory. 

3.  Barely  (in  poetry  and  later  Latin)  futurity  or  purpose,  with  a 
verb  of  motion  :  — 

Eurypylum  scitantem  oracula  mittimus  (Aen.  ii.  11-1),  we  send  Eurypylus  to 
consult  the  oracle.     [Cf.  §  468.] 

491.  The  Perfect  Participle  of  a  few  deponent  verbs  is  used 
nearly  in  the  sense  of  a  Present. 

Such  are,  regularly,  ratus,  solitus,  veritus ;  commonly,  arbitratus, 
fisus,  ausus,  secutus,  and  occasionally  others,  especially  in  later 
writers :  — 

rem  incredibilem  rati  (Sail.  Cat.  48),  thinking  the  thing  incredible. 

insidias  veritus  (B.  G.  ii.  11),  fearing  an  ambuscade. 

cohortatus  mllites  docuit  (B.  C.  iii.  80),  encouraging  the  men,  he  showed. 

iratus  dlxisti  (Mur,  62),  you  spoke  in  a  passion. 

ad  piignam  congressi  (Li  v.  iv.  10),  meeting  in  fight. 

492.  The  Latin  has  no  Present  Participle  in  the  passive. 

The  place  of  such  a  form  is  supplied  usually  by  a  clause  with  dum 
or  cum :  — 

obiere  dum  calciantur  raatiitino  duo  Caesares  (Plin.  N.  H.  vii.  181),  two 

Caesars  died  while  having  their  shoes  put  on  in  the  morning. 
meque  ista  delectant  cum  Latlne  dicuntur  (Acad.  i.  18),  those  things  please 
me  when  they  are  spoken  in  Latin. 

Note.  —  These  constructions  are  often  used  when  a  participle  might  be  employed :  — 
die,  hospes,  Spartae  nos  te  hie  vidisse  iacentis,  dum  Sanctis  patriae  legibus  obse- 
quimur  (Tusc.  i.  101),  tell  it,  stranger,  at  Sparta,  that  you  .saw  v^  lying  here 
obedient  to  our  country's  sacred  laios.  [Here  dum  obsequimur  is  a  transla- 
tion of  the  Greek  present  participle  ireLdb^xevoi.'] 
dum  [Ulixes]  sibi,  dum  sociis  reditum  parat  (Hor.  Ep.  i.  2.  21),  Ulysses,  white 
securing  the  return  of  himself  and  his  companions.    [In  Greek :  dpt^/jLevos.] 

493.  The  Latin  has  no  Perfect  Participle  in  the  active  voice. 
The  deficiency  is  supplied  — 

1.  In  deponents  by  the  perfect  passive  form  with  its  regular  active 
meaning :  — 

nam  singulas  [navis]  nostri  consectati  expugnaverunt  (B.  G.  iii.  15), /or  our 
men,  having  overtaken  them  one  by  one,  captured  them  by  boarding. 

Note. — The  perfect  participle  of  several  deponent  verbs  may  be  either  active  or 
passive  in  meaning  (§  190.  b). 


§§493-495]  USES   OF   PARTICIPLES  311 

2.  In  other  verbs,  either  by  the  perfect  passive  participle  in  the 
ablative  absolute  (§  420.  n.)  or  by  a  temporal  clause  (especially  with 
cum  or  postquam) :  — 

itaque  convocatis  centurionibus  milites  certiores  facit  (B.  G.  iii.  5),  and  so, 
having  called  the  centurions  together,  he  informs  the  soldiers  (the  centu- 
rions having  been  called  together). 
cum  venisset  animadvertit  collem  (id.  vii.  44),  having  come  (when  he  had 

come),  he  noticed  a  hill. 
postquam  id  animum  advertit  copias  suas  Caesar  in  proximum  collem  subducit 
(B,  G.  i.  24),  having  observed  this  (after  he  had  observed  this)  CcBsar 
led  his  troops  to  the  nearest  hill. 

Uses  of  Participles 

494.  The  Present  and  Perfect  Participles  are  sometimes  used 

as  attributives,  nearly  like  adjectives :  — 

aeger  et  flagrans  animus  (Tac.  Ann.  iii.  54),  his  sick  and  passionate  mind. 
cum  antlquissimam  sententiam  tum  comprobatam  (Div.  i.  11),  a  view  at  once 

most  ancient  and  well  approved. 
signa  numquam  fere  mentientia  (id.  i.  15),  signs  hardly  ever  deceitful. 
auspiciis  utuntur  coactis  (id.  i.  27),  they  use  forced  auspices. 

a.  Participles  often  become  complete  adjectives,  and  may  be  com- 
pared, or  used  as  nouns  :  — 

quo  mulieri  esset  res  cautior  (Caec.  11),  that  the  matter  might  he  more  secure 

for  the  woman. 
in  illls  artibus  praestantissimus  (De  Or.  i.  217),  preeminent  in  those  arts. 
sibi  indulgentes  et  corpori  deservientes  {J^^gg,-  i.  89),  the  self-indulgent,  and 

slaves  to  the  body  (indulging  themselves  and  serving  the  body), 
recte  facta  paria  essedebent  (Par.  22),  right  deeds  (things  rightly  done)  ought 

to  be  like  in  value  (see  §  321.  b). 
male  parta  male  dllabuntur  (Phil.  ii.  65),  ill  got,  ill  spent  (things  ill  acquired 

are  ill  spent), 
consuetudo  valentis  (De  Or.  ii.  18G),  the  habit  of  a  man  in  health. 

495.  Participles  are  often  used  as  Predicate  Adjectives.  As 
such  they  may  be  joined  to  the  subject  by  esse  or  a  copulative  verb 
(see  §  283) :  — 

Gallia  est  divisa  (B.  G.  i.  1),  Gaul  is  divided. 

locus  qui  nunc  saeptus  est  (Li v.  i.  8),  the  place  which  is  now  enclosed. 

videtis  ut  senectfis  sit  operosa  et  semper  agens  aliquid  et  moliens  (Cat.  M.  26), 

you  see  how  busy  old  age  is,  always  aiming  and  trying  at  something. 
nemo  adhuc  convenire  me  voluit  cui  fuerim  occupatus   (id.   32),  nobody 

hitherto  has  [ever]  wished  to  converse  with  me,  to  whom  I  have  been 


312  SYNTAX  :    THE  VERB  [§§  495,  496 

NoTK.  —  From  this  predicate  use  arise  the  compound  tenses  of  the  passive,  —  the 
participle  of  comjjleted  action  with  the  incomplete  tenses  of  esse  developing  the  idea 
of  past  time :  as,  interfectus  est,  he  was  (or  has  been)  killed,  lit.  he  is  having-heen-killed 
(i.e.  already  slain). 

The  perfect  participle  used  with  fui  etc.  was  perhaps  originally  an  intensified  expres- 
sion in  the  popular  language  for  the  perfect,  pluperfect,  etc. 

At  times  these  forms  indicate  a  state  of  affairs  no  longer  existing:  — 
cotem  quoque  eodem  loco  sitam  fuisse  memorant  (Liv.  i.  3G.  5),  they  say  that  a 
whetstone  was  (once)  deposited  in  this  same  place.    [At  the  time  of  writing 
it  was  no  longer  there.] 
arma  quae  fixa  in  parietibns  fuerant,  humi  inventa  sunt  (Div.  1.  74),  the  arms 
which  had  been  fastened  on  the  walls  were  found  upon  the  ground. 
But  more  frequently  they  are  not  to  be  distinguished  from  the  forms  vv^ith  sum  etc. 

The  construction  is  found  occasionally  at  all  periods,  but  is  most  common  in  Livy 
and  later  writers. 

496.  The  Present  and  Perfect  Participles  are  often  used  as  a 
predicate,  where  in  English  a  phrase  or  a  subordinate  clause  would 
be  more  natural. 

In  this  use  the  participles  express  time,  cause,  occasion,  condition, 
concession,  characteristic  (or  descriptiori),  manner,  means,  attendant 
circumstances :  — 

volventes  hostllia  cadavera  amicum  reperiebant  (Sail.  Cat.  61),  while  rolling 

over  the  corpses  of  the  enemy  they  found  a  friend.     [Time.] 
paululum  commoratus,  signa  canere  iubet  (id.  59),  after  delaying  a  little  whiles 

he  orders  them  to  give  the  signal.     [Time.] 
longius  prosequi  veritus,  ad  Ciceronem  pervenit  (B.  G.  v.  52),  because  he 

feared  to  follow  further,  he  came  to  Cicero.     [Cause.] 
qui  sclret  laxas  dare  iussus  habenas  (Aen.  i.  63),  who  might  know  hoiv  to 

give  them  loose  rein  when  bidden.     [Occasion.] 
damnatum  poenam  sequi  oportebat  (B.  G.  i.  4),  if  condemned,  punishment 

must  overtake  him.     [Condition.] 
saluteui  insperantibus  reddidisti  (Marc.  21),  you  have  restored  a  safety  for 

which  we  did  not  hope  (to  [us]  not  hoping).     [Concession.] 
Dardanius  caput  ecce  puer  delectus  (Aen.  x.  133),  the  Trojan  boy  ivith  his 

head  uncovered.     [Description.] 
nee  trepides  in  iisum  poscentis  aevi  panca  (Hor.  Od.  ii.  11.  5),  be  not  anxious 

for  the  needs  of  age  that  demands  little.     [Characteristic] 
incitati  fuga  niontis  altissimos  petebant  (B.  C.  iii.  93),  in  headlong  flight  they 

made  for  the  highest  mountains.     [Manner.] 
mllites  sublevati  alii  ab  alils  magnam  partem  itineris  conficerent  (id.  i.  68), 

the  soldiers,  helped  up  by  each  other,  accomplished  a  considerable  part  of 

the  route.     [Means.] 
hoc  laudans,  Pompeins  idem  iuravit  (id.  iii.  87),  approving  this,  Pompey  took 

the  same  oath.     [Attendant  Circumstance.] 
aut  sedens  aut  ambulans  disputabam  (Tusc.  i.  7),  J  conducted  the  discussion 

either  sitting  or  walking.     [Attendant  Circumstance.] 


§§  496,  497]  USES   OF   PARTICIPLES  313 

NoTtt  1.  — These  uses  are  especially  frequent  in  the  Ablative  Absolute  (§  420). 
Note  2.  —  A  coordinate  clause  is  sometimes  compressed  into  a  perfect  participle :  — 
instructos  ordines  in  locum  aequum  deducit  (Sail.  Cat.  59),  he  draws  up  the  lines, 

and  leads  them  to  level  ground. 
ut  hos  traductos  necaret  (B.  G.  v.  6),  that  he  might  carry  them,  over  and  put  them 
to  death. 
Note  3.  —  A  participle  with  a  negative  often  expresses  the  same  Idea  which  in 
English  is  given  hj  without  and  a  verbal  noun:  as,  — miserum  est  nihil  prSflcientem 
angi  (N.  D.  iii.  14),  it  is  wretched  to  vex  oneself  without  effecting  anything. 

Note  4. — Acceptum  and  expensum  as  predicates  with  ferre  and  referre  are  book- 
keeping terms:  as,  —  quas  pecunias  ferebat  eis  expensas  (Verr.  ii.  170),  what  sums  he 
charged  to  them. 

497.  A  noun  and  a  passive  participle  are  often  so  united  that 
the  participle  and  not  the  noun  contains  the  main  idea :  —  ^ 

ante  conditam  condendamve  urbem  (Liv.  Pref.),  before  the  city  was  built  or 

building. 
illi  libertatem  imminutam  civium  Romanorum  non  tulerunt ;  vos  ereptam 
vitam  neglegetis  (Manil.  11),  they  did  not  endure  the  infringement  of  the 
citizens'  liberty ;  will  you  disregard  the  destruction  of  their  lives  ? 
post  natos  homines  (Brut.  224),  since  the  creation  of  man. 
iam  a  condita  urbe  (Phil.  ill.  9),  even  from  the  founding  of  the  city. 

a.  The  perfect  participle  with  a  noun  in  agreement,  or  in  the 
neuter  as  an  abstract  noun,  is  used  in  the  ablative  with  opus,  need 
(cf.  §411.  a):  — 

opus  facto  est  viatico  (PL  T.rin.  887),  tJiere  is  need  of  laying  in  provision. 
maturato  opus  est  (Liv.  viii.  13.  17),  there  is  need  of  haste. 

b.  The  perfect  participle  with  habeo  (rarely  with  other  verbs)  has 
almost  the  same  meaning  as  a  perfect  active,  but  denotes  the  contin- 
ued effect  of  the  action  of  the  verb :  —  ^ 

Mem  quam  habent  spectatam  iam  et  diu  cognitam  (Caecil.  11),  my  fidelity, 

which  they  have  proved  and  long  known. 
cohortls  in  acie  lxxx  constitutas  habebat  (B.  C.  iii.  89),  he  had  eighty  cohorts 

stationed  in  line  of  battle. 
nefarios  duces  captos  iam  et  comprehensos  tenetis  (Cat.  iii.  16),  you  have  now 

captured  the  infamous  leaders  and  hold  them  in  custody. 

c.  A  verb  of  effecting  or  the  like  may  be  used  in  combination  with 
the  perfect  participle  of  a  transitive  verb  to  express  the  action  of  that 
verb  more  forcibly  :  — 

1  Compare  the  participle  in  indirect  discourse  in  Greek  (Goodwin's  Greek  Grammar. 
§  L588) ;  and  the  English  "  'T  was  at  the  royal  feast /or  Persia  won  "  (Dryden),  i.e.  for 
the  conquest  of  Persia. 

2  The  perfect  with  have,  in  modern  langunges  of  Latin  stock,  has  grown  out  of  this 
use  of  habeo. 


314  SYNTAX:    THE  VERB  [§§497-499 

praefectos  su5s  multl  missos  fecerunt  (Verr.  iii.  134),  many  discharged  their 

officers  (made  dismissed). 
hie  transactum  reddet  omne  (PL  Capt.  345),  he  will  get  it  aU  done  (restore  it 

finished). 
ademptum  tibi  iam  faxo  omiiem  metum  (Ter.  Haut.  341),  I  icill  relieve  you 

of  all  fear  (make  it  taken  away), 
illam  tibi  incensam  dabo  (Ter.  Ph.  974),  I  will  make  her  angry  with  you. 
Note.  —  Similarly  volo  (with  its  compounds)  and  cupio  with  a  perfect  participle 
without  esse  (cf.  §  486.  d). 

d.  After  verbs  denoting  an  action  of  the  senses  the  present  partici- 
ple in  agreement  with  the  object  is  nearly  equivalent  to  the  infinitive 
of  indirect  discourse  (§  580),  but  expresses  the  action  more  vividly : 

ut  eum  nemo  umquam  in  equ5  sedentem  viderit  (Verr.  v.  27),  so  that  no  one 
ever  saw  him  sitting  on  a  horse.     [Cf.  Tusc.  iii.  31.] 

Note.  —  The  same  construction  is  used  after  facio,  induce,  and  the  like,  with  the 
name  of  an  author  as  subject:  as,  —  Xenophon  facit  Socratem  disputantem  (N..D.  i. 
31),  Xenophon  represents  Socrates  disputing. 

Future  Participle  (Active) 

498.  The  Future  Participle  (except  futurus  and  venturus)  is 
rarely  used  in  simple  agreement  with  a  noun,  except  by  poets 
and  later  writers. 

a.  The  future  participle  is  chiefly  used  with  the  forms  of  esse 
(often  omitted  in  the  infinitive)  in  the  Active  Periphrastic  Conjuga- 
tion (see  §  195) :  — 

morere,  Diagora,  ndn  enim  in  caelum  adscensurus  es  (Tusc.  i.  Ill),  die, 

Biagoras,  for  you  are  not  likely  to  rise  to  heaven. 
sperat  adulescens  diu  se  victurum  (Cat.  M.  68),  the  young  man  hopes  to  live 

long  (that  he  shall  live  long), 
neque  petiturus  umquam  consulatum  videretur  (Off.  iii.  79),.a?id  did  not  seem 
likely  ever  to  be  a  candidate  for  the  consulship. 

h.  With  the  past  tenses  of  esse  in  the  indicative,  the  future  parti- 
ciple is  often  equivalent  to  the  pluperfect  subjunctive  (§  517.  d). 
For  futurum  fuisse,  see  §  589.  b. 

499.  By  later  writers  and  the  poets  the  Future  Participle  is 
often  used  in  simple  agreement  with  a  substantive  to  express  — 

1.  Likelihood  or  certainty  :  — 
rem  ausus  pliis  famae  habituram  (Liv.  ii.  10),  having  dared  a  thing  which  would 
have  more  repute. 


§§  499,  500]  GERUNDIVE  316 

2.  Purpose,  intention,  or  readiness  :  — 

ggreditur  castrls  Romanus  vallum  invasurus  (Liv.  iii.  60.  8),  the  Roman  comes 
out  of  the  camp  with  the  intention  of  attacking  the  rampart. 

disperses  per  agros  mllites  equitibus  invasurls  (id.  xxxi.  36),  while  the  horse 
were  readij  to  attack  the  soldiers  scattered  through  the  fields. 

si  periturus  abis  (Aen.  ii.  675),  if  you  are  going  away  to  perish. 

3.  Apodosis :  — 

dedit  mihi  quantum  maximum  potuit,  daturus  amplius  si  potuisset  (Plin.  Ep. 
iii.  21.  6),  he  gave  me  as  much  as  he  could,  ready  to  give  me  more  if  he 
had  been  able.     [Here  daturus  is  equivalent  to  dedisset.] 

Gerundive  (Future  Passive  Participle) 

Note.  — The  participle  in  -dus,  commonly  called  the  Gerundive,  has  two  distinct 
uses : — 

(1)  Its  predicate  and  attribute  use  as  Participle  or  Adjective  (§  500). 

(2)  Its  use  with  the  meaning  of  the  Gerund  (§  503).  This  may  he  called  its  gerun- 
dive use. 

500.  The  Gerundive  when  used  as  a  Participle  or  an  Adjective 
is  always  passive,  denoting  necessity,  obligation,  or  propriety. 

In  this  use  of  the  Gerundive  the  following  points  are  to  be 
observed :  — 

1.  The  gerundive  is  sometimes  used,  like  the  present  and  perfect 
participles,  in  simple  agreement  with  a  noun  :  — 

f  ortem  et  conservandum  virum  (Mil.  104) ,  a  brave  man,  and  worthy  to  be  pre- 
served. 

gravis  initiria  facta  est  et  non  ferenda  (Flacc.  84),  a  grave  and  intolerable 
wrong  has  been  done. 

2.  The  most  frequent  ifee  of  the  gerundive  is  with  the  forms  of  esse 
in  the  Second  (or  passive)  Periphrastic  Conjugation  (see  §  196)  :  — 

non  agitanda  res  erit  (Verr.  v.  179),  will  not  the  thing  have  to  be  agitated? 

3.  The  neuter  gerundive  of  both  transitive  and  intransitive  verbs 
may  be  used  impersonally  in  the  second  periphrastic  conjugation. 

With  verbs  that  take  the  dative  or  ablative,  an  object  may  be  ex- 
pressed in  the  appropriate  case ;  with  transitive  verbs,  an  object  in 
the  accusative  is  sometimes  found  :  — 

tempori  serviendum  est  (Fam.  ix.  7.  2),  one  mu^t  obey  the  time. 

Iggibus  parendum  est,  the  laws  must  be  obeyed. 

utendum  exercitati5nibus  modicis  (Cat.  M.  36),  ive  must  use  moderate  exercise. 

agitandumst  vigilias  (PL  Trin.  869),  I  have  got  to  stand  guard. 

via  quam  nobis  ingrediendum  sit  (Cat.  M.  6),  the  way  we  have  to  enter. 


316  SYNTAX:    THE  VERB  [§§500-503 

4.  After  verbs  signifying  to  give,  deliver,  ar/ree  for,  have,  receive, 
undertake,  demand,^  a  gerundive  in  agreement  with  the  object  is  used 
to  express  purpose  :  — 

redemptor  qui  columnam  illam  conduxerat  faciendam  (Div.  ii.  47),  t?te  con- 
tractor who  Imd  undertaken  to  make  that  column.     [The  regular  construc- 
tion with  this  class  of  verbs.] 
aedem  Castoris  habuit  tuendam  (Verr.  ii.  1.  150),  he  had  the  temple  of  Castor 

to  take  care  of. 
navis  atque  onera  adservanda  curabat  (id.  v.  146),  he  took  care  that  the  ships 
and  cargoes  should  be  kept. 

GERUND 

501.  The  Gerund  is  the  neuter  of  the  Gerundive,  used  sub- 
stantively in  the  Genitive,  Dative,  Accusative,  and  Ablative. 

502.  The  Gerund  expresses  an  action  of  the  verb  in  the  form 
of  a  verbal  noun. 

As  a  noun  the  gerund  is  itself  governed  by  other  words  ;  as  a 
ve7'b  it  may  take  an  object  in  the  proper  case :  — 

ars  bene  disserendi  et  vera  ac  falsa  diiudicandi  (De  Or.  ii.  157),  the  art  of  dis- 
coursing well,  and  distinguishing  the  true  and  the  false. 

Note.  —  The  Nominative  of  the  gerund  is  supplied  by  the  Infinitive.  Thus  in  the 
example  above,  the  verbal  nouns  discoursing  and  distinguishing,  if  used  in  the  nomi- 
native, would  be  expressed  by  the  infinitives  disserere  and  diiudicare. 

The  Gerund  is  the  neuter  of  the  gerundive  used  impersonally,  but  retaining  the 
verbal  idea  sufficiently  to  govern  an  object.  It  may  therefore  be  regarded  as  a  noun 
(of.  maturato  opus  est,  §497.  a)  with  a  verbal  force  (cf.  istanc  tactio,  p.  240,  footnote). 

GERUND  AND   GERUNDIVE 

503.  When  the  Gerund  would  have  an  object  in  the  Accusa- 
tive, the  Gerundive  2  is  generally  used  instead.  The  gerundive 
agrees  with  its  noun,  which  takes  the  case  that  the  gerund  would 
have  had :  — 

paratiores  ad  omnia  pericula  subeunda  (B.  G.  1.  5),  readier  to  undergo  all 
dangers.  [Here  subeunda  agrees  with  pericula,  which  is  itself  governed 
by  ad.  The  (inadmissible)  construction  with  the  gerund  would  be  ad 
subeundum  pericula ;  ad  governing  the  gerund,  and  the  gerund  governing 
the  accusative  pericula.]     For  details,  see  §§  504-507. 

1  Such  verbs  are  accipio,  adnoto,  attribuo,  conduco,  euro,  denoto,  deposco,  do,  divide, 
dono,  edico,  edoceo,  fero,  habeo,  loco,  mando,  obicio,  permitto,  peto,  pono,  praebeo,  propono, 
relinquo,  rogo,  suscipio,  trado,  voveo. 

2  The  gerundive  construction  is  probably  the  original  one. 


§§  503,  504]     GENITIVE   OF   GERUND  AND   GERUNDIVE  317 

Note  1.  —  In  this  use  the  gerund  and  the  gerundive  are  translated  iu  the  same 
way,  but  have  really  a  different  coustraction.  The  gerundive  is  a,  passive  participle, 
and  agrees  with  its  noun,  though  in  translation  we  change  the  voice,  just  as  we  may 
translate  vigiliae  agitandae  sunt  {guard  must  be  kept)  by  I  must  stand  guard. 

Note  2.  —  In  the  gerundive  construction  the  verbs  iitor,  fruor,  etc.,  are  treated  like 
transitive  verbs  governing  the  accusative,  as  they  do  in  early  Latin  (§  410.  a.  n.  i) :  as, 
—  ad  perfruendas  voiuptates  (Off.  i.  2b),  for  enjoying  pleasures. 

a.  The  f  ollov/ing  examples  illustrate  the  parallel  constructions  of 
Gerund  and  Gerundive  :  — 

Gen.  consilium  j  ,   , .         •     •,       r  «  design  of  talcing  the  city. 

Dat.  dat  operarn  \        .       ,     ,.    [  Ae  attends  to  tillinq  the  fields. 
^  \  agns  colenais  j  ^f       j 

.  .     X    J  r  mihi  parendum     ]   .,  (to  obey  me. 

Ace.  veniunt  ad  -^     _  ^     ,       >  they  come  <  .        , 

(  pacem  petendam  J  [to  seek  peace. 

Abl.  terit  tempus  -I       .^     ,.     ^  "      ,.    [  he  spends  time  in  writina  letters. 
{  scribendis  epistulis  J 

Note  1.  —  The  gerund  with  a  direct  object  is  practically  limited  to  the  Genitive  and 
the  Ablative  (without  a  preposition) ;  even  iu  these  cases  the  gerundive  is  commoner. 

Note  2. — The  gerund  or  gerundive  is  often  found  coordinated  with  nominal  con- 
structions, and  sometimes  even  in  apposition  with  a  noun :  — 

(1)  in  foro,  in  curia,  in  amicorum  periculis  propulsandis  (Phil.  vii.  7),  in  the  forum, 

in  the  senate-house,  in  defending  my  friends  in  jeopardy. 

(2)  ad  res  diversissimas,  parendum  atque  imperandum  (Liv.  xxi.  ^),for  the  most 

zoidely  different  things,  obeying  and  commanding. 

Genitive  of  the  Gerund  and  Gerundive 

504.  The  Genitive  of  the  Gerund  and  Gerundive  is  used  after 
nouns  or  adjectives,  either  as  subjective  or  objective  genitive :  — 

Vivendi  finis  est  optimus  (Cat.  M.  72),  it  is  the  best  end  of  living.  [Sub- 
jective.] 

neque  consili  habendi  neque  arma  capieadi  spatio  dato  (B.  G.  iv.  14),  time  being 
given  neither  for  forming  plans  nor  for  taking  arms.     [Obj  active.  ] 

non  tarn  commutandarum  quam  evertendarum  rerum  cupidos  (Off.  ii.  3),  desir- 
ous not  so  much  of  changing  as  of  destroying  the  state.     [Objective.] 

Note  1.  —  In  these  uses  the  gerund  and  the  gerundive  are  about  equally  common. 
Note  2.  —  In  a  few  phrases  the  Infinitive  is  used  with  nouns  which  ordinarily 
have  the  genitive  of  the  gerund  or  gerundive:  as,— tempus  est  abire,  it  is  time  to  go. 

a.  The  genitive  of  the  gerund  sometimes  takes  a  direct  object,  espe- 
cially a  neuter  pronoun  or  a  neuter  adjective  used  substantively  :  — 
nulla  causa  itista  cuiquam  esse  potest  contra  patriam  arma  capiendi  (Phil.  ii. 
53),  no  one  can  have  a  just  cause  for  taking  up  arms  against  his  country. 
artem  vera  ac  falsa  diiudicandi  (De  Or.  ii.  157),  the  art  of  distinguishing  true 
from  false. 


318  SYNTAX  :    THE   VERB  [§§  504,  505 

Note  1.  —The  genitive  of  the  gerund  or  gerundive  is  used  (especially  in  later  Latin) 
as  a  predicate  genitive.    When  so  used  it  often  expresses  purpose ;  — 

quae  postquam  gloriosa  modo  neque  belli  patrandi  cognovit  (lug.  88),  lohen  he 
perceived  that  these  were  only  brilliant  deeds  and  not  likely  to  end  the  war. 
Aegyptum  proficiscitur  cognoscendae  antiquitatis  (Tac.  Ann.  ii.  59),  he  sets  out  for 
Egypt  to  study  old  times. 

b.  The  genitive  of  the  gerund  or  gerundive  with  causa  or  gratia 
expresses  purpose  (§  533.  b)  :  — 

pabulandi  aut  frumentandi  causa  progress!  (B.  C.  i.  46),  having  advanced  for 

the  purpose  of  collecting  fodder  or  supplies. 
vitandae  suspicionis  causa  (Cat.  i.  19),  in  order  to  avoid  suspicion. 
simulandi  gratia  (lug.  37),  in  order  to  deceive. 
exercendae  memoriae  gratia  (Cat.  M.  38),  for  the  sake  of  training  the  meniory. 

c.  The  genitive  of  the  gerund  is  occasionally  limited  by  a  noun  or 
pronoun  (especially  a  personal  pronoun  in  the  plural)  in  the  objective 
genitive  instead  of  taking  a  direct  object :  — 

reiciendl  trium  iudicum  potestas  (Verr.  ii.  77),  the  power  of  challenging  three 

jurors  (of  the  rejecting  of  three  jurors). 
sui  colligendi  facultas  (B.  G.  ill.  6),  the  opportunity  to  recover  themselves. 

Dative  of  the  Gerund  and  Gerundive 

505.  The  Dative  of  the  Gerund  and  Gerundive  is  used  in  a  few 
expressions  after  verbs  :  —  ^ 

diem  praestitit  open  faciendd  (Verr.  ii.  1.  148),  he  appointed  a  day  for  doing  the 

work. 
praeesse  agro  colendo  (Rose.  Am.  50),  to  take  charge  of  cultivating  the  land. 
esse  solvendo,  to  be  able  to  pay  (to  be  for  paying). 

Note.  —  The  dative  of  the  gerund  with  a  direct  object  is  never  found  in  classic 
Latin,  but  occurs  twice  in  Plautus. 

a.  The  dative  of  the  gerund  and  gerundive  is  used  after  adjec- 
tives,^ especially  those  which  denote  Jit?iess  or  adapt  ability :  — 

genus  armorum  aptum  tegendis  corporibus  (Liv.  xxxii.  10),  a  sort  of  armor 

suited  to  the  defence  of  the  body.  » 

reliqua  tempora  demetendis  fructibus  et  percipiendis  accommodata  sunt  (Cat.  M. 

70),  the  other  seasons  are  fitted  to  reap  and  gather  in  the  harvest. 
perferendis  milituui  mandatis  idoneus  (Tac.  Ann.  i.  23),  suitable  for  carrying 
out  the  instructions  of  the  soldiers. 

Note.  —  This  construction  is  very  common  in  Livy  and  later  writers,  infrequent 
in  classical  prose. 

1  Such  are  praeesse,  operam  dare,  diem  dicere,  locum  capere. 

2  Such  are  accommodatus,  aptus,  ineptus,  bonus,  habilis,  idoneus,  par,  utilis,  inutilis. 
But  the  accusative  with  ad  is  common  with  most  of  these  (cf.  §  385.  a). 


§§505-507]     ABLATIVE   OF   GERUND   AND   GERUNDIVE  319 

h.  The  dative  of  the  gerund  and  gerundive  is  used  in  certain  legal 

phrases  after  nouns  meaning  officers,  offices,  elections,  etc.,  to  indicate 
the  function  or  scope  of  the  office  etc. :  — 

comitia  consulibus  rogandis  (Div.  i.  33),  elections  for  nominating  consuls. 

triumvir  coloniis  deducundis  (lug.  42),  a  triumvir  for  'planting  colonies. 

triumviri  rei  publicae  constituendae  (title  of  the  Triumvirate),  triumvirs  (a  com- 
mission of  three)  for  settling  the  government. 

Accusative  of  the  Gerund  and  Gerundive 

506.  The  Accusative  of  the  Gerund  and  Gerundive  is  used 
after  the  preposition  ad,  to  denote  Purpose  (cf.  §  533):  — 

me  vocas  ad  scribendum  (Or.  34),  you  summon  me  to  write. 

vivis  non  ad  deponendam  sed  ad  confirmandam  audaciam  (Cat.  i.  4),  you  live 

not  to  put  off  hut  to  confirm  your  daring. 
nactus  aditus  ad  ea  c5nanda  (B.  C.  i.  31),  having  found  means  to  undertake 
these  things.  • 

Note  1.  — Other  prepositions  appear  in  this  construction ;  inter  and  ob  a  few  times, 
circa,  in,  ante,  and  a  few  others  very  rarely:  as,  inter  agendum  (Eel.  lx.  24),  while 
driving. 

Note  2.  —  The  Accusative  of  the  gerund  with  a  preposition  never  takes  a  direct 
object  in  classic  Latin. 

Ablative  of  the  Gerund  and  Gerundive 

507.  The  Ablative  of  the  Gerund  and  Gerundive  is  used  (1) 
to  express  manner}  means.,  cause,  etc.;  (2)  after  Comparatives; 
and  (3)  after  the  propositions  ab,  de,  ex,  in,  and  (rarely)  pro :  — 

(1)  multa  pollicendo  persuadet  (lug.  46),  he  persuades  by  large  promises. 
Latine  loquendo  cuivis  par  (Brut.  128),  equal  to  any  man  in  speaking  Latin. 
his  ipsis  legendis  (Cat.  M.  21),  by  reading  these  very  things. 

obsciiram  atque  humilem  conciendo  ad  se  multitiidinem  (Li v.  i.  8),  calling  to 
them  a  mean  and  obscure  multitude. 

(2)  ntillum  oflBcium  referenda  gratia  magis  necessarium  est  (Off.  i.  47),  no  duty 

is  more  important  than  repaying  favors. 

(3)  in  re  gerenda  versari  (Cat.  M.  17),  to  be  employed  in  conducting  affairs. 

Note  1.  —  The  Ablative  of  the  Gerund  and  Gerundive  is  also  very  rarely  used 
with  verbs  and  adjectives:  as, — nee  continuando  abstitit  magistratu  (Liv.  ix.  34),  he 
did  not  desi,stfrom  continuing  his  magistracy. 

Note  2.  — The  ablative  of  the  gerund  rarely  takes  a  direct  object  in  classic  prose. 

1  In  this  use  the  ablative  of  the  gerund  is,  in  later  writers  nearly,  and  in  medieeval 
writers  entirely,  equivalent  to  a  present  participle :  as,  —  cum  una  dierum  flendo  sedis- 
set,  quidam  miles  generosus  iuxta  earn  equitando  venit  (Gesta  Romanorum,  66  [58]), 
as  one  day  she  sat  vjeeping,  a  certain  knight  came  riding  by  (compare  §  507,  fourth 
example) .  Hence  come  the  Italian  and  Spanish  forms  of  the  present  participle  (as  man- 
dando,  esperando),  the  true  participial  form  becoming  an  adjective  in  those  languages. 


320  SYNTAX :    THE  VERB  [§8  508-510 


SUPINE 

508.  The  Supine  is  a  verbal  abstract  of  the  fourth  declension  (§  94.  b),  having  no 
distinction  of  tense  or  person,  and  limited  to  two  uses.  (1)  The  form  in  -urn  is  the 
Accusative  of  the  end  of  motion  (§  428.  i) .  (2)  The  form  in  -ii  is  usually  Dative  of  pw?-- 
pose  (§  382),  but  the  Ablative  was  early  confused  with  it. 

509.  The  Supine  in  -um  is  used  after  verbs  of  motion  to  express 
purpose.     It  may  take  an  object  in  the  proper  case :  — 

quid  est,  imusne  sessum  ?  etsi  admonitum  venimus  te,  non  flagitatum  (De  Or. 

ill.  17),  how  now,  shall  ive  be  seated?  though  we  have  come  to  remind,  not 

to  entreat  you. 
nuptum  dare  (collocare),  to  give  in  marriage. 
venerunt  questum  initirias  (Liv.  iii.  25),  they  came  to  complain  of  wrongs. 

Note  1. — The  supine  in  -um  is  especially  common  witheo,  and  with  the  passive 
infinitive  Iri  forms  the  future  infinitive  passive :  — 

fuere  cives  qui  rem  publicam  perditum  irent  (Sail.  Cat.  36),  there  were  citizens  who 

went  about  to  ruin  the  republic. 
si  sciret  se  trucidatum  iri  (Div.  ii.  22),  if  he  (Pompey)  had  known  that  he  ivcts 
going  to  be  murdered.    [Rare  except  in  Cicero.    For  the  more  usual  way  of 
expressing  the  future  passive  infinitive,  see  §  569.  3.  a.] 
Note  2.  —  The  supine  in  -um  is  occasionally  used  when  motion  is  merely  implied. 

510.  The  Supine  in  -u  ^  is  used  with  a  few  adjectives  and  with 
the  nouns  fas,  nefas,  and  opus,  to  denote  an  action  in  reference  to 
which  the  quality  is  asserted :  — 

rem  non  modo  visu  foedam,  sed  etiam  auditu  (Phil.  ii.  63),  a  thing  not  only 

shocking  to  see,  but  even  to  hear  of. 
quaerunt  quid  optimum  factu  sit  (Verr.  ii.  1.  68),  they  ask  what  is  best  to  do. 
si  hoc  fas  est  dictu  (Tusc.  v.  38),  if  this  is  lawful  to  say. 
videtis  nefas  esse  dictu  miseram  fuisse  talem  senectiitem  (Cat.  M.  13),  you 

see  it  is  a  sin  to  say  that  such  an  old  age  loas  wretched. 

Note  1,  — The  supine  in  -u  is  thus  in  appearance  an  Ablative  of  Specification  (§  418). 

Note  2.  —  The  supine  in  -u  is  found  especially  with  such  adjectives  as  indicate  an 

effect  on  the  senses  or  the  feelings,  and  those  which  denote  ease,  difficulty,  and  the 

like.    But  with  facilis,  difflcilis,  and  iucundus,  ad  with  the  gerund  is  more  common :  — 

nee  visu  facilis  nee  dictu  adfabilis  ulli  (Aen.  iii.  621),  he  is  not  pleasant  for  any 

man  to  look  at  or  address. 
difficilis  ad  distinguendum  similitiido  (De  Or.  ii.  212),  a  likeness  difficult  to  dis- 
tinguish. 
Note  3.  —With  all  these  adjectives  the  poets  often  use  the  Infinitive  in  the  same 
sense:  as,  —  faciles  aurem  praebere  (Prop.  ii.  21.  15),  indulgent  to  lend  an  ear. 

Note  4.  —  The  supine  in  -ii  with  a  verb  is  extremely  rare:  as, — pudet  dictii  (Tac. 
Agr.  32),  it  is  a  shame  to  tell.     [On  the  analogy  of  pudendum  dictu.] 

1  The  only  common  supines  in  -ii  are  auditii,  dictu,  factu,  inventu,  memoratu,  natu, 
visii.  In  classic  use  this  supine  is  found  in  comparatively  few  verbs,  It  is  nevei 
followed  by  an  obiect-case. 


511]  CONDITIONAL   SENTENCES  321 


CONDITIONAL  SENTENCES 

611.  The  Conditional  Sentence  differs  from  other  complex  sentences  in  this,  that 
the  form  of  the  main  clause  (apodosis)  is  determined  ia  some  degree  by  the  nature 
of  the  subordinate  clause  (protasis)  upon  the  truth  of  which  the  whole  statement 
depends.  Like  all  complex  sentences,  however,  the  Conditional  Sentence  has  arisen 
from  the  use  of  two  independent  sentence-forms  to  express  the  parts  of  a  thought 
vv'hidi  was  too  complicated  to  be  fully  expressed  by  a  simple  sentence.  But  because 
the  thoughts  thus  expressed  are  in  reality  closely  related,  as  parts  of  a  single  whole,  the 
sentences  which  represent  them  are  also  felt  to  be  mutually  dependent,  even  though 
the  relation  is  not  expressed  by  any  connecting  word.  Thus,  Speak  the  word :  my  ser- 
vant shall  be  healed  is  a,  simpler  and  an  earlier  form  of  expression  than  If  thou  speak 
the  word,  etc. 

The  Conditional  Particles  were  originally  pronouns  without  conditional  mean- 
ing; thua,  si,  if,  is  a  weak  demonstrative  of  the  same  origin  as  sic,  so  (sl-ce  like 
hi-ce,  see  §  215.  5),  and  had  originally  the  meaning  of  in  that  way,  or  iri  some  way. 
Its  relative  sense  (if)  seems  to  have  come  from  its  use  with  sic  to  make  a  pair  of  correla- 
tives :  thus  .  .  .  thus  (see  §  512.  b). 

In  its  origin  the  Conditional  Sentence  assumed  one  of  two  forms.  The  condition 
was  from  the  first  felt  to  be  a  condition,  not  a  fact  or  a  command ;  but,  as  no  special 
sentence-form  for  a  condition  was  in  use,  it  employed  for  its  expression  either  a  state- 
ment of /ac^  (with  the  Indicative)  or  a  form  of  mild  command  (the  Subjunctive). 
From  the  former  have  come  all  the  uses  of  the  Indicative  in  protasis ;  from  the  latter 
all  the  uses  of  the  Subjunctive  in  protasis.  The  Apodosis  has  either  (1)  the  Indicative, 
expressing  the  conclusion  as  a  fact,  and  the  Present  and  Perfect  Subjunctive,  express- 
ing it  originally  as  future  —  and  hence  more  or  less  doubtful  —  or  (2)  the  Imperfect 
and  Pluperfect  Subjunctive  expressing  it  Q,&futurum  in  praeterito,^  and  so  unfulfilled 
in  the  present  or  past.  Thus,  —  rides,  maiore  cacbiono  concutitur,  you  laugh,  he  shakes 
with  more  boisterous  laughter,  is  the  original  form  for  the  Indicative  in  protasis  and 
apodosis;  si  rides  originally  means  merely  you  laugh  in  some  way  or  other,  and  so, 
later,  ip  you  laugh.  So  rogSs  Arlst5nem,  neget,  ask  Aristo,  he  would  say  no,  is  the 
original  form  of  the  subjunctive  in  protasis  and  apodosis;  si  roges  would  mean  ask  in 
S07ne  way  or  other.  In  si  rogares,  negaret,  the  Imperfect  rogares  transfers  the  command 
of  roges  to  past  time,^  with  the  meaning  suppose  you  had  asked,  and  si  would  have  the 
same  meaning- as  before ;  while  negaret  transfers  the  future  idea  of  ueget  to  past  time, 
and  means  he  was  going  to  deny.  Now  the  stating  of  this  supposition  at  all  gives 
rise  to  the  implication  that  it  is  untrue  in  point  o//acf,  — because,  if  it  were  true, 
there  would  ordinarily  be  no  need  to  state  it  as  a  supposition :  for  it  would  then  be  a 
simple  fact,  and  as  such  would  be  putln  the  indicative.^    Such  a  condition  or  conclusion 


1  Th^,  futurum  in  praeterito  is  a  tense  future  relatively  to  a  time  absolutely  pa^t. 
It  denotes  a  future  act  transferred  to  the  point  of  view  of  past  time,  and  hence  is 
naturally  expressed  by  a  past  tense  of  the  Subjunctive:  thus  dixxsset,  he  would  have 
said  =  dictunis  fuit,  he  was  about  to  say  [but  did  not].  As  that  which  looks  towards 
the  future  from  some  point  in  the  past  has  a  natural  limit  in  present  time,  such  a 
tense  (the  imperfect  subjunctive)  came  naturally  to  be  used  to  express  apf'esent  con- 
dition purely  ideal,  that  is  to  say,  contrary  to  fact. 

2  Compare  potius  diceret,  he  should  rather  have  said  (§  439.  b). 

3  There  are,  however,  some  cases  in  which  this  implication  does  not  arise:  as, — 
deciens  centena  dedisses,  nil  erat  in  loculis  (Hor.  S.  i.  3.  15),  if  you  'd  given  him  a  mil- 
lion, there  was  nothing  in  his  coffers. 


322  SYNTAX:    CONDITIOXAJL   SENTENCES  [§§511,512 

(originally  past,  meaning  suppose  you  had  asked  [yesterday],  he  was  going  to  deny) 
came  to  express  an  unfulfilled  condition  in  the  present:  suppose  (or  if)  you  were 
now  asking,  he  would  [nowj  deny  —  just  as  in  English  ought,  which  originally  meant 
owed,^  has  come  to  express  a  present  obligation. 

For  the  classification  of  Conditional  Sentences,  see  §  513. 

PEOTASIS  AKD  APODOSIS 

512.  A  complete  Conditional  S.entence  consists  of  two  clauses, 
the  Protasis  and  the  Apodosis. 

The  clause  containing  the  coiuJition  is  called  the  Protasis  ; 
the  clause  containing  the  conclusion  is  called  the  Apodosis  :  — 

si  qui  exire  volant  [protasis],  conivere  possum  [apodosis]  (Cat.  ii.  27),  if 

any  wish  to  depart,  I  can  keep  my  eyes  shut. 
si  est  in  exsilio  [protasis],  quid  amplius  postulatis  [apodosis]  (Lig.  13),  if 

Mis  in  exile,  what  more  do  you  ask? 

It  should  be  carefully  noted  that  the  Apodosis  is  the  771am  clause 
and  the  Protasis  the  dependent  clause. 

a.  The  Protasis  is  regularly  introduced  by  the  conditional  particle 

si,  ij\  or  one  of  its  compounds. 

Note.  —  These  compounds  are  sin,  nisi,  etiam  si,  etsi,  tametsi,  tamenetsi  (see  Condi- 
tional and  Concessive  Particles,  p.  138).  An  Indefinite  Relative,  or  any  relative  or 
concessive  word,  may  also  serve  to  introduce  a  conditional  clause :  see  Conditional 
Relative  Clauses  (§§519,  542) ;  Concessive  Clauses  (§527). 

h.  The  Apodosis  is  often  introduced  by  some  correlative  word  01 
phiase:  as,  ita,  turn  (rarely  sic),  or  ea  condicione  etc.:  — 

ita  enim  senectOs  honesta  est,  si  se  ipsa  defendit  (Cat.  M.  38),  on  this  condi- 
tion is  old  age  honorable,  if  it  defends  itself. 

si  quidem  me  amaret,  turn  istuc  prodesset  (Ter.  Eun.  4-46),  if  he  loved  me, 
then  this  would  be  profitable. 

sic  scribes  aliquid,  si  vacabis  (Att.  xii.  38.  2),  if  you  are  (shall  be)  at  leisure, 
then  you  will  write  something. 

c.  The  Apodosis  is  the  principal  clause  of  the  conditional  sen- 
tence, but  may  at  the  same  time  be  subordinate  to  some  other 
clause,  and  so  appear  in  the  form  of  a  Participle,  an  Infinitive,  or 
a  Phrase :  — 

sepultiira  quoque  prohibituri,  ni  rex  humari  iussisset  (Q.  C.  viii.  2.  12),  intend- 
ing also  to  deprive  him  of  burial,  unless  the  king  had  ordered  him  to  be 
interred. 

1  "  There  was  a  certain  lender  which  ought  him  five  hundred  pieces."  —  Tyndale's 
New  Testament, 


§§512-514]  CLASSIFICATION   OF   CONDITIONS  323 

quod  si  praeterea  nemo  sequatur,  tamen  se  cum  sola  decima  legion  e  iturum 
[esse]  (B.  G.  i.  40.  14),  hut  if  no  one  else  should  follovj,  he  would  go  with 
the  tenth  legion  alone. 

si  quos  adversum  proelium  commoveret,  hos  reperire  posse  (id.  40.  8),  if  the 
loss  of  a  battle  alarmed  any,  they  might  find,  etc. 

Note.  —  When  the  Apodosis  itself  is  in  Indirect  Discourse,  or  in  any  other  depend- 
ent construction,  the  verb  of  the  Protasis  is  regularly  in  the  Subjunctive  (as  in  the  above 
examples,  see  §  589). 

classificatio:n"  of  coistditions    ^ 

513.  Conditions  are  either  (1)  Particular  or  (2)  General. 

1.  A  Particular  Condition  refers  to  a  definite  act  or  series  of  acts 
occurring  at  some  definite  time. 

2.  A  General  Condition  refers  to  any  one  of  a  class  of  acts  wliicli 
may  occur  (or  may  have  occurred)  at  any  time. 

514.  The  principal  or  typical  forms  of  Conditional  Sentences 
may  be  exhibited  as  follows :  — 

PARTICULAR   CONDITIONS 

A.  Seviple  Conditions  (nothing  implied  as  to  fulfilment) 
I.  Present  Time 

Present  Indicative  in  both  clauses:  — 
si  adest,  bene  est,  if  he  is  [now]  here,  it  is  well. 

2.  Past  Time 

Imperfect  or  Perfect  Indicative  in  both  clauses:  — 
si  aderat,  bene  erat,  if  he  was  [then]  here,  it  was  well. 
si  adfuit,  bene  f uit,  if  he  has  been  [was]  here,  it  has  been  [was]  weU. 

B.   FuTUKE  Conditions  (as  yet  unfulfilled) 

I.  More  Vivid 

a.  Future  Indicative  in  both  clauses :  — 
si  aderit,  bene  erit,  if  he  is  (shall  be)  here,  it  will  be  well. 

h.  Future  Perfect  Indicative  in  protasis,  Future  Indicative  in 
apodosis:  — 

si  adfuerit,  bene  erit,  if  he  is  (shall  have  been)  here,  it  will  [then]  be  well. 


324  SYNTAX:    CONDITIONAL  SENTENCES  [§514 

2.  Less  Vivid 

a.  Present  Subjunctive  in  both  clauses:  — 

si  adsit,  bene  sit,  if  he  should  be  {or  were  to  be)  /tere,  it  would  be  welL 

b.  Perfect  Subjunctive  in  protasis,  Present  Subjunctive  in  apod- 

osis: — 

si  adfuerit,  bene  sit,  if  he  should  be  (should  have  been)  here,  it  would  [then] 
be  well. 

C.   Conditions  Contrary  to  Fact 

I.  Present  Time 

Imperfect  Subjunctive  in  both  clauses:  — 
si  adesset,  bene  esset,  if  he  were  [now]  here,  it  wouM  be  well  (but  he  is  not  here). 

2.  Past  Time 

Pluperfect  Subjunctive  in  both  clauses:  — 
81  adfuisset,  bene  faisset,  if  he  had  [then]  been  here,  it  would  have  been  well 
(but  he  was  not  here). 

Note.  —  The  use  of  tenses  in  Protasis  is  very  loose  in  English.  Thus  if  he  is 
alive  now  is  a  present  condition,  to  he  expressed  in  Latin  by  the  Present  Indicative; 
if  he  is  alive  next  year  is  a  future  condition,  expressed  in  Latin  by  the  Future 
Indicative.  Again,  if  he  ivere  here  now  is  a  present  condition  contrary  to  fact, 
and  would  be  expressed  by  the  Imperfect  Subjunctive ;  if  he  were  to  see  me  thus 
is  a  FUTURE  condition  less  vivid,  to  be  expressed  by  the  Present  Subjunctive;  and  so 
too,  if  you  advised  him,  he  would  attend  may  be  future  less  vivid.i 

D.    GENERAL  CONDITIONS 

General  Conditions  do  not  usually  differ  in  form  from  Particular 
Conditions  (A,  B,  and  C),  but  are  sometimes  distinguished  in  the 
cases  following :  — 

I,  Present  General  Condition  (Indefinite  Time) 

a.  Present  Subjunctive  second  person  singular  (Indefinite  Subject) 
in  protasis,  Present  Indicative  in  apodosis:  — 

si  hoc  dicas,  creditur,  if  any  one  [ever]  says  this,  it  is  [always]  believed. 

b.  Perfect  Indicative  in  protasis,  Present  Indicative  in  apodosis: 
si  quid  dixit,  creditur,  if  he  [e\"er]  says  anything,  it  is  [always]  belieoed. 

1  In  most  English  verbs  the  Preterite  (or  Past)  Subjunctive  is  identical  in  form 
with  the  Preterite  Indicative.  Thus  in  such  a  sentence  as  if  he  loved  his  father,  he 
would  not  say  tJiis,  the  verb  loved  is  really  a  Preterite  Subjunctive,  though  this  does 
not  appear  from  the  inflection.  In  the  verb  to  be,  however,  the  Subjunctive  were  has 
been  preserved  and  differs  in  form  from  the  indicative  was. 


§§  514,  515]     SIMPLE  PRESENT  AND  PAST  CONDITIONS  325 

2.  Past  General  Condition  (Repeated  Action  in  Past  Time) 

a.  Pluperfect  Indicative  in  protasis,  Imperfect  Indicative  in  apod- 
osis :  — 

si  quid  dixerat,  credebatur,  if  he  [ever]  said  anything,  it  was  [always]  believed. 

b.  Imperfect  Subjunctive  in  protasis,  Imperfect  Indicative  in  apod- 
osis :  — 

si  quid  diceret,  credebatur,  //  he  [ever]  said  anything,  it  was  [always] 
believed  (=  whatever  he  said  was  always  believed). i 

PARTICULAR   CONDITIONS 
Simple  Present  and  Past  Conditions  —  Nothing  Implied 

515.  In  the  statement  of  Present  and  Past  conditions  whose 
falsity  is  NOT  implied^  the  Present  and  Past  tenses  of  the  Indica- 
tive are  used  in  both  Protasis  and  Apodosis :  — 

si  tu  exercitusque  valetis,  bene  est  (Fam.  v.  2),  if  you  and  the  army  are  well, 
it  is  well.     [Present  Condition.] 

haec  igitur,  si  Romae  es  ;  sin  abes,  aut  etiam  si  ades,  haec  negotia  sic  se  habent 
(Att.  V.  18),  this,  then,  if  you  are  at  Rome;  but  if  you  are  away  —  or  even 
if  you  are  there  —  these  matters  are  as  follows.     [Present  Condition.] 

si  Caesarem  probatis,  in  me  offenditis  (B,  C.  ii.  82.  10),  if  you  favor  CcBsar, 
you  find  fault  with  me.     [Present  Condition.] 

si  qui  magnis  ingeniis  in  eo  genere  exstiterunt,  non  satis  Graecorum  gloriae 
responderunt  (Tusc.  i.  8),  if  any  have  shown  themselves  of  great  genius  in 
that  department,  they  have  failed  to  compete  with  the  glory  of  the  Greeks. 
[Past  General  Condition,  not  distinguished  in  form  from  Particular.] 

accepi  Roma  sine  epistula  tua  fasciculum  litterarum  in  quo,  si  modo  valuisti 
et  Romae  fuisti,  Philotimi  duco  esse  culpam  non  tuam  (Att,  v.  17),  I  have 
received  from  Rome  a  bundle  of  letters  without  any  from  you,  which,  pro- 
vided you  have  been  well  and  at  Rome,  I  take  to  be  the  fault  of  Philotimus, 
not  yours.     [Mixed :  Past  condition  and  Present  conclusion.] 

quas  litteras,  si  Romae  es,  videbis  putesne  reddendas  (id.  v.  18),  as  to  this 
letter,  if  you  are  at  Rome,  you  will  see  whether  in  your  opinion  it  ought 
to  be  delivered.     [Mixed :  Present  and  Future.] 

si  nemo  impetravit,  adroganter  rogo  (Lig.  30),  if  no  one  has  succeeded  in  obtain- 
ing it,  my  request  is  presumptuous.     [Past  and  Present.] 

1  Cf .  the  Greel^  forms  corresponding  to  the  various  types  of  conditions :  — 

A.  1.  et  Itpdacrei  toOto,  koKCos  e^ei.  2.  et  ^Trpaa<r€  toOto,  koKQs  efxei'. 

B.  1.  iav  irpdacrri  tovto,  KaXQs  ^^ei.  2.  el  irpdacoL  tovto,  /caXtSs  &v  ^xoi. 

C.  1.  et  e7rpaT<re  tovto,  koKCHs  hv  efxev.  2.  el  eirpa^e  tovto,  koXQs  hv  ^<Tx^v, 

D.  \.  idv  Ti5  K\<TrT'Q,  KoXdj^erai..  2.  etris  acX^tttoi,  iKo\d^€To. 


326  SYNTAX:    CONDITIONAL  SENTENCES  [§§515,516 

a.  In  these  conditions  the  apodosis  need  not  always  be  in  the  In- 
dicative, but  may  assume  any  form,  according  to  the  sense :  — 

si  placet  .  .  .  videamus  (Cat.  M.  45),  if  you  please,  let  us  see.     [Hortatory 

Subjunctive,  §439.]. 
si  nondum  satis  cernitis,  recordamini  (Mil.  61),  if  you  do  not  yet  see  clearly^ 

recollect.     [Imperative.] 
si  quid  habes  certius,  velim  scire  (Att.  iv.  10),  if  you  have  any  trustworthy 
information^  I  should  like  to  know  it.    [Subjunctive  of  Modesty,  §  447. 1.] 

Note.  —  Although  the /orm  of  these  conditions  does  not  imply  anything  as  to  the 
truth  of  the  supposition,  the  sense  or  the  context  may  of  course  have  some  such  impli- 
cation :  — 

nolite,  si  in  nostro  omnium  fletii  niillam  lacrimam  aspexistis  Milonis,  hoc  minus 
ei  parcere  (Mil.  92),  do  not,  if  amid  the  weeping  of  us  all  you  have  seen  no 
tear  [in  the  eyes]  of  Mllo,  spare  him  the  less  for  that. 
petimus  a  vobis,  indices,  si  qua  divina  in  tantis  ingeniis  commendatio  debet 
esse,  ut  eum  in  vestram  accipiatis  fidem  (Arch.  31),  we  ask  you,  judges, 
if  there  ought  to  he  anything  in  such  genius  to  recommend  it  to  u^  as 
by  a  recommendation  of  the  gods,  that  you  receive  him  under  your  pro- 
tection. 
In  these  two  passages,  the  protasis  really  expresses  cause :  but  the  cause  is  put  by 
the  speaker  in  the  form  of  a  non-committal  condition.    His  hearers  are  to  draw  the 
inference  for  themselves.    In  this  way  the  desired  impression  is  made  on  their  minds 
more  effectively  than  if  an  outspoken  causal  clause  had  been  used. 

Future  Conditions 
516.  Future  Conditions  may  be  more  vivid  or  less  vivid. 

1.  In  a  more  vivid  future  condition  the  protasis  makes  a  distinct 
supposition  of  a  future  case,  the  apodosis  expressing  what  will  he  the 
logical  result. 

2.  In  a  less  vivid  future  condition,  the  supposition  is  less  distinct, 
the  apodosis  expressing  what  would  be  the  result  in  the  case  supposed. 

a.  In  the  7nore  vivid  future  condition  the  Future  Indicative  is  used 
in  both  protasis  and  apodosis  :  — 

sanabimur,  si  volemus  (Tusc.  iii.  13),  we  shall  be  healed  if  we  wish. 
quod  si  legere  aut  audire  voletis,   .  .  .  reperietis  (Cat.  M.  20),  if  you  will 
[shall  wish  to]  read  or  hear,  you  will  find. 

Note.  — In  English  the  protasis  is  usually  expressed  by  the  Present  Indicative, 
rarely  by  the  Future  with  shall.  Often  in  Latin  the  Present  Indicative  is  found  in 
the  protasis  of  a  condition  of  this  kind  (cf.  §  408) :  — 

si  vincimus,  omnia  nobis  tuta  erunt ;  sin  metu  cesserimus,  eadem  ilia  advorsa  fient 
(Sail.  Cat.  58),  if  loe  conquer,  all  things  will  he  safe  for  us;  hut  if  we  yield 
through  fear,  those  same  things  will  become  hostile. 
si  pereo,  hominum  inanibus  periisse  iuvabit  (Aen.  iii.  .606),  if  I  perish,  it  will  be 
pleasant  to  have  perished  at  the  hands  of  men. 


§516]  FUTURE   CONDITIONS  327 

h.  In  the  less  vivid  future  condition  the  Present  Subjunctive  is 
used  in  both  protasis  and  apodosis  :  — 

haec  si  tecum  patria  loquatur,  nonne  impetrare  debeat  (Cat.  i.  19),  if  your 
country  should  thus  speak  with  you,  ought  she  not  to  prevail? 

quod  si  quis  deus  mihi  largiatur,  .  .  .  valde  recusem  (Cat.  M.  83),  but  if  some 
god  were  to  grant  me  this,  I  should  stoutly  refuse. 

Note.  — The  Present  Subjunctive  sometimes  stands  in  protasis  with  the  Future 

(or  the  Present)  Indicative  in  apodosis  from  a  change  in  the  point  of  view: i 

si  diligenter  attendamus,  intellegemus  (InVo  ii,  44),  if  we  attend  (should  attend) 

carefully,  we  shall  understand. 
nisi  hoc  dicat,  "lure  feci,"  non  habet  defensionem  (id.  1.  18),  unless  he  should 
say  this,  "I  acted  Justifiably,"  he  has  no  defence. 

c.  If  the  conditional  act  is  regarded  as  completed  before  that  of  the 
apodosis  begins,  the  Future  Perfect  is  substituted  for  the  Putui-.e 
Indicative  in  protasis,  and  the  Perfect  Subjunctive  for  the  Present 
Subjunctive :  — 

sin  cum  potuero  nou  venero,  tum  erit  inimicus  (Att.  ix.  2  a.  2),  hut  if  I  do  not 

come  when  I  can,  he  will  he  unfriendly. 
si  a  corona  relictus  sim,  non  queam  dicere  (Brut.  192),  if  I  should  he  deserted 
hy  the  circle  of  listeners,  I  should  not  he  able  to  speak. 

Note.  —  The  Future  Perfect  is  often  used  in  the  apodosis  of  a  future  condition: 
as, — vehementer  mihi  gratum  feceris,  si  hunc  adulescentem  hiiraanitate  tua  compre- 
henderis  (Fam.  xiii.  15),  you  will  do  (will  have  done)  me  a  great  favor,  if  you  receive 
this  young  man  with  your  usual  courtesy. 

d>  Any  form  denoting  or  implying  future  time  may  stand  in  the 
apodosis  of  a  future  condition.  So  the  Imperative,  the  participles  in 
-dus  and  -rus,  and  verbs  of  necessity ^  possibility,  and  the  like ;  — 

alius  finis  c5nstituendus  est,  si  prius  quid  maxime  reprehendere  Scipio  solitus 
sit  dixero  (Lael.  59),  another  limit  must  he  set,  if  I  first  state  what  Scipio 
loas  wont  most  to  find  fault  with. 

si  me  praeceperit  fatum,  vos  mandasse  memento  (Q.  C.  Ix,  6.  26),  if  fate  cuts 
me  off  too  soon,  do  you  remember  that  I  ordered  this. 

nisi  oculis  videritis  insidias  Miloni  a  Clodio  factas,  nee  deprecaturi  sumus  nee 
postulaturi  (Mil.  6),  unless  you  see  with  your  own  eyes  the  plots  laid  against 
Milo  by  Clodius,  I  shall  neither  beg  nor  demand,  etc. 

non  possum  istum  accusare,  si  cupiam  (Verr.  iv.  ^1),  I  cannot  accuse  him,  if 
I  should  (so)  desire. 

1  It  often  depends  entirely  upon  the  view  of  the  writer  at  the  moment,  and  not 
upon  the  nature  of  the  condition,  whether  it  shall  be  stated  vividly  or  not ;  as  in  the 
proverbial  *'  If*the  sky  falls,  we  shall  catch  larks  "  the  impossible  condition  is  iron- 
ically put  in  the  vivid  form,  to  illustrate  the  absurdity  of  some  other  supposed  condt 
tion  stated  by  some  one  else. 


328  SYNTAX :    CONDITIONAL   SENTENCES  [§§  516,  517 

e.  Rarely  the  Perfect  Indicative  is  used  in  apodosis  with  a  Pres- 
ent or  even  a  Future  (or  Future  Perfect)  in  protasis,  to  represent  the 
conclusion  rhetorically  as  already  accomplished :  — 

si  hoc  bene  fixum  in  animS  est,  vicistis  (Liv.  xxi.  44),  if  this  is  well  fixed  in 
your  minds,  you  have  conquered.     [For  you  will  have  conquered.] 

si  euudein  [animum]  habueritis,  vicimus  (id.  xxi.  43),  if  you  shall  have  kept 
the  same  spirit,  we  have  conquered. 

f,  A  future  condition  is  frequently  thrown  back  into  past  time, 
without  implying  that  it  is  contrary  to  fact  (§  517).  In  such  cases 
the  Imperfect  or  Pluperfect  Subjunctive  may  be  used :  — 

non  poterat,  nisi  decertare  vellet  (B.  C.  iii.  44),  he  was  not  able,  unless  he 
wished  to  fight. 

tumulus  apparuit,  ...  si  luce  palara  iretur  hostis  praeventtirus  erat  (Liv. 
xxii.  24),  a  hill  appeared  .  .  .  if  they  should  go  openly  by  daylight,  the 
enemy  would  prevent.  [The  first  two  appear  like  Indirect  Discourse, 
but  are  not.  An  observer  describing  the  situation  in  the  first  example 
as  present  would  say  non  potest  nisi  velit  (see  d),  and  no  indirect  dis- 
course would  be  thought  of.] 

Caesar  si  peteret, .  .  .  non  quicquam  proficeret  (Hor.  S.  i.  3.  4),  if  even  Ccesar 
were  to  as/c,  he  would  gain  nothing.  [Here  the  construction  is  not  con- 
trary to  fact,  but  is  simply  si  petat,  non  proficiat,  thrown  into  past  time.] 

Conditions  Contrary  to  Fact 

517.  In  the  statement  of  a  supposition  impliedly  false.,  the  Im- 
perfect and  Pluperfect  Subjunctive  are  used  in  both  protasis  and 
apodosis.^  The  Imperfect  refers  to  present  time.,  the  Pluperfect 
to  past:  — 

si  viveret,  verba  eius  audiretis  (Rose.  Com.  42),  if  he  were  living,  you  vjould 

hear  his  words.     [Present.] 
nisi  tu  amisisses,  numquam  recepissem  (Cat.  M.  11),  unless  you  had  lost  it,  I 

should  not  have  recovered  it.     [Past.] 
8l  meum  consilium  valuisset,  tii  hodie  egeres,  r?8  ptiblica  non  tot  duces  ami- 

sisset  (Phil.  ii.  37),  if  my  judgment  had  prevailed  [as  it  did  not],  you 

would  this  day  be  a  beggar,  and  the  republic  would  not  have  lost  so  many 

leaders.     [Mixed  Present  and  Past.] 

1  The  implication  of  falsity,  in  this  oonstrnction,  is  not  inherent  in  the  subjunc- 
tive ;  but  comes  from  the  transfer  of  a  future  condition  to  past  time.  Thus  the  time 
for  the  happening  of  the  condition  has,  at  the  moment  of  writing,  already  passed ;  so 
that,  if  the  condition  remains  a  condition,  it  must  be  contrary  to  fact.*  So  past  forms 
of  the  indicative  implying  a  future  frequently  take  the  place  of  the  subjunctive  in 
apodosis  in  this  construction  (see  c,  d,  below,  and  §511). 


§517]  CONDITIONS   CONTRARY  TO  FACT 

a.  In  conditions  contrary  to  fact  the  Imperfect  often  refers  to^as^ 
time^  both  in  protasis  and  apodosis,  especially  when  a  repeated  or  con- 
tinued action  is  denoted,  or  when  the  condition  if  true  would  still  exist  : 

si  nihil  litteris  adiuvarentur,  numquam  se  ad  earum  stiidium  contulissent 
(Arch.  16),  if  they  had  not  been  helped  at  all  hy  literature^  they  never 
would  have  given  their  attention  to  the  study  of  it,  [Without  the  condi- 
tion, adiuvabantur.  ] 

hie  si  mentis  esset  suae,  ausus  esset  ediicere  exercitum  (Pison.  50),  if  he  were 
of  sane  mind,  would  he  have  dared  to  lead  out  the  army  f  [Here  esset 
denotes  a  continued  state,  past  as  well  as  present.] 

non  concidissent,  nisi  illud  receptaculum  classibus  nostris  pateret  (Verr.  ii. 
3),  [the  power  of  Carthage]  would  not  have  fallen,  unless  that  station  had 
been  [constantly]  open  to  our  fleets.     [Without  the  condition,  patgbat.] 

b.  In  the  apodosis  of  a  condition  contrary  to  fact  the  past  tenses 
of  the  Indicative  may  be  used  to  express  what  was  intended,  or  likely, 
or  already  begun.  In  this  use,  the  Imperfect  Indicative  corresponds 
in  time  to  the  Imperfect  Subjunctive,  and  the  Perfect  or  Pluperfect 
Indicative  to  the  Pluperfect  Subjunctive :  — 

si  licitum  esset,  matres  veniebant  (Verr.  v.  129),  the  mothers  were  coming  if 

it  had  been  allowed. 
in  amplexus  flliae  ruebat,  nisi  lict5res  obstitissent  (Tac.  Ann.  xvi.  82),  he  was 

about  rushing  into  his  daughter'' s  arms,  unless  the  Victors  had  opposed. 
iam  tuta  tenebam,  ni  gens  crudelis  ferrS  invasisset  (Aen.  vi.  858),  I  was  just 
reaching  a  place  of  safety,  had  not  the  fierce  people  attacked  me. 
Note  1.  —  Here  the  apodosis  may  he  regarded  as  elliptical.     Thus,  —  matres  venie- 
bant (et  venissent),  the  matrons  were  coming  (and  would  have  kept  on)  if,  etc. 

Note  2.  — With  paene  (and  sometimes  prope),  almost,  tlie  Perfect  Indicative  Is  used 
in  the  apodosis  of  a  past  condition  contrary  to  fact :  as,  —  pons  iter  paene  hostibus 
dedit,  ni  unus  vir  fuisset  (Liv.  ii.  10),  the  bridge  had  almost  given  a  passage  to,  the 
foe,  if  it  had  not  been  for  one  hero. 

c.  Verbs  and  other  expressions  denoting  necessity,  prajMety,  possi- 
bility, duty,  when  used  in  the  apodosis  of  a  condition  contrary  to 
fact,  may  be  put  in  the  Imperfect  or  Perfect  Indicative. 

Such  are  oportet,  decet,  debeo,  possum,  necesse  est,  opus  est,  and  the  Sec^ 
ond  Periphrastic  Conjugation  :  —  ^ 

non  potuit  fieri  sapiens,  nisi  natus  esset  (Fin.  ii.  103),  he  could  not  have  become 

a  sage,  if  he  had  not  been  born. 
si  prlvatus  esset  h5c  tempore,  tamen  is  erat  deligendus  (Manil.  50),  if  he  were 
at  this  time  a  private  citizen,  yet  he  ought  to  be  appointed. 

1  Observe  that  all  these  expressions  contain  the  idea  of  futurity  (cf .  p.  328,  footnote). 
Thus,  decet  me  [hodie]  ire  eras,  means  it  is  proper  for  me  [to-day]  to  go  to-morroio ; 
and,  decebat  me  [heri]  ire  hodig,  it  was  proper  for  me  [yesterday]  to  go  to-day,  usually 
with  the  implication  that  /  have  not  gone  as  I  was  bound  to  do. 


330  SYNTAX:    CONDITIONAL   SENTENCES  [§517 

quod  esse  caput  debebat,  si  probarl  posset  (Fin.  iv.  23),  what  ought' to  he  the 

main  point,  if  it  could  be  proved. 
si  ita  putasset,  certe  optabilius  Miloni  fuit  (Mil.  31),  if  he  had  thought  so,  surely 

it  would  have  been  preferable  for  Milo. 

Note  1.  — In  Present  conditions  the  Imperfect  Subjunctive  (opprteret,  possem,  etc.) 
is  the  rule,  the  Indicative  being  rare ;  in  Past  conditions  both  the  Subjunctive  (usually- 
Pluperfect)  and  the  Indicative  (usually  Perfect)  are  common. 

For  par  erat,  melius  fuit,  and  the  like,  followed  by  the  infinitive,  see  §  521.  n. 

Note  2. — The  indicative  construction  is  carried  still  further  in  poetry:  as,  —  si 
non  alium  iactaret  odorem,  laurus  erat  (Georg.  ii.  133),  it  were  a  laurel,  hut  for  giving 
out  a  different  odor. 

d.  The  participle  in  -urus  with  eram  or  fui  may  take  the  place  of 
an  Imperfect  or  Pluperfect  Subjunctive  in  the  apodosis  of  a  condi- 
tion contrary  to  fact :  — 

quid  enim  futurum  fuit  [=  fuisset],  si  .  .  .  (Liv.  ii.  1),  what  would  have  hap- 
pened if,  etc. 

relicturl  agros  erant,  nisi  ad  eos  Metellus  litteras  misisset  (Verr.  iii.  121),  they 
would  have  abandoned  their  fields,  if  Metellus  had  not  sent  them  a  letter. 

neque  ambigitur  quin  ...  id  facturus  fuerit,  si  .  .  .  (Liv.  ii.  1),  nor  is  there 
any  question  that  he  would  have  done  it,  if,  etc.     [Direct :  fecisset.] 

adeo  parata  seditio  fuit  ut  Othonem  rapturi  fuerint,  ni  incerta  noctis  timuis- 
sent  (Tac.  H.  i.  26),  so  far  advanced  was  the  conspiracy  that  they  would 
have  seized  upon  Otho,  had  they  not  feared  the  hazards  of  the  night.  [In 
a  main  clause:  rapuissent,  ni  timuissent.] 

e.  The  Present  Subjunctive  is  sometimes  used  in  poetry  in  the 
protasis  and  apodosis  of  conditions  contrary  to  fact :  — 

ni  comes  admoneat,  inruat  (Aen.  vi.  293),  had  not  his  companion  warned  him, 
he  would  have  rushed  on.  [Cf.  tu  si  hie  sis,  aliter  sentias  (Ter.  And.  310), 
if  you  were  in  my  place,  you  would  think  diff'erently.] 

Note  1.  —  This  is  probably  a  remnant  of  an  old  construction  (see  next  note). 

Note  2.  — In  old  Latin  the  Present  Subjunctive  (as  well  as  the  Imperfect)  is  used 
in  present  conditions  contrary  to  fact  and  the  Imperfect  (more  rarely  the  Pluperfect) 
in  past  conditions  of  the  same  kind.  Thus  it  appears  that  the  Imperfect  Subjunctive, 
like  the  Imperfect  Indicative,  once  denoted  past  time,  even  in  conditional  sentences. 
Gradually,  however,  in  conditional  sentences,  the  Present  Subjunctive  was  restricted 
to  the  less  vivid  future  and  the  Imperfect  (in  the  main)  to  the  present  contrary  to  fact, 
while  the  Pluperfect  was  used  in  past  conditions  of  this  nature.  The  old  construction, 
however,  seems  to  have  been  retained  as  an  archaism  in  poetry. 

/.  In  Plautus  and  Terence  absque  mg  (te,  etc.)  is  sometimes  used  to 
introduce  conditions  contrary  to  fact :  — 

absque  te  asset,  hodig  nusquam  viverem  (PI.  Men.  1022),  if  it  were  not  for 

you,  I  should  not  be  alive  to-day. 
absque  eo  esset,  recte  ego  mihi  vidissem  (Ter.  Ph.  188),  if  it  had  not  been  for 

him,  I  should  have  looked  out  for  myself. 


§518]  GENERAL   CONDITIONS  331 

GENERAL  CONDITIONS 

518.  General  Conditions  (§  513.  2)  have  usually  the  same  forms 
as  Particular  Conditions.  But  they  are  sometimes  distinguished 
in  the  following  cases :  — 

a.  The  Subjunctive  is  often  used  in  the  second  person  singular,  to 
denote  the  act  of  an  indefinite  subject  {you  =  any  one).  Here  the 
Present  Indicative  of  a  general  truth  may  stand  in  the  apodosis  :  — 

vita  humana  prope  uti  ferruin  est :  si  exerceas,  conteritur ;  si  non  exerceas, 
tamen  robigo  interficit  (Cato  de  M.),  human  life  is  very  like  iron:  if 
you  use  it,  it  wears  away;  if  you  don't  use  it,  rust  still  destroys  it. 

virttitem  necessario  gloria,  etiamsi  tii  id  non  agas,  consequitur  (Tusc.  i.  91), 
glory  necessarily  follows  virtue,  even  if  that  is  not  one''s  aim. 

si  prohibita  imptine  transcenderis,  neque  metus  ultra  neque  pudor  est  (Tac. 
Ann.  iii.  54),  if  you  once  overstep  the  bounds  with  impunity,  there  is  no 
fear  or  shame  any  more. 

b.  In  a  general  condition  in  present  time,  the  protasis  often  takes 
the  Perfect  Indicative,  and  the  apodosis  the  Present  Indicative.  For 
past  time,  the  Pluperfect  is  used  in  the  protasis,  and  the  Imperfect  in 
the  apodosis :  — 

si  quos  aliqua  parte  membrorum  infttilis  notaverunt,  necari  iubent  (Q.  C.  ix. 

1.  25),  if  they  [ever]  mark  any  infirm  in  any  part  of  their  limhs,  they 

[always]  order  them  to  he  put  to  death.     [Present.  ] 
si  a  persequendo  hostis  deterrere  nequiverant,  ab  tergo  circumveniebant  (lug. 

50),  if  [ever]  they  were  unable  to  prevent  the  enemy  from  pursuing,  they 

[always]  surrounded  them  in  the  rear.     [Past.] 

c.  In  later  writers  (rarely  in  Cicero  and  Caesar),  the  Imperfect  and 
Pluperfect  Subjunctive  are  used  in  protasis,  with  the  Imperfect  In- 
dicative in  apodosis,  to  state  a  repeated  or  customary  action  in  past 
time  {Iterative  Subjunctive):  — 

si  quis  a  domino  prehenderetur,  concursti  militum  eripiebatur  (B.  C.  iii.  110), 
if  any  (runaway)  was  arrested  by  his  master,  he  was  (always)  rescued  by 
a  mob  of  soldiers. 

accGsatores,  si  facultas  incideret,  poenis  adficiebantur  (Tac.  Ann.  vi.  30),  the 
accusers,  whenever  opportunity  offered,  were  visited  with  punishment. 

si  quis  coUegam  appellasset,  ab  eo  ita  discedebat  ut  paeniteret  non  prioris 
decreto  stetisse  (Liv.  iii.  36.  8),  if  any  one  appealed  to  a  colleague,  he 
[always]  caine  off  in  such  case  that  he  repented  not  having  submitted  to 
the  decree  of  the  former  decemvir.  [Cf.  Socrates,  quam  se  cumque  in 
partem  dedisset,  omnium  fuit  facile  princeps  (De  Or.  iii.  60),  in  whatever 
direction  Socrates  turned  himself,  he  was  (always)  easily  the  foremost  (if 
in  any,  etc.).] 


332  SYNTAX :    CONDITIONAL   SENTENCES  [§§  519,  520 

Conditional  Relative  Clauses 

519.  A  clause  introduced  by  a  Relative  Pronoun  or  Relative 
Adverb  may  express  a  condition  and  take  any  of  the  construc- 
tions of  Protasis^  (§  514):  — 

qui  enim  vitiis  modum  adponit,  is  partem  suscipit  vitiorum  (Tusc.  iv.  42),  he 

who  [only]  sets  a  limit  to  faults^  takes  up  the  side  of  the  faults.     [=  si 

quis  adponit.     Present,  nothing  implied.] 
qui  mentlri  solet,  peierare  consuevit  (Rose.  Com.  46),  whoever  is  in  the  habit  of 

lying,  is  accustomed  to  swear  falsely.    [  =  si  quis  solet.    Present,  nothing 

implied.] 
quicquid  potuit,  potuit  ipsa  per  se  (Leg.  Agr.  1.  20),  whatever  power  she  had, 

she  had  by  herself.     [=  si  quid  potuit.     Past,  nothing  implied.] 
quod  qui  faciet,  non  aegrittidine  solum  vacabit,  sed,  etc.  (Tusc.  iv.  38),  and 

he  who  does  (shall  do)  this,  will  be  free  not  only^  etc.     [  =  si  quis  faciet. 

Future,  more  vivid.] 
quisquis  hue  venerit,  vapulabit  (PI.  Am.  309),  whoever  comes  here  shall  get  a 

thrashing.     [=  si  quis  venerit.     Puture,  more  vivid.] 
quo  voles,  sequar  (Clu.  71),  whithersoever  you  wish  (shall  wish),  I  vjlll  follow. 

[=  si  quo  voles.     Future,  more  vivid.] 
philosophia,  cui  qui  pareat,  omne  tempus  aetatis  sine  molestia  possit  degere  (Cat. 

M.  2),  philosophy,  lohich  if  any  one  should  obey,  he  would  be  able  to  spend 

his  whole  life  without  vexation.     [==  si  quis  pareat.     Future,  less  vivid.] 
quaecumque  vos  causa  htic  attuUsset,  laetarer  (De  Or.  ii.  15),  I  should  be  glad, 

whatever  cause  had  brouglit  you  here  (i.e.  if  any  other,  as  vv^ell  as  the  one 

which  did).     [=  si  .  .  .  attulisset.     Contrary  to  fact.] 

The  relative  in  this  construction  is  always  indefinite  in  meaning^ 
and  very  often  in /orwi. 

520.  The  special  constructions  of  General  Conditions  are  some- 
times found  in  Conditional  Relative  Clauses :  — 

1.  The  Second  Person  Singular  of  the  Subjunctive  in  the  protasis 
with  the  Indicative  of  a  general  truth  in  the  apodosis  (§  518.  a) :  — 

bonus  tantum  modo  segnior  fit  ubi  neglegas,  at  malus  improbior  (lug,  31.  28), 
a  good  man  merely  becomes  less  diligent  lohen  you  don-t  watch  him,  but  a 
bad  man  becomes  more  shameless.     [Present  General  Condition.] 

2.  The  Perfect  or  Phiperfect  Indicative  in  the  protasis  and  the 
Present  or  Imperfect  Indicative  in  the  apodosis  (§  518.  b) :  — 

cum  hue  veni,  hoc  ipsum  nihil  agere  me  delectat  (De  Or.  ii.  24),  whenever  I 
come  here,  this  very  doing  nothing  delights  me  (whenever  I  have  come, 
etc.).     [Present  General  Condition.] 

1  As  in  the  Greek  os  hv.  Hrav,  etc.  •  and  in  stntntes  in  English,  where  the  phrases 
if  any  person  shall  and  whoever  shall  are  used  indifferently. 


§§  620,  521]  CONDITION  DISGUISED  333 

cum  rosam  vlderat,  turn  incipere  ver  arbitrabatur  (Verr.  v.  27),  wheneoer  he 

saw  (had  seen)  a  rose,  then  he  thought  spring  was  beginning.     [Past 

General  Condition.! 

-"  • 

3.  In  later  writers  (rarely  in  Cicero  and  Caesar)  the  Imperfect  or 
Pluperfect  Subjunctive  in  the  protasis  and  the  Imperfect  Indicative 
in  the  apodosis  (§  518.  c) :  — 

ubi  imbecillitas  materiae  postulare  videretur,  pllae  interpouuntur  (B.  C.  ii. 
16),  wherever  the  weakness  of  the  timber  seemed  to  require,  piles  were  put 
betioeen.     [Past  General  Condition :  interpouuntur  =  interpSnebantur.  ] 

quocumque  se  intulisset,  victoriam  secum  trahebat  (Liv.  vi.  8),  wherever  he 
advanced,  he  carried  victory  with  him.     [Past  General  Condition.] 


Condition  Disguised 

521.  In  many  sentences  properly  conditional,  the  Protasis  is 
not  expressed  by  a  conditional  clause,  but  is  stated  in  some  other 
form  of  words  or  implied  in  the  nature  of  the  thought. 

a.  The  condition  may  be  implied  in  a  Clause,  or  in  a  Participle, 
Noun,  Adverb,  or  some  other  word  or  phrase :  — 

facile  me  paterer  —  illo  ipso  iudice  quaerente  —  pro  Sex.  Roscio  dicere  (Rose. 

Am.  85),  I  should  readily  allow  myself  to  speak  for  Roscius  if  that  very 

judge  were  conducting  the  trial.    [Present  contrary  to  fact :  si  quaereret, 

paterer.] 
non  mihi,  nisi  admonitS,  venisset  in  mentem  (De  Or.  ii.  180),  it  would  not  have 

come  into  my  mind  unless  [I  had  been]  reminded.     [Past  contrary  to 

fact:  nisi  admonitus  essem.] 
nulla  alia  gens  tanta  mole  cladis  non  obruta  esset  (Liv.  xxii.  54),  there  is  no 

other  people  that  would  not  have  been  crushed  by  such  a  weight  of  disaster. 

[Past  contrary  to  fact :  si  alia  fuisset.] 
nemo  umquara  sine  magna  spe  immortalitatis  se  pro  patria  offerret  ad  mortem 

(Tusc.  i.  32),  no  one,  without  great  hope  of  immortality,  would  ever  expose 

himself  to  death  for  his  country.     [Present  contrary  to  fact :  nisi  magnam 

spem  haberet.] 
quid  himc  paucorum  annorum  accessiS  iuvare  potuisset  (Lael.  11),  what  good 

could  the  addition  of  a  few  years  have  done  him  (if  they  had  been  added)  ? 

[Past  contrary  to  fact :  si  accessissent.] 
quid  igitur  mihi  ferarum  laniatus  oberit  nihil  sentienti  (Tusc.  i.  104),  what 

harm  will  the  mangling  by  wild  beasts  do  me  if  I  donH  feel  anything 

(feeling  nothing)  ?     [Future  more  vivid :  si  nihil  sentiam.] 
incitata  semel  proclivi  labuntur  sustinerique  nGllo  modo  possunt  (id.  iv.  42), 

if  once  given  a  push,  they  slide  down  rapidly  and  can  in  no  way  be 

checked.     [Present  General :  si  incitata  sunt.] 


334  SYNTAX :    CONDITIONAL   SENTENCES  [§§  521,  522 

Note.  —  In  several  phrases  denoting  necessity,  proprieUj,  or  the  like,  the  Imper- 
fect, Perfect,  or  Pluperfect  Indicative  of  esse  is  used  in  the  apodosis  of  a  condition 
contrary  to  fact,  the  protasis  being  implied  in  a  subject  infinitive  (cf .  517.  c) :  — 

quanto  tnelius  fuerat  promissum  non  esse  servatum  (Off.  iii.  94),  hoio  much  better 
would  it  have  been  if  the  promise  had  not  been  kept !    [promissum  .  .  . 
servatum  =  81  promissum  non  esset  servatum.] 
mori  praeclarum  fuit  (Att.  viii.  2.  2),  it  would  have  been  honorable  to  die. 
sed  erat  aequius  Triarium  aliquid  de  dissensione  nostra  iiidlcare  (Fin.  ii.  119),  but  it 
would  be  more  equitable  if  Triarius  passed  judgment  on  our  dispute.     [Tri- 
arium iudicare  =  si  Triarius  iudicaret.] 
satius  fuit  amittere  milites  (Inv.  ii.  73),  it  would  have  been  better  to  lose  the  soldiers. 
[amittere  =  si  amisisset.] 

6.  The  condition  may  be  contained  in  a  wish  (  Optative  Subjunctive) y 
or  expressed  as  an  exhortation  or  command  (Hortatory  Subjunctive 
or  Imperative)  :  — 

utinam  quidem  fuissem  1  molestus  nobis  non  esset  (Fam.  xii.  3),  I  wish  I 
had  been  [chief] :  he  would  not  now  be  troubling  us  (i.e.  if  I  had  been). 
[Optative  Subjunctive.] 
nattiram  expellas  furca,  tamen  usque  recurret  (Hor.  Ep.  i.  10.  24),  drive  out 

nature  with  a  pitchfork.,  still  she  will  ever  return.     [Hortatory.] 
roges  enim  Aristonem,  neget  (Fin.  iv.  69),  for  ask  Aristo,  he  would  deny. 
manent  ingenia  senibus,  modo  permaneat  studium  et  industria  (Cat.  M.  22), 
old  men  keep  their  mental  powers,  only  let  them  keep  their  zeal  and  dili- 
gence (§  528.  N.).     [Hortatory.] 
tolle  banc  opinionem,  Itictum  sustuleris  (Tusc.  i.  30),  remove  this  notion,  and 
you  will  have  done  away  with  grief.     [Imperative.] 

Note.  —  The  so-called  Concessive  Subjunctive  with  ut  and  ne  often  has  the  force 
of  protasis  (§  527.  a.  n.)  :  as, — ut  enim  rationem  Plato  nullam  adferret,  ipsa  auctoritate 
me  frangeret  (Tusc.  i.  49),  even  if  Plato  gave  no  reasons,  [still]  he  would  overpower 
me  by  his  mere  authority. 

c.  E-arely  the  condition  takes  the  form  of  an  independent  clause: 
rides :  maiore  cacliinno  concutitur  (luv.  iii.  100),  you  laugh;  he  shakes  with 

louder  laughter  {=  if  you  laugh,  he  shakes). 
commove:  senties  (Tusc.  iv.  54),  stir  him  up,  [and]  youHlfind,  etc. 
d§  paupertate  agitur:  multl  patientes  pauperes  commemorantur  (id.  iii.  57), 
we  speak  of  poverty;  many  patient  poor  are  mentioned. 
For  Conditional  Relative  Clauses,  see  §§  519,  520. 

Condition  Omitted 

522.  The  Protasis  is  often  wholly  omitted,  but  may  be  inferred 
from  the  course  of  the  argument :  — 

poterat  Sextilius  impune  negare :  quis  enim  redargueret  (Fin.  ii.  55),  Sextilius 
might  have  denied  with  impunity;  for  who  would  prove  him  wrong  (if  he 
had  denied)? 


§§522,523]  COMPLEX  CONDITIONS  335 

a.  In  expressions  signifying  necessity,  propriety,  and  the  like,  the 

Indicative  may  be  used  in  the  apodosis  of  implied  conditions,  either 
future  or  contrary  to  fact :  — 

quod  contra  decuit  ab  illo  meum  [corpus  cremari]  (Cat.  M.  84),  whereas  on 

the  other  hand  mine  ought  to  have  been  burnt  hy  him. 
nam  nos  decebat  domum  lugere  ubi  esset  aliquis  in  lucem  editus  (Tusc.  i. 

115),  for  it  were  fitting  for  us  to  mourn  the  house  where  a  man  has  been 

born  (but  we  do  not), 
quanto  melius  fuerat  (Off.  iii.  94),  how  much  better  it  would  have  been. 
illud  erat  aptius,  aequ'um  cuique  concedere  (Fin.  iv.  2),  it  would  be  more  Jit 

ting  to  yield  each  one  his  rights. 
ipsum  enim  exspectare  magnum  fuit  (Phil.  ii.  103),  would  it  have  been  a  great 

matter  to  wait  for  the  man  himself? 
longum  est  ea  dicere,  sed  .  .  .   (Sest.  12),  it  would  be  tedious  to  tell,  etc. 

[Future.] 

Note  1.  —  In  tbis  construction,  the  Imperfect  Indicative  refers  to  present  time; 
the  Pluperfect  to  simple  past  time,  like  the  Perfect.  Thus  oportebat  means  it  ought 
to  be  [now],  but  is  not;  oportuerat  means  it  ought  to  have  been,  but  was  not. 

Note  2.  —  In  many  cases  it  is  impossible  to  say  whether  a  protasis  was  present 
to  the  mind  of  the  speaker  or  not  (see  third  example  above). 

Complex  Conditions 

523.  Either  the  Protasis  or  the  Apodosis  may  be  a  complex  idea 
in  which  the  main  statement  is  made  with  expressed  or  implied 
qualifications.  In  such  cases  the  true  logical  relation  of  the 
parts  is  sometimes  disguised :  — 

si  quis  horum  dixisset ...  si  verbum  de  re  ptiblica  fecisset  .  .  .  multa  pltira 
dixisse  quam  dixisset  putaretur  (Rose.  Am.  2),  if  any  of  these  had  spoken, 
in  case  he  had  said  a  word  about  politics  he  would  be  thought  to  have  said 
much  more  than  he  did  say.  [Here  the  apodosis  of  dixisset  is  the  whole 
of  the  following  statement  (si .  .  .  putaretur),  which  is  itself  conditioned 
by  a  protasis  of  its  own :  si  verbum,  etc.]. 

quod  si  in  hoc  mundo  fieri  sine  deo  non  potest,  ne  in  sphaera  quidem  eosdem 
mottis  sine  divino  ingenio  potuisset  imitarl  (Tusc.  i.  63),  now  if  that  can- 
not be  done  in  this  universe  without  divine  agency,  no  more  could  [Archi- 
medes] in  his  orrery  have  imitated  the  same  revolutions  without  divine 
genius.  [Here  si  potest  (a  protasis  with  nothing  implied)  has  for  its 
apodosis  the  whole  clause  which  follows,  but  potuisset  has  a  contrary- 
to-fact  protasis  of  its  own  implied  in  sine  .  .  .  ingenio.] 

peream  male  si  non  optimum  erat  (Hor.  S.  ii.  1.  6),  confound  me  (may  I 
perish  wretchedly)  if  it  wouldn't  be  better.  [Here  peream  is  apodosis  to 
the  rest  of  the  sentence,  while  the  true  protasis  to  optimum  erat,  contrary 
to  fact,  is  omitted.] 


336  SYNTAX:    CONDITIONAL   SENTENCES  [§624 

Clauses  of  Comparison  (Conclusion  Omitted) 

524.  Conditional  Clauses  of  Comparison  take  the  Subjunctive, 
usually  in  the  Present  or  Perfect  unless  the  sequence  of  tenses 
requires  the  Imperfect  or  Pluperfect. 

Such  clauses  are  introduced  by  the  comparative  particles  tamquam, 
tamquam  si,  quasi,  ac  si,  ut  si,  velut  si  (later  velut),  poetic  ceu  (all  mean- 
ing as  if),  and  by  quam  si  (than  if) :  — 

tamquam  clausa  sit  Asia  (Fam.  xii.  9),  as  if  Asia  luere  closed. 
tamquam  si  claudus  sim  (PI.  Asin.  427),  just  as  if  I  were  lame. 
ita  lios  [houores]  petuiit,  quasi  honeste  vixerint  (lug.  85),  they  seek  them 

(ofiQces)  just  as  if  they  had  lived  honorably. 
quasi  verO  non  specie  visa  iudicentur  (Acad.  ii.  58),  as  if  forsooth  visible  things 

wei'e  not  judged  by  their  appearance. 
similiter  facis  ac  si  me  roges  (N.  D.  iii.  8),  you  do  exactly  as  if  you  asked  me. 
crtidelitatem  horrerent  velut  si  coram  adesset  (B.  G.  i.  32),  they  dreaded  his 

cruelty  (they  said),  as  if  he  were  present  in  person. 
hie  ingentem  ptignam  cernimus  ceu  cetera  nusquam  bellaforent  (Aen.  ii.  438), 

here  we  saw  a  great  battle,  as  if  there  were  no  fighting  elsewhere.     [But 

sometimes  with  the  indicative  in  poetry,  as  id.  v.  88.] 
magis  a  me  abesse  videbare  quam  si  domi  esses  (Att.  vi.  5),  you  seemed  to 

be  absent  from  me  more  than  if  you  were  at  home. 

Note  1. — These  subjunctive  clauses  are  really  future  conditions  with  apodosis 
implied  in  the  particle  itself.  Thus  in  tamquam  si  claudus  sim  the  protasis  is  introduced 
by  si,  and  the  apodosis  implied  in  tamquam. 

Note  2.  — The  English  idiom  would  lead  us  to  expect  the  Imperfect  and  Pluperfect 
Subjunctive  (contrary  to  fact)  with  these  particles;  but  the  point  of  view  is  different 
in  the  two  languages.  Thus  the  second  example  above  is  translated  Jw5<  asif  Iicere 
lame,  —  as  if  it  were  a  present  condition  contrary  to  fact;  but  it  really  means  jv^t  as 
[it  would  be]  if  I  should  [at  some  future  time]  be  lame,  and  so  is  a  less  vivid  future 
condition  requiring  the  Present  Subjunctive.  Similarly  quasi  honeste  vixerint,  as  ij 
they  had  lived  honorably,  is  really  as  [they  would  do  in  the  future]  if  they  should  have 
lived  honorably  and  so  requires  the  Perfect  Subjunctive  (§  516.  c). 

a.  Even  after  a  primary  tense,  the  Imperfect  or  Pluperfect  Sub- 
junctive (contrary  to  fact)  is  often  used  in  conditional  clauses  of 
comparison :  — 

aeque  a  te  peto  ac  si  mea  negotia  essent  (Fam.  xiii.  43),  I  entreat  you  as  much 

■    as  if  it  were  my  own  business. 
§ius  negotium  sic  velim  suscipias  ut  si  asset  res  mea  (id.  vii.  20.  1),  I  would 
have  you  undertake  his  business  as  though  it  were  my  affair. 

Note.  —  The  practice  differs  with  the  different  particles.  Thus  in  Cicero  a  clause 
with  tamquam  or  quasi  almost  always  observes  the  sequence  of  tenses,  but  with  quam  ei 
the  Imperfect  or  Pluperfect  is  the  rule 


§  526]  USE  OF  si'  AND  ITS  COMPOUNDS  337 

Use  of  St  and  its  Compounds 

525.  The  uses  of  some  of  the  more  common  Conditional  Parti- 
cles may  be  stated  as  follows  :  — 

a.  Si  is  used  for  affi,rmative,  nisi  (ni)  and  si  non  for  negative  con- 
ditions. 

1.  With  nisi  (generally  unless)  the  apodosis  is  stated  as  universalis/  true 
except  in  the  single  case  supposed,  in  which  case  it  is  (impliedly)  not  true :  — 

nisi  Conon  adest,  maereo,  unless  Conon  is  here,  I  mourn  (i.e.  I  am  always  in 
a  state  of  grief  except  in  the  single  case  of  Conon's  presence,  in  which 
case  I  am  not). 

2.  With  si  non  (if  not)  the  apodosis  is  only  stated  as  true  in  the  (negative) 
case  supposed,  but  as  to  other  cases  no  statement  is  made  :  — 

SI  Conon  non  adest,  maereo,  if  Conon  is  not  here,  I  mourn  (i.e.  I  mourn  in 
the  single  case  of  Conon's  absence,  nothing  being  said  as  to  other  cases 
in  which  I  may  or  may  not  mourn). 

Note.  —  It  often  makes  no  difference  in  which  of  these  forms  the  condition  is 
stated. 

3.  Sometimes  nisi  si,  except  if,  unless,  occurs  :  — 

noli  putSre  me  ad  quemquam  longiores  epistulas  scribere,  nisi  si  quis  ad  me 
plura  scrlpsit  (Fam.  xiv.  2),  .  .  .  except  in  case  one  writes  more  to  me. 
Note. — TTi  is  an  old  form  surviving  in  a  few  conventional  phrases  and  reappear- 
ing in  poets  and  later  writers. 

6,  Nisi  vero  and  nisi  forte  regularly  introduce  an  objection  or  excep- 
tion ii'oiiically,  and  take  the  Indicative :  — 

nisi  vero  L.  Caesar  crudelior  visus  est  (Cat.  iv.  13),  unless  indeed  Lucius 

Ccesar  seemed  too  cruel. 
nisi  forte  volumus  Epiciireoruin  opinionem  sequi  (Fat.  37),  unless,  to  be  sure, 
we  choose  to  follow  the  notion  of  the  Epicureans. 

Note.  — This  is  the  regvilar  way  of  introducing  a  reductio  ad  abs^rdum  in  Latin. 
Nisi  alone  is  sometimes  used  in  this  sense:  as,— nisi  unum  hoc  faciam  ut  in  puteo 
cenam  coquant  <P1.  Aul.  965),  unless  I  do  this  one  thing,  [make  them]  cook  dinner 
in  the  welL 

c,  Sive  (sen)  .  ,  .  sive  (seu),  whether  .  .  .  or,  introduce  a  condition 
in  the  form  of  an  alternative.  They  may  be  used  with  any  form  of 
coYidition,  or  with  different  forms  in  the  two  members.  Often  also 
they  are  used  without  a  verb :  — 

nam  illo  loco  libentissime  soleo  uti,  sive  quid  mecum  ipse  cogito,  sive  quid 
scribo  aut  lego  (Legg.  ii.  \),forI  enjoy  myself  most  in  that  place,  whether 
I  am  thinking  by  myself,  or  am  either  writing  or  reading. 
Note.  —  Sive  ,  .  .  seu  and  seu  .  .  .  sive  are  late  or  noetic. 


338  SYNTAX :    CONCESSIVE   CLAUSES  [§§  525-527 

d.  Sin,  but  if,  often  introduces  a  supposition  contrary  to  one  that 
precedes :  — 

accusator  ilium  defendet  si  poterit;  sin  minus  poterit,  negabit  (Inv.  ii.  88), 
the  accuser  will  defend  him  if  he  can ;  but  if  he  cannot,  he  will  deny. 

e.  Nisi  is  often  used  loosely  by  the  comic  poets  in  the  sense  of  only 
when  a  negative  (usually  nescio)  is  expressed,  or  easily  understood,  in 
the  main  clause  :  — 

nescio :  nisi  me  dixisse  nemini  certo  scio  (Ter.  Pli.  952),  I  don^t  know :  only 
I  am  sure  that  I  have  n'i  told  anybody. 

■  CONCESSIVE  CLAUSES 

526.  The  concessive  idea  is  rattier  vague  and  general,  and  takes  a  variety  of  forms, 
each  of  whicli  has  its  distinct  history.  Sometimes  concession  is  expressed  hy  the  Hor- 
tatory Subjunctive  in  a  sentence  grammatically  independent  (§440),  biit  it  is  more 
frequently  and  more  precisely  expressed  by  a  dependent  clause  introduced  by  a  con- 
cessive particle.  The  concessive  force  lies  chiefly  in  the  Conjunctions  (which  are 
indefinite  or  conditional  in  origin),  and  is  often  made  clearer  by  an  adversative  par- 
ticle (tamen,  certe)  in  the  main  clause.  As  the  Subjunctive  may  be  used  in  independ- 
ent clauses  to  express  a  concession,  it  is  also  employed  in  concessive  clauses,  and 
somewhat  more  frequently  than  the  indicative. 

527.  The  Particles  of  Concession  (meaning  although,  granting 
that)  are  quamvis,  ut,  licet,  etsi,  tametsi,  etiam  si,  quamquam,  and  cum. 

Some  of  these  take  the  Subjunctive,  others  the  Indicative,  ac- 
cording to  the  nature  of  the  clause  which  each  introduces. 

a,  Quamvis  and  ut  take  the  Subjunctive :  — 

quamvis  ipsi  infantes  sint,  tamen  .  .  .  (Or.  76),  however  incapable  of  speaking 

they  themselves  may  be,  yet.,  etc. 
quamvis  scelerati  illi  fuissent  (De  Or.  i.  230),  however  guilty  they  might  have 

been. 
quamvis  comis  in  amlcis  tuendis  fuerit  (Fin.  ii.  80),  amiable  as  he  may  have 

been  in  keeping  his  friends. 
ut  neminem  alium  rogasset  (Mil.  46),  even  if  he  had  asked  no  other. 
ut  enim  non  efficias  quod  vis,  tamen  mors  ut  malum  non  sit  efficies  (Tusc.  1. 

16),  for  even  if  you  do  not  accomplish  what  you  wish,  still  you  will  prove 

that  death  is  not  an  evil. 
ut  rationem  Plato  niillam  adferret  (id.  i.  49),  though  Plato  adduced  no  reasons. 

Note. — Quamvis  means  literally  as  much  as  you  wUl.  Thus  in  the  first  example 
above,  let  them  he  as  incapable  as  you  will,  still,  etc.  The  subjunctive  with  quamvis 
is  hortatory,  like  that  with  ne  (§  440) ;  that  with  ut  (ut  non)  is  of  uncertain  origin. 

b.  Licet,  although,  takes  the  Present  or  Perfect  Subjunctive :  — 
licet  omnes  mihi  terr5res  periculaque  impendeant  (Bosc.  Am.  31),  though  aJJ 

terrors  aind  perils  should  menace  me. 


§  627]  CONCESSIVE   CLAUSES 

Note.  —  Licet  is  properly  a  verb  in  the  present  tense,  meaning  it  is  granted.  Hence 
the  subjuuctive  is  by  the  sequence  of  tenses  limited  to  the  Present  and  Perfect.  The 
concessive  clause  with  licet  is  hortatory  in  origin,  but  may  be  regarded  as  a  substan- 
tive clause  serving  as  the  subject  of  the  impersonal  verb  (§  565.  N.i). 

c,  Etsi,  etiam  si,  tametsi,  eve^i  if,  take  the  same  constructions  as  si 
(see  §  514)  :  — 

etsi  abest  mattiritas,  tamen  non  est  iniitile  (Fam.  vi.  18.  4),  though  ripeness 

of  age  is  wanting^  yet  it  is  not  useless,  etc. 
etsi  numquam  dubium  fuit,  tamen  perspicio  (id.  v.  19),  although  it  has  never 

been  doubtful,  yet  I  perceive,  etc. 
etsi  statueram  (id.  v.  5) ,  though  I  had  determined. 
etsi  nihil  aliud  abstulissetis,  tamen  contentos  vos  esse  oportebat  (Sull.  90), 

even  if  you  had  taken  away  nothing  else,  you  ought  to  have  been  satisfied. 
etiam  si  quod  scribas  non  habebis,  scribito  tamen  (Fam.  xvi.  26),  even  if  you 

[shall]  have  nothing  to  write,  still  write. 
sed  ea  tametsi  vos  parvi  pendebatis  (Sail.  Cat.  52.  9),  but  although  you  regarded 

those  things  as  of  small  account. 

Note  1.  — Tametsi  with  the  subjunctive  is  very  rare. 

Note  2. — A  protasis  with  si  often  has  a  concessive  force:  as,  —  ego,  si  essent  ini- 
micitiae  mihi  cum  C.  Caesare,  tamen  hoc  tempore  rei  publicae  consulere  .  .  .  deberem 
(Prov.  Cons.  47),  as  for  me,  even  if  I  had  private  quarrels  with  Csesar,  it  would  still 
be  my  duty  to  serve  the  best  interests  of  the  state  at  this  crisis. 

d,  Quamquam,  although,  introduces  an  admitted  fact  and  takes  the 
Indicative :  — 

omnibus  —  quamquam  ruit  ipse  suis  cladibus — pestem  denHntiat  (Phil.  xiv. 
8),  though  he  is  breaking  down  under  his  disasters,  still  he  threatens  all 
with  destruction. 

Note.  — ^  Quamquam  more  commonly  means  and  yet,  introducing  a  new  ptoposition 
in  the  indicative;  as,  —  quamquam  haec  quidem  lam  tolerabilia  videbantur,  etsi,  etc. 
(Mil.  76),  and  yet  these,  in  truths  seemed  now  bearable,  though,  etc. 

e,  The  poets  and  later  writers  frequently  use  quamvis  and  quam- 
quam like  etsi,  connecting  them  with  the  Indicative  or  the  Subjunc- 
tive, according  to  the  nature  of  the  condition :  — 

quamquam  moveretur  (Li v.  xxxvi.  34),  although  he  was  moved. 

Pollio  amat  nostram,  quamvis  est  rustica,  musam  (Eel.  iii.  84),  Pollio  loves 

my  muse,  though  she  is  rustic. 
quamvis  perveneras  (Liv.  ii.  40),  though  pou  had  come. 

/.  Ut,  as,  with  the  Indicative,  may  be  equivalent  to  a  concession : 
verum  ut  errare  potuisti,  sic  decipi  te  non  potuisse  quis  non  videt  (Fam.  x. 
20.  2),  suppose  you  could  have  been  mistaken,  who  does  not  see  that  you 
cannot  have  been  deceived  in  this  way  ? 

For  cum  concessive,  see  §  549 ;  for  qui  concessive,  see  §  535.  e.  For  concession  ex- 
pressed by  the  Hortatory  Subjunctive  (negative  ne),  see  §  440c 


340  SYNTAX:    CLAUSES  OF  PROVISO  [§§628-531 

CLAUSES   OF  PROVISO 

528.  Dum,  modo,  dummodo,  and  tantum  ut,  introducing  a  Proviso^ 

take  the  Subjunctive.    The  negative  with  these  particles  is  ne: 

oderint  dum  metuant  (Off.  i.  97),  let  them  hate,  if  only  they  fear. 

valetudo  modo  bona  sit  (Brut.  64),  provided  the  health  be  good. 

dummodo  inter  me  atque  te  miirus  intersit  (Cat.  i.  10),  provided  only  the  wall 

(of  the  city)  is  between  us. 
tantum  ut  sciant  (Att.  xvi.  11.  1),  provided  only  they  know. 
modo  ne  sit  ex  pecudum  genere  (Off.  i.  105),  provided  [in  pleasure]  he  he 

not  of  the  herd  of  cattle. 
id  faciat  saepe,  dum  ne  lassus  fiat  (Cato  R.  R.  v.  4),  let  him  do  this  often, 

provided  he  does  not  get  tired. 
dummodo  ea  (severitas)  ne  varietur  (Q.  Fr.  i.  1.  20),  provided  only  it  (strictness) 

be  not  allowed  to  swerve. 
tantum  ne  noceat  (Ov.  M.  ix.  21),  only  let  it  do  no  harm. 

Note,  —  The  Subjunctive  with  modo  is  hortatory  or  optative;  that  with  dum  and 
dummodo,  a  development  from  the  use  of  the  Subjunctive  with  dum  in  temporal  clauses, 
§  553  (compare  the  colloquial  so  long  as  my  health  is  good,  I  don't  care). 

a.  The  Hortatory  Subjunctive  without  a  particle  sometimes  ex- 
presses a  proviso :  — 

sint  Maecenates,  non  deerunt  Marongs  (Mart.  viii.  66.  5),  so  there  be  Maece- 
nases., Virgils  will  not  be  lacking. 

b.  The  Subjunctive  with  ut  (negative  ne)  is  sometimes  used  to  de- 
note a  proviso,  usually  with  ita  in  the  main  clause :  — 

probata  condicio  est,  sed  ita  ut  ille  praesidia  deduceret  (Att.  vii.  14.  1),  the 
terms  were  approved,  but  only  on  condition  that  he  should  withdraw  the 
garrisons. 

Note.  —  This  is  a  development  of  the  construction  of  Characteristic  or  Result. 
For  a  clause  of  Characteristic  expressing  Proviso,  see  §  535.  d. 

CLAUSES   OF  PURPOSE   (FINAL  CLAUSES) 

529.  The  Subjunctive  in  the  clause  of  Purpose  is  hortatory  in  origin,  coming 
through  a  kind  of  indirect  discourse  construction  (for  which  see  §592).  Thus,  leisit 
legates  qui  dicerent  means  he  sent  ambassadors  loho  should  say,  i.e.  loho  icere  directed 
to  say ;  in  the  direct  orders  the  verb  would  be  dicite,  which  would  become  dicant  in  the 
Indirect  Discourse  of  narrative  (§  588)  or  dicerent  in  the  past  (cf .  hortatory  subjunctive 
in  past  tenses,  §439.  h).  The  Subjunctive  with  ut  and  ne  is,  in  general,  similar  in 
origin. 

530.  A  clause  expressing  purpose  is  called  a  Final  Clause. 

531.  Final  Clauses  take  the  Subjunctive  introduced  by  ut  (uti), 
negative  ne  (ut  ne),  or  by  a  Relative  Pronoun  or  Adverb :  — 


§531]  CLAUSES   OF  PURPOSE  341 

1.  Pure  Clauses  of  Purpose,  with  ut  (uti)  or  ne  (ut  ne),  express  the 
purpose  of  the  main  verb  in  the  form  of  a  modifying  clause:  — 

ab  aratro  abduxerunt  Cincinnatum,  ut  dictator  esset  (Fin.  ii.  12),  they  brought 
Cincinnatus  from  the  jilough  that  he  might  he  dictator. 

ut  sint  auxilio  suis,  subsistunt  (B.  C.  i.  80),  they  halt  in  order  to  support  (be 
an  aid  to)  their  oivn  men. 

ne  milites  oppidum  inramperent,  portas  obstruit  (id.  i.  27),  he  barricaded  the 
gates.,  in  order  that  the  soldiers  might  not  break  into  the  town. 

scalas  parari  iubet,  ne  quam  facultatem  dimittat  (id.  i.  28),  he  orders  scaling- 
ladders  to  be  got  ready,  in  order  not  to  let  slip  any  opportunity. 

at  ne  sit  impiine  (Mil.  81),  that  it  be  not  loith  impunity. 

Note  1.  —  Sometimes  the  conjunction  has  a  correlative  (ideo,  idcirco,  eo  consilio,  etc.) 
in  the  main  clause  (cf .  §  561.  a)  :  — 

legum  idcirco  servi  sumus,  ut  liberi  simus  (Clu.  146), /or  this  reason  we  are  subject 

to  the  laws,  that  we  may  be  free. 
copias  transduxit  eo  consilio,  ut  castellum  expugnaret  (cf.  B.  G.  ii.  9),  he  led  the 
troops  across  with  this  design  —  to  storm  the  fort. 
Note  2,  —  Ut  non  sometimes  occurs  in  clauses  of  purpose  when  non  belongs  to  some 
particular  word :  as, — ut  plura  non  dicam  (Manil.  44),  to  avoid  unnecessary  talk. 

2.  Eelative  Clauses  of  Purpose  are  introduced  by  the  relative  pro- 
noun qui  or  a  relative  adverb  (ubi,  unde,  quo,  etc.).  The  antecedent 
is  expressed  or  implied  in  the  main  clause :  — 

mittitur  L.  Decidius  Saxa  qui  loci  naturam  perspiciat  (B.  C.  i.  66),  Lucius 

Decidius  Saxa  is  sent  to  examine  the  ground  (who  should  examine,  etc.). 
scribebat  orationes  quas  alii  dicerent  (Brut.  206),  he  lurote  speeches  for  other 

men  to  deliver. 
60  exstincto  fore  unde  discerem  neminem  (Cat.  M.  12),  that  when  he  loas  dead 

there  would  be  nobody  from  whom  (whence)  I  coidd  learn. 
huic  ne  ubi  consisteret  quidem  contra  te  locum  reliquisti  (Quinct.  73),  you 

have  left  him  no  ground  even  to  make  a  stand  against  you. 
habebam  qu5  confugerem  (Fam.  iv.  6.  2),  I  had  [a  retreat]  whither  I  might  flee. 

Note.  — In  this  construction  qui  =  ut  is  (etc.),  ubi  =  ut  ibi,  and  so  on  (§  537.  2). 

a.  The  ablative  quo  (=  ut  eo)  is  used  as  a  conjunction  in  final 
clauses  which  contain  a  comparative :  — 

comprimere  eorum  audaciam,   quo  facilius  ceterorum   animi  frangerentur 
(Fam.  XV.  4.  10),  to  repress  their  audacity,  that  the  spirit  of  the  others 
might  be  broken  more  easily  (by  which  the  more  easily), 
libertate  iisus  est,  quo  impiinius  dicax  esset  (Quinct.  11),  he  took  advantage 
of  liberty,  that  he  might  bluster  with  more  impunity. 

Note.  —  Occasionally  quo  introduces  a  final  clause  that  does  not  contain  a  compara- 
tive :  as,  —  L,  Sulla  exercitum,  quo  sibi  fidum  faceret,  luxuriose  habuerat  (Sail.  Cat.  11), 
Lucius  Sidla  had  treated  the  army  luxurioudy,  in  order  to  make  it  devoted  to  him. 

For  quominus  (=ut  eo  minus)  after  \erbs  of  hindering,  see  §558.  b. 


342  SYNTAX:    CLAUSES   OF  PURPOSE  [§§532,533 

532.  The  principal  clause,  on  winch  a  final  clause  depends,  is 
often  to  be  supplied  from  the  context :  — 

ac  ne  longum  sit .  .  .  iussimus  (Cat.  iii.  10),  and,  not  to  he  tedious,  we  ordered^ 
etc.     [Strictly,  in  order  not  to  he  tedious,  I  say  we  ordered.'] 

sed  ut  ad  Dionysium  redeamus  (Tusc.  v.  63),  hut  to  return  to  Bionysius. 

sed  ut  eodem  revertar,  causa  haec  fuit  timoris  (Fam.  vi.  7.  3),  hut,  to  return 
to  the  same  point,  this  was  the  cause  of  fear. 

satis  inconsiderati  fuit,  ne  dicam  audacis  (Phil.  xiii.  12),  it  was  the  act  of  one 
rash  enough,  not  to  say  daring. 

Note  1.  — By  a  similar  ellipsis  the  Subjunctive  is  used  withnedum  (sometimes  ne), 
still  less,  not  to  mention  that :  — 

nedum  salvi  esse  posslmus  (Clu.  95),  much  less  could  we  be  safe. 

nedum  isti  non  statim  conqulsituri  sint  aliquid  sceleris  et  flagiti  (Leg.  Agr.  ii.  97), 

far  more  will  they  hunt  up  at  once  some  sort  of  crime  and  scandal. 
nedum  in  mari  et  via  sit  facile  (Fam.  xvi.  8),  still  less  is  it  easy  at  sea  and  on  a 

journey. 
quippe  secundae  res  sapientium  animos  f atlgant ;  ne  ill!  corruptis  moribus  vic- 
toriae  temperarent  (Sail.  Cat.  11) ,  for  prosperity  overmo.scers  the  soul  even 
of  the  wise;  much  less  did  they  ivith  their  corrupt  tnoralsput  any  check  on 
victory. 
Note  2.  —  With  nedum  the  verb  itself  is  often  omitted:  as,  —  aptius  humanitati 
tuae  quam  tota  Peloponnesus,  nedum  Patrae  (Fam.  vli.  28.  1),  fitter  for  your  refine- 
ment than  all  Peloponnesus,  to  say  nothing  of  Patrse. 

For  Substantive  Clauses  involving  purpose,  see  §§  563-566. 

533.  The  Purpose  of  an  action  is  expressed  in  Latin  in  various 
ways ;  but  never  (except  in  idiomatic  expressions  and  rarely  in 
poetry)  by  the  simple  Infinitive  as  in  English  (§  460). 

The  sentence,  they  came  to  seek  peace,  may  be  rendered  — 

(1)  venerunt  ut  pacem  peter6nt.     [Final  clause  with  ut  (§  531.  1).] 

(2)  venerunt  qui  pacem  peterent.     [Final  clause  with  Relative  (§  531.  2).] 

(3)  [venerunt  ad  petendum  pacem.]     Not  found  with  transitive  verbs  (§  500, 

N.  2),  but  cf.  ad  pSrendum  senatui.     [Gerund  with  ad  (§  506).] 

(4)  venerunt  ad  petendam  pacem.     [Gerundive  with  ad  (§  506).] 

(5)  venerunt  pacem  petendi  causa  (gratia).     [Gen.  of  Gerund  with  causa 

(§504.6).] 

(6)  venerunt  pacis  petendae  causa  (gratia).     [Gen.  of  Gerundive  with  causa 

(§504.6).] 

(7)  venerunt  pacem  petiturl.     [Future  participle  (§  499.  2);  in  later  writers.] 

(8)  venerunt  pacem  petltum.     [Supine  in  -um  (§  509).] 

These  forms  are  not  used  indifferently,  but  — 

a.  The  usual  way  of  expressing  purpose  is  by  ut  (negative  ne), 
unless  the  purpose  is  closely  connected  with  some  one  word,  in  which 
case  a  relative  is  more  common:  — 


§§533-635]  CLAUSES  OE   CHARACTERISTIC  343 

legates  ad  Dumnorigem  mittunt,  ut  eO  deprecatore  a  Sequanis  impetrarent 
(B.  G.  i.  9),  they  send  envoys  to  Dumnorix,  in  order  through  his  interces- 
sion to  obtain  (this  favor)  from  the  Sequani. 

milites  nilsit  ut  eos  qui  fugerant  persequerentur  (id*,  v.  10),  he  sent  the  sol- 
diers to  follow  up  those  who  had  fled. 

Ctirio  praeinittit  equites  qui.primum  impetum  sustineant  (B.  C.  ii.  26),  Curio 
sends  forward  cavalry  to  withstand  the  first  attack.  ■ 

b.  The  Gerund  and  Gerundive  constructions  of  purpose  are  usually 
limited  to  short  expressions,  where  the  literal  translation,  though  not 
the  English  idiom,  is  nevertheless  not  harsh  or  strange. 

c.  The  Supine  is  used  to  express  purpose  only  with  verbs  of  motion, 
and  in  a  few  idiomatic  expressions  (§  509). 

d.  The  Future  Participle  used  to  express  purpose  is  a  late  con- 
struction of  inferior  authority  (§  499.  2). 

For  the  poetical  Infinitive  of  Purpose,  see  §  460.  c.  For  the  Present  Participle  in 
a  sense  approaching  that  of  purpose,  see  §  490.  3. 

CLAUSES   OF  CHARACTERISTIC 

534.  The  relative  clause  of  Characteristic  with  the  Subjunctive  is  a  development 
peculiar  to  Latin.  A  relative  clause  in  the  Indicative  merely  states  something  as  a 
fact  which  is  true  of  the  antecedent;  a  characteristic  clause  (in  the  Subjunctive) 
defines  the  antecedent  as  a  person  or  thing  of  such  a  character  that  the  statement 
made  is  true  of  him  or  it  and  of  all  others  belonging  to  the  same  class.  Thus,  —  non 
potest  exercitum  is  continere  imperator  qui  se  ipse  non  continet  (indicative)  means  simply, 
that  commander  who  does  not  (as  a  fact)  restrain  himself  cannot  restrain  his  army ; 
whereas  non  potest  exercitum  is  continere  imperator  qui  se  ipse  non  contineat  (subjunctive) 
would  mean,  that  commander  who  is  not  such  a  man  as  to  restrain  himself,  etc., 
that  is,  who  is  not  characterized  by  self-restraint. 

This  construction  has  its  origin  in  the  potential  use  of  the  subjunctive  (§445). 
Thus,  in  the  example  just  given,  qui  se  ipse  non  contineat  would  mean  literally,  who 
would  not  restrain  himself  (in  any  supposable  case),  and  this  potential  idea  passes 
over  easily  into  that  of  general  quality  or  characteristic.  The  characterizing  force 
is  most  easily  felt  when  the  antecedent  is  indefinite  or  general.  But  this  usage  is 
extended  in  Latin  to  cases  which  differ  but  slightly  from  statements  of  fact,  as  in 
some  of  the  examples  below. 

The  use  of  the  Subjunctive  to  express  Result  comes  from  its  use  in  Clauses  of 
Characteristic.  Thus,  n5n  sum  ita  hebes  ut  haec  dicam  means  literally,  /  am  not  dull 
in  the  manner  (degree)  in  which  I  should  say  this,  hence,  I  am  not  so  dull  as  to  say 
this.  Since,  then,  the  characteristic  often  appears  in  the  form  of  a  supposed  result, 
the  construction  readily  passes  over  into  Pure  Result,  with  no  idea  of  characteristic ; 
as,  — tantus  in  curia  clamor  factus  est  ut  populus  concurreret  (Verr.  ii.  47),  such  an  outcry 
was  made  in  the  senate-house  that  the  people  hurried  together. 

535.  A  Relative  Clause  with  the  Subjunctive  is  often  used  to 
indicate  a  characteristic  of  the  antecedent,  especially  where  the 
antecedent  is  otherwise  undefined :  — 


344  SYNTAX:    CLAUSES   OF   CHARACTERISTIC  [§535 

neque  enim  tu  is  es  qui  nescias  (Fam.  v.  12.  6),  for  you  are  not  such  a  one  as 

not  to  know.     [Here  is  is  equivalent  to  such,  and  is  defined  only  by  the 

relative  clause  that  follows.] 
multa  dicunt  quae'vix  intellegam  (Fin.  iv.  2),  they  say  many  things  which 

(such  as)  I  hardly  understand. 
paci  quae  nihil  habitura  sit  insidiarum  semper  est  consulcndum  (Off.  i.  85), 

we  must  always  aim  at  a  peace  which  shall  have  no  plots. 

a,  A  Eelative  Clause  of  Characteristic  is  used  after  general  expres- 
sions of  existence  or  non-existence,  including  questions  which  imply 
a  negative. 

So  especiaUy  with  sunt  qui,  there  are  [some]  who  ;  quis  est  qui,  who 
is  there  who  ?  — 

sunt  qui  discessum  animi  a  corpore  putent  esse  mortem  (Tnsc.  i.  18),  there  are 

some  who  think  that  the  departure  of  soul  from  body  constitutes  death. 
erant  qui  censerent  (B.  C.  ii.  30),  there  were  some  who  were  of  the  opinion,  etc. 
erant  qui  Helvidium  miserarentur  (Tac.  Ann.  xvi.  29),  there  were  some  who 

pitied  Helmdius.     [Cf.  est  cum  (n.  3,  below).] 
quis  est  qui  id  nun  maximis  efferat  laudibus  (Lael.  24),  who  is  there  that  does 

not  extol  it  with  the  highest  praise  ? 
nihil  video  quod  timeam  (Fam.  ix.  16.  3),  I  see  nothing  to  fear. 
nihil  est  quod  adventum  nostrum  extimescas  (Fam.  ix.  26.  4),  there  is  no  rea- 
son why  you  should  dread  my  coming. 
unde  agger  comportarl  posset  nihil  erat  reliquum  (B.  C.  ii.  15),  there  was  noth- 
ing left  from  which  an  embankment  could  be  got  together. 

Note  1. — After  general  negatives  like  nemo  est  qui,  the  Subjunctive  is  regular; 
after  genei'al  affirmatives  like  sunt  qui,  it  is  the  prevailing  construction,  but  the  Indic- 
ative sometimes  occurs;  after  mult!  (non  nuUi,  quidam)  sunt  qui,  and  similar  expres- 
sions in  which  the  antecedent  is  partially  defined,  the  choice  of  mood  depends  on  the 
shade  of  meaning  which  the  writer  wishes  to  express :  — 

sunt  bestiae  quaedam  in  quibus  inest  aliquid  simile  virtiitis  (Fin.  v.  38),  there  are 

certain  animals  in  lohich  there  is  something  like  virtue. 
But,  —  invent!  multi  sunt  qui  \atam  i^rofundere  pro  patria  parati  essent  (Off.  i.  84), 
ma7iy  were  found  of  such  a  character  as  to  be  ready  to  give  their  lives  for 
their  country. 
Note  2.  —  Characteristic  clauses  with  sunt  qui  etc.  are  sometimes  called  Relative 
Clauses  with  an  Indefinite  Antecedent,  but  are  to  be  carefully  distinguished  from  the 
Indefinite  Relative  in  protasis  (§  520). 

Note  3. — The  phrases  est  cum,  fuit  cum,  etc.  are  used  like  est  qui,  sunt  qui:  as,— 
ac  fuit  cum  mihi  quoque  initium  requiescendi  fore  iustum  arbitrarer  (De  Or.  i.  1),  and 
there  was  a  time  lohen  I  thought  a  beginning  of  rest  would  be  justifiable  on  my  part. 

h,  A  Eelative  Clause  of  Characteristic  may  follow  unus  and  solus  : 

nil  admlrari  prope  res  est  una  solaque  quae  possit  facere  et  servare  beatum 

(Hor.  Ep.  i.  6.  1),  to  wonder  at  nothing  is  almost  the  sole  and  only  thing 

that  can  make  and  keep  one  happy. 

solus  es  cuius  in  victoria  ceciderit  nemo  nisi  armatus  (Deiot.  34),  you  are  the 

only  man  in  whose  victory  no  one  has  fallen  unless  armed. 


§535]  CLAUSES   OF  CHARACTERISTIC  345 

c.  A  clause  of  Eesult  or  Characteristic  with  quam  ut,  quam  qui 
(rarely  with  quam  alone),  may  be  used  after  comparatives  :  — 

Canachi  signa  rigidiora  sunt  quam  ut  imitentur  veritatem  (Brut.  70),  the  statues 
of  Canachus  are  too  stiff  to  represent  nature  (stiffer  than  that  they  should). 

maiores  arbores  caedebant  quam  quas  ferre  miles  posset  (Li v.  xxxiii.  5),  they  cut 
trees  too  large  for  a  soldier  to  carry  (larger  than  what  a  soldier  could  carry). 

Note.  —  This  construction  corresponds  in  sense  to  the  English  too  .  .  .  to. 

d,  A  relative  clause  of  characteristic  may  express  restriction  or 
proviso  (cf .  §  528.  h)  :  — 

quod  sciam,  so  far  as  I  know  (lit.  as  to  what  I  know). 

Catonis  orationes,  quas  quidem  invenerim  (Brut.  65),  the  speeches  of  Cato,  at 

least  such  as  I  have  discovered. 
servns  est  nemo,  qui  modo  tolerabili  condicione  sit  servitutis  (Cat.  iv.  16), 

there  is  not  a  slave,  at  least  in  any  tolerable  condition  of  slavery. 

€,  A  Eelative  Clause  of  Characteristic  may  express  cause  or  conces- 

S1071 :  — 

peccasse  mihi  videor  qui  a  te  discesserim  (Eam.  xvi.  1),  I  seem  to  myself  to 
have  done  wrong  because  I  have  left  you.     [Causal.  ] 

virum  simplicem  qui  nos  nihil  celet  (Or.  230),  O  guileless  man,  who  hides  noth- 
ing from  us !     [Causal .  ] 

egomet  qui  sero  Graecas  litteras  attigissem,  tamen  complures  Athenis  dies 
sum  commoratus  (De  Or.  i.  82),  I  myself  though  I  began  Greek  literature 
late,  yet,  etc.  (lit.  [a  man]  who,  etc.).     [Concessive.] 

Note  1.  —  In  this  use  the  relative  is  equivalent  to  cum  is  etc.    It  is  often  preceded 
by  ut,  utpote,  or  quippe :  — 

nee  consul,  ut  qui  id  ipsum  quaesisset,  moram  certaminl  fecit  (Liv.  xlii.  7),  nor 
did  the  consul  delay  the  fight,  since  he  had  sought  that  very  thing  (as  [being 
one]  who  had  sought,  etc.). 
Liicius,  f rater  eius,  utpote  qui  peregre  depugnarit,  familiam  diicit  (Phil.  v.  30), 
Lucius,  his  brother,  leads  his  household,  inasmuch  as  he  is  a  man  who  has 
fought  it  out  abroad. 
convivia  cum  patre  non  inibat,  quippe  qui  ne  in  oppidum  quidem  nisi  perraro 
veniret  (Rose.  Am.  52),  he  did  not  go  to  dinner  parties  with  his  father,  since 
he  did  not  even  come  to  town  except  very  rarely. 
Note  2.  — The  Relative  of  Cause  or  Concession  is  merely  a  variety  of  the  Charac- 
teristic construction.    The  quality  expressed  by  the  Subjunctive  is  connected  with  the 
action  of  the  main  verb  either  as  cause  on  account  of  lohich  (since)  or  as  hindrance 
in  spite  of  which  (although). 

/.  Dignus,  indignus,  aptus,  idoneus  take  a  subjunctive  clause  with 
a  relative  (rarely  ut).     The  negative  is  non  :  — 

digna  in  quibus  elaborarent  (Tusc.  i.  1),  (things)  worth  spending  their  toil  on 

(worthy  on  which  they  should,  etc.). 
digna  res  est  ubi  tu  nervos  intendas  tuos  (Ter.  Eun.  ^\2),the  affair  is  worthy 
of  your  stretching  your  sinews  (worthy  wherein  you  should,  etc.). 


846  SYNTAX:   -CLAUSES   OF   RESULT  [§§635-537 

idoneus  qui  impetret  (Manil.  67),  fit  to  obtain. 

indigni  ut  redimeremur  (Liv.  xxii.  59.  17),  unworthy  to  be  ransomed. 

Note  1.  — This  construction  is  sometimes  explained  as  a  relative  clause  of  purpose, 
but  it  is  more  closely  related  to  characteristic. 

Note  2.  — With  dignus  etc.,  the  poets  often  use  the  Infinitive :  — 
fons  rivo  dare  nomen  idoneus  (Hor.  Ep.  i.  16.  12),  a  source  fit  to  give  a  name  to  a 

stream. 
aetas  mollis  et  apta  regi  (Ov.  A.  A.  i.  10),  a  time  of  life  soft  and  easy  to  be  guided. 
vivere  dignus  eras  (Ov.  M.  x.  633),  you  were  worthy  to  live. 

CLAUSES   OF   RESULT  (CONSECUTIVE  CLAUSES) 

536.  The  Subjunctive  in  Consecutive  Clauses  is  a  development  of  the  use  of  that 
mood  in  Clauses  of  Characteristic  (as  explained  in  §  534). 

537.  Clauses  of  Result  take  the  Subjunctive  introduced  by  ut,  so 
that  (negative,  ut  non),  or  by  a  relative  pronoun  or  relative  adverb. 

1.  Pure  Clauses  of  Eesult,  with  ut  or  ut  non,  express  the  result  of 
the  main  verb  in  the  form  of  a  modifying  clause :  — 

tanta  vis  probitatis  est  ut  earn  in  hoste  diligamus  (Lael.  29),  so  great  is  the 

power  of  goodness  that  we  love  it  even  in  an  enemy. 
pugnatur  acriter  ad  novissimum  agmen,  adeo  ut  paene  terga  convertant 

(B.  C.  i.  80),  there  is  sharp  fighting  in  the  rear,  so  (to  such  a  degi-ee)  that 

they  almost  take  flight. 
multa  rumor  adfingebat,  ut  paene  bellum  confectum  videretur  (id.  i.  53), 

rumor  added  many  false  reports,  so  that  the  war  seemed  almost  ended. 

2.  Relative  Clauses  of  Result  are  introduced  by  the  relative  pro- 
noun qui  or  a  relative  adverb  (ubi,  unde,  quo,  etc.).  The  antecedent  is 
expressed  or  implied  in  the  main  clause. 

The  Relative  in  this  construction  is  equivalent  to  ut  with  the  corre- 
sponding demonstrative :  —  qui  =  ut  is  (etc.),  ubi  =  ut  ibi,  and  so  on  : 
nam  est  innocentia  affectio  talis  animi  quae  noceat  nemini  (Tusc.  iii.  16),  for 

innocence  is  such  a  quality  of  mind  as  to  do  harm  to  no  one. 
sunt  aliae  causae  quae  plane  efficiant  (Top.  59) ,  there  are  other  causes  such  as 

to  bring  to  j^ass. 
nulla  est  celeritas  quae  possit  cum  animi  celeritate  contendere  (Tusc!  i.  43), 

there  is  no  swiftness  which  can  compare  with  the  swiftness  of  the  mind. 
quis  navigavit  qui  non  se  mortis  periculo  committeret  (Manil.  31),  who  went  to 

sea  who  did  not  incur  the  peril  of  death  ? 

Note  1.— Since  the  relative  clause  of  Result  is  a  development  from  the  relative 
clause  of  Characteristic  (§  534) ,  no  sharp  line  can  be  drawn  between  the  two  construc- 
tions. In  doubtful  cases,  it  is  better  to  attempt  no  distinction  or  to  describe  the  clause 
as  one  of  Characteristic. 

Note  2.  —  Clauses  of  Result  are  often  introduced  by  such  correlative  words  as  tarn, 
talis,  tantus,  ita,  sic,  adeo,  iisque  eo,  which  belong  to  the  main  clause. 


§§  537,  538]  CLAUSES  OF  RESULT  347 

a,  A  Negative  Eesult  is  introduced  by  ut  non,  ut  ngmo,  qui  non,  etc., 
not  by  ne ;  — 

inultis  gravibusque  volneribus  confectus  ut  iam  se  sustinere  non  posset  (B.  G. 

ii.  25),  wse(f  up  with  many  severe  wounds  so  that  he  could  no  longer  stand. 
tanta  vi  in  Pompei  equites  impetum  f  ecerunt  ut  eorum  nemo  consisteret  (B.C. 

iii.  93),  they  attacked  Pompey^s  cavalry  with  such  vigor  that  not  one  o/ 

them  stood  his  ground. 
nemo  est  tarn  senex  qui  se  annum  non  putet  posse  vivere  (Cat.  M.  24),  nobody 
is  so  old  as  not  to  think  that  he  can  live  a  year. 

Note.  —  When  the  result  implies  an  effect  intended  (not  a  simple  purpose),  ut  ne 
or  ne  is  sometimes  used  as  being  less  positive  than  ut  non :  —  [librum]  ita  corrigas  ne 
mihi  noceat  (Caecina,  Fam.  vi.  7.  G),  correct  the  hook  so  that  it  may  not  hurt  me. 

b,  Frequently  a  clause  of  result  or  characteristic  is  used  in  a  re- 
strictive sense,  and  so  amounts  to  a  Proviso  (of.  §  535.  d) :  — 

hoc  ita  est  utile  ut  ne  plane  inludamur  ab  accusatoribiis  (Rose.  Am.  55),  this 
is  so  far  useful  that  we  are  not  utterly  mocked  by  the  accusers  (i.e.  useful 
only  on  this  condition,  that,  etc.). 

nihil  autem  est  molestum  quod  non  desideres  (Cat.  M.  47),  but  nothing  is 
troublesome  which  (=  provided  that)  you  do  not  miss. 

c,  Tbe  clause  of  result  is  sometimes  expressed  in  English  by  the 
Infinitive  with  to  or  so  as  to  or  an  equivalent :  — 

tam  longe  aberam  ut  non  viderem,  I  was  too  far  away  to  see  (so  far  that  I 
did  not  see ;  cf.  §  535.  c). 

Note. —Result  is  never  expressed  by  the  Infinitive  in  Latin  except  by  the  poets  in 
a  few  passages  (§  461.  a). 

538.  The  constructions  of  Purpose  and  Eesult  are  precisely 
alike  in  the  affirmative  (except  sometimes  in  tense  sequence, 
§  485.  c) ;  but,  in  the  negative.  Purpose  takes  ne,  Result  ut  non 
etc.  :  — 

custoditus  est  ne  effugeret,  he  was  guarded  in  order  that  he  might  not  escape. 

custoditus  est  ut  non  effugeret,  he  was  guarded  so  that  he  did  not  escape. 

So  in  negative  Purpose  clauses  ne  quis,  ne  quid,  ne  ullus,  ne  quo,  ne 
quando,  necubi,  etc.  are  almost  always  used  ;  in  negative  Eesult  clauses, 
ut  nemo,  ut  nihil,  ut  nullus,  etc. :  — 

(1)  cernere  ne  quis  eos,  neu  quis  contingere  posset  (Aen.  i.  413),  that  no  one 

might  see  them,  no  one  touch  them.     [Purpose.  ] 
ne  quando  liberls  proscrlptorum  bona  patria  reddantur  (Rose.  Am.  145),  lest 

at  some  time  the  patrimony  of  the  proscribed  should  be  restored  to  their 

children. 
ipse  ne  quo  inciderem,  reverti  Formias  (Att.  viii.  3.  7),  that  I  might  not  come 

upon  him  anywhere,  I  returned  to  FormicB. 


348  SYNTAX:    CAUSAL  CLAUSES  [§§638-540 

dispositis  exploratoribus  necubi  RomanI  copias  traducerent  (B.  G.  vii.  35), 
having  stationed  scouts  here  and  there  in  order  that  the  Romans  might 
not  lead  their  troops  across  anywhere. 

(2)  multi  ita  sunt  imbecilli  sciics  ut  nullum  ofBci  mfmus  exf-^equi  possint  (Cat. 
M.  35),  many  old  men  are  so  feeble  that  they  cannot  perform  any  duty  to 
society.     [Result.] 

qui  summum  boiium  sic  Instituit  ut  nihil  habeat  cum  virtufce  coniunctum 
(Off.  i.  5)^  who  has  so  settled  the  highest  good  that  it  has  nothing  in  com- 
mon with  virtue. 

For  clauses  of  Result  or  Characteristic  with  quin,  see  §  559.  For  Substantive  Clauses 
of  Result,  see  §§  567-571. 

CAUSAL  CLAUSES 

539.  Causal  Clauses  take  either  the  Indicative  or  the  Subjunctive,  according  to 
their  construction ;  the  idea  of  cause  being  contained,  not  in  the  mood  itself,  but  in 
the  form  of  the  argument  (by  implication),  in  an  antecedent  of  causal  meaning  (like 
propterea),  or  in  the  connecting  particles. 

Quod  is  in  origin  the  relative  pronoun  (stem  quo-)  used  adverbially  in  the  accusative 
neuter  (cf .  §  214.  d)  and  gradually  sinking  to  the  position  of  a  colorless  relative  con- 
junction (cf.  English  that  and  see  §222).  Its  use  as  a  causal  pariicle  is  an  early 
special  development.  Quia  is  perhaps  an  accusative  plural  neuter  of  the  relative  stem 
qui-,  and  seems  to  have  developed  its  causal  sense  more  distinctly  than  quod,  and  at 
an  earlier  period.  It  is  used  (very  rarely)  as  an  interrogative,  why  ?  (so  in  classical 
Latin  with  nam  only),  and  may,  like  quando,  have  developed  from  an  interrogative  to 
a  relative  particle. 

Quoniam  (for  quom  lam)  is  also  of  relative  origin  (quom  being  a  case-form  of  the 
pronominal  stem  quo-) .  It  occurs  in  old  Latin  in  the  sense  of  when  (cf .  quom,  cum) , 
from  which  the  causal  meaning  is  derived  (cf .  cum  causal).  The  Subjunctive  with  quod 
and  quia  depends  on  the  principle  of  Informal  Indirect  Discourse  (§  592). 

Quando  is  probal)ly  the  interrogative  quam  {hoio  ?)  compounded  with  a  form  of  the 
pronominal  stem  do-  (of.  dum,  do-nec) .  It  originally  denoted  time  (first  interrogatively, 
then  as  a  relative),  and  thus  came  to  signify  cause.  Unlike  quod  and  quia,  it  is  not 
used  to  state  a  reason  in  informal  indirect  discourse  and  therefore  is  never  followed 
by  the  Subjunctive. 

540.  The  Causal  Particles  quod  and  quia  take  the  Indicative, 
when  the  reason  is  given  on  the  authority  of  the  writer  or 
speaker;  the  Subjunctive,  when  the  reason  is  given  on  the 
authority  of  another :  — 

1.  Indicative  :  — 
cum  tibi  agam  gratias  quod  me  vivere  coegisti  (Att.  iii.  3),  when  I  may  thank 

you  that  you  have  forced  me  to  live. 
CUT  igitur  pacem  nolo  ?  quia  turpis  est  (Phil.  vii.  9),  why  then  do  I  not  wish 

for  peace  ?    Because  it  is  disgraceful. 
ita  fit  ut  adsint  propterea  quod  olificium  sequuntur,  taceant  autem  quia  perl- 

culuui  vitant  (Rose.  Ara.  1),  so  it  happens  that  they  attend  because  they 

follow  duty,  but  are  silent  because  they  seek  to  avoid  danger, 


540]  CAUSAL   CLAUSES  349 

2.  Subjunctive :  — 

mihi  gratulabare  quod  audisses  me  meam  pristinam  dignitatem  obtinere 
(Fam.  iv.  14.  1),  you  congratulated  me  because  [as  you  said]  you  had 
heard  that  I  had  regained  my  former  dignity.  ■ 

noctu.  ambulabat  Themistocles  quod  somnum  capere  non  posset  (Tusc,  iv.  44), 
Themistocles  used  to  walk  about  at  night  because  [as  lie  said]  he  could  not 


mea  mater  irata  est  quia  non  redierim  (PI.  Cist.  101),  my  mother  is  angry 
because  I  didnH  return. 

Note  1.  —  Quod  introduces  either  a/aci  or  a  statement,  and  accordingly  takes  either 
the  Indicative  or  the  Subjunctive.  Quia  regularly  introduces  a  fact;  hence  it  rarely 
takes  the  Subjunctive.  Quoniam,  inasmuch  as,  since,  when  now,  noio  that,  has  refer- 
ence to  motives,  excuses,  justifications,  and  the  like  and  takes  the  Indicative. 

Note  2.  —  Under  this  head  what  the  speaker  himself  thought  under  other  circum- 
stances may  have  the  Subjunctive  (§592.  3.  n.)  :  as,  —  ego  laeta  visa  sum  quia  soror 
venisset  (PI.  Mil.  387),  1  seemed  (in  my  dream)  glad  because  my  sister  had  come. 

So  with  quod  even  a  verb  of  saying  may  be  in  the  Subjunctive:  as, — rediit  quod 
se  oblitum  nescio  quid  diceret  (Off.  i.  40),  he  returned  because  he  said  he  had  forgotten 
something. 

Note  3. — Won  quod,  non  quia,  nSn  quo,  introducing  a  reason  expressly  to  deny  it,  take 
the  Subjunctive ;  but  the  Indicative  sometimes  occurs  when  the  statement  is  in  itself 
triie,  though  not  the  true  reason.  In  the  negative,  non  quin  (with  the  Subjunctive) 
may  be  used  in  nearly  the  same  sense  as  non  quod  non.  After  a  comparative,  quam 
quo  or  quam  quod  is  used :  — 

pugiles  ingemescunt,  non  quod  doleant,  sed  quia  profundenda  voce  omne  corpus 

intenditur  (Tusc.  li.  50),  boxers  groan,  not  because  they  are  in  pain,  but 

because  by  giving  vent  to  the  voice  the  whole  body  is  put  in  a  state  of 

tension. 

n5n  quia  rectior  ad  Alpis  via  asset,  sed  credens  (Liv.  xxi.  31.  2),  not  because  the 

route  to  the  Alps  ivas  more  direct,  but  believing,  etc. 
non  quIn  pari  virtute  et  voluntate  alii  fuerint,  sed  tantam  causam  non  habuerunt 
(Phil.  vii.  6),  not  that  there  were  not  others  of  equal  courage  and  good-will, 
but  they  had  not  so  strong  a  reason. 
haec  amore  magis  impulsus  scribenda  ad  te  putavi,  quam  quo  te  arbitrarer  monitis 
et  praeceptis  egere  (Fam.  x.  3.  4),  this  I  thought  I  ought  to  lorite  to  you, 
rather  from  the  impulse  of  (prompted  by)  affection  than  because  I  thought 
that  you  needed  advice  and  suggestion. 

a.  Quoniam  and  quando,  since,  introduce  a  reason  given  on  the 
authority  of  the  writer  or  speaker,  and  take  the  Indicative :  — 

locus  est  a  me,  quoniam  ita  Murena  voluit,  retractandus  (Mur.  54),  I  must 

review  the  point,  since  Murena  has  so  wished. 
quand5  ita  vis,  dl  bene  vortant  (PI.  Trin.  573),  since  you  so  wish,  may  the 

gods  bless  the  undertaking. 
quando  ad  maiora  nati  sumus  (Fin.  v.  21),  since  we  are  born  for  greater  things. 

Note.  —  The  Subjunctive  with  quoniam  is  unclassical.  Quando,  since,  in  the  causal 
sense,  is  mostly  archaic  or  late.  Quando,  when,  is  used  as  interrogative,  relative,  and 
indefinite :  as,  —  quando  ?  hodie,  lohen  ?  to-day ;  si  quando,  if  ever. 


350  SYNTAX:    TEMPORAL   CLAUSES  [§§540-542 

h.  Causal  clauses  introduced  "by  quod,  quia,  quoniam,  and  quando 

take  the  Subjunctive  in  Indirect  Discourse,  like  any  other  dependent 
clause  (see  §  580). 

c,  A  Relative,  when  used  to  express  cause,  regularly  takes  the  Sub- 
junctive (see  §  535.  e). 

d.  Cum  causal  takes  the  Subjunctive  (see  §  549). 
For  Substantive  Clauses  with  quod,  see  §  572. 

TEMPORAL   CLAUSES 

641.  Temporal  Clauses  are  introduced  by  particles  which  are  almost  all  of  rela- 
tive origin.  They  are  construed  like  other  relative  clauses,  except  where  they  have 
developed  into  special  idiomatic  constructions.^ 

For  list  of  Temporal  Particles,  see  p.  138. 

Temporal  Clauses  may  be  classified  as  follows :  — 

I.  Conditional  Relative  Clauses:  ubi,  ut,  cum,  quando,  in  Protasis  (§542), 
II.  Clauses  with  postquam,  ubi,  etc.  (Indicative),  (§543). 

III.  Clauses  with  cum  (  J'  ^^^  ^^^P^^^  (§§  ^^^6^^). 

I  2.  Cum  causal  or  concessive  (§  549). 

IV.  Clauses  with  antequam  and  priusquam  (Indicative  or  Subjunctive)  (§551). 
V.  Clauses  with  dum,  donee,  and  quoad  (Indicative  or  Subjunctive)  (§§  552-556). 

Conditional  Relative  Clauses 

542.  The  particles  ubi,  ut,  cum,  quando,  either  alone  or  com- 
pounded with  -cumque,  may  be  used  as  Indefinite  Relatives  (in  the 
sense  of  whenever)^  and  have  the  constructions  of  Protasis  (cf. 
§514):- 

cum  id  malum  negas  esse,  capior  (Tiisc.  ii.  29),  whenever  you  (the  indi- 
vidual disputant)  deny  it  to  he  an  evil,  I  am  misled.  [Present  general 
condition.] 

quod  profecto  cum  me  nulla  vis  cogeret,  facere  non  auderem  (Phil.  v.  51), 
which  I  would  surely  not  venture  to  do,  as  long  as  no  force  compelled  me. 
[Present,  contrary  to  fact:  cf.  §  517.] 

cum  videas  eds  dolore  non  frangi,  debeas  existimare,  etc.  (Tusc.  ii.  QQ),  when 
you  see  that  those  are  not  broken  by  pain,  you  ought  to  infer,  etc.  [Pres- 
ent general  condition :  cf.  §  518.  a.] 

cum  rosam  viderat,  turn  incipere  ver  arbitrabatur  ( Verr.  v.  27) ,  whenever  he  saw 
a  rose  he  thought  spring  had  begun.    [Past  general  condition :  cf .  §  518.  b.  ] 

id  ubi  dixisset,  hastam  in  finis  eorum  emittebat  (Liv.  1.  32.  13),  when  he  had 
said  this,  he  would  cast  the  spear  into  their  territories.  [Past  General 
Condition,  repeated  action :  see  §  518.  c] 

1  With  all  temporal  particles  tlie  Subjunctive  is  often  found  depending  on  some 
other  principle  of  construction.     (See  Intermediate  Clauses.  §  591.) 


§  543]  POSTQUAM,   UBI,  ETC.  351 

Temporal  Clauses  with  postquam,  ubi,  etc. 

543.  The  particles  postquam  (posteaquam),  ubi,  ut  (ut  primum,  ut 
semel),  simul  atque  (simul  ac,  or  simul  alone),  take  the  Indicative 
(usually  in  the  perfect  or  the  historical  present) :  — 

milites  postquam  victoriam  adept!  sunj,  nihil  reliqui  victis  fecere  (Sail.  Cat.  11), 

when  the  soldiers  had  won  the  victory,  they  left  nothing  to  the  vanquished. 
posteaquam  forum  attigisti,  nihil  fecisti  nisi,  etc.  (Fam.  xv.  16.  3),  since  you 

came  to  the  forum,  you  have  done  nothing  excevt,  etc. 
ubi  omnis  idem  sentire  intellexit,  posterum  diem  ptignae  con.stituit  (B.  G. 

iii.  23),  when  he  understood  that  all  agreed  (thought  the  same  thing),  he 

appointed  the  next  day  fdr  the  battle. 
Catillna,  ubi  eos  convenisse  videt,  secedit  (Sail.  Cat.  20),  when  Catiline  sees 

that  they  have  come  together,  he  retires. 
Pompeius  ut  equitatum  suum  pulsum  vidit,  acie  excessit  (B.  C.  iii.  94),  when 

Pompey  saw  his  cavalry  beaten,  he  left  the  field. 
ut  semel  e  Piraeeo  eloquentia  evecta  est  (Brut.  51),  as  soon  as  eloquence  had 

set  sail  from  the  Piraeus. 
nostri  simul  in  arido  constiterunt,  in  hostis  impetum  fecerunt  (B,  G.  iv.  26), 

our  men,  as  soon  as  they  had  taken  a  position  on  dry  ground,  made  an 

attack  on  the  enemy. 
simul  atque  introductus  est,  rem  confecit  (Clu.  40),  as  soon  as  he  was  brought 

in,  he  did  the  job. 

a.  These  particles  less  commonly  take  the  Imperfect  or  Pluperfect 
Indicative.  The  Imperfect  denotes  a  past  state  of  things  ;  the  Plu- 
perfect, an  action  completed  in  past  time  :  — 

postquam  struct!  utrimque  stabant,   duces  in  medium  procedunt  (Liv.  i. 

23),  when  they  stood  in  array  on  both  sides,  the  generals  advance  into 

the  midst. 
P.  Africanus  posteaquam  bis  consul  et  censor  fuerat  (Caecil.  69),  when  Afri- 

canus  had  been  (i.e.  had  the  dignity  of  having  been)  twice  consul  and 

censor. 
postquam  id  difficilius  visum  est,  neque  facultas  perficiendi  dabatur,  ad  Pom- 

peium  trilnsierunt  (B.  C.  iii.  60),  when  this  seemed  too  hard,  and  no  means 

of  effecting  it  were  given,  they  passed  over  to  Pompey. 
post  diem  quintum  quam  iterum  barbarl  male  pugnaverant  [=  victi  sunt], 

legatl  a  Boccho  veniunt  (Tug.  102),  the  fifth  day  after  the  barbarians  were 

beaten  the  second  time,  envoys  come  from  Bocchus. 
haec  iuventutem,  ubi  familiares  opes  defecerant,  ad  facinora  incendebant 

(Sail.  Cat.  13),  lohen  their  inherited  resources  had  given  out,  etc. 
ubi  pericula  virtiite  propulerant  (id.  6),  when  they  had  dispelled  the  dangers  by 

their  valor. 

For  the  use  of  ubi,  ut,  either  alone  or  compounded  with  -cumque,  as  Indefinite  Rela- 
tives, see  §  542. 


352  syntax :  temporal  clauses  [§§  544,  545 

Uses  of  Cum 

544.  The  conjunction  cum  (quom)  is  a  case-form  of  the  relative  pronoun  qui.  It 
inherits  from  qui  its  subordinating  force,  and  in  general  shares  its  constructions. 
But  it  was  early  specialized  to  a  temj)oral  meaning  (cf .  turn,  dum) ,  and  its  range  of  usage 
was  therefore  less  wide  than  that  of  qui ;  it  could  not,  for  example,  introduce  clauses 
of  purpose  or  of  result. 

With  the  Indicative,  besides  the  simple  expression  of  definite  time  (corresponding  to 
simple  relative  clauses  with  the  Indicative),  it  has  a  few  special  uses,  —  conditional, 
explicative,  cum  inversmn  —  all  easily  derived  from  the  temporal  use. 

With  the  Subjunctive,  cum  had  a  development  parallel  to  that  of  the  qui-clause  of 
Characteristic,  —  a  development  not  less  extensive  and  equally  peculiar  to  Latin. 
From  defining  the  time  the  cum-clause  passed  over  to  the  description  of  the  time  by 
means  of  its  attendant  circumstances  of  cause  or  concession  (cf.  since,  while). 

In  particular,  cum  with  the  Subjunctive  was  used  in  narrative  (hence  the  past 
tenses.  Imperfect  and  Pluperfect)  as  a  descriptive  clause  of  time.  As,  however,  the 
present  participle  in  Latin  is  restricted  in  its  use  and  the  perfect  active  participle  is 
almost  wholly  lacking,  the  historical  or  narrative  cum-clause  came  into  extensive  use 
to  supply  the  deficiency.  In  classical  writers  the  narrative  cum-clause  (with  the  Sub- 
junctive) has  pushed  back  the  defining  clause  (with  the  Imperfect  or  Pluperfect  Indica- 
tive) into  comparative  iufrequency,  and  is  itself  freely  used  where  the  descriptive  or 
characterizing  force  is  scarcely  perceptible  (cf-  the  qui-clause  of  Characteristic,  §534). 


Cum  Temporal 

545.  A  temporal  clause  with  cum,  ivJien^  and  some  past  tense  of 
the  Indicative  dates  or  defines  the  time  at  which  the  action  of  the 
main  verb  occurred :  — 

eo  [lituo]  regiones  direxit  tum  cum  urbem  condidit  (Div.  i.  30),  he  traced  with 

it  the  quarters  [of  the  sky]  at  the  time  he  founded  the  city. 
cum  occiditur  Sex.   Roscius,  ibidem  fuerunt  servl  (Rose.  Am.   120),  when 

Boscius  was  slain,  the  slaves  were  on  the  spot,     [occiditur  is  historical 

present.] 
quem  quidem  cum  ex  urbe  pellebam,  hoc  providebam  animo  (Cat.  iii.  16), 

when  I  was  trying  to  force  him  (conative  imperfect)  from  the  city,  1 

looked  forward  to  this. 
fulgentis  gladios  hostiuiu  videbant  Decii  cum  in  aciem  eorum  inruebant  (Tusc. 

ii.  59),  the  Decii  saw  the  flashing  swords  of  the  enemy  when  they  rushed 

upon  their  line. 
tum  cum  in  Asia  res  magnas  permulti  amiserant  (Manil.  19),  at  that  time, 

when  many  had  lost  great  fortunes  in  Asia. 

Note  1. — This  is  the  regular  use  with  all  tenses  in  early  Latin,  and  at  all  times 
with  the  Perfect  and  the  Historical  Present  (as  with  postquam  etc.).  With  the  Imper- 
fect and  Pluperfect  the  Indicative  use  is  (in  classical  Latin)  much  less  common  than 
the  Subjunctive  use  defined  below  (§540). 

Note  2. — This  construction  must  not  be  confused  with  that  of  cum,  lohenever,  In 
General  Conditions  (§  542). 


§  545,  646]  CUM  TEMPORAL  S5S 

a.  When  the  time  of  the  main  clause  and  that  of  the  temporal 
clause  are  absolutely  identical,  cum  takes  the  Indicative  in  the  same 
tense  as  that  of  the  main  verb ;  — 

maxima  sum  laetitia  adfectus  cum  audivi  consulem  te  factum^  esse  (Fam. 
XV.  7),  I  was  very  much  pleased  when  I  heard  that  you  had  been  elected 
consul. 

546.  A  temporal  clause  with  cum  and  the  Imperfect  or  Pluper- 
fect Subjunctive  describes  the  circumstances  that  accompanied  or 
preceded  the  action  of  the  main  verb :  — 

cum  essem  otiosus  in  Tusculano,  accepi  tuas  litteras  (Fam.  ix.  18.  1),  when  I 

was  taking  my  ease  in  my  house  at  I'uscidum,  I  received  your  letter. 
cum  servili  bello  premeretur  (Manil.  30),  when  she  (Italy)  was  under  the  load 

of  the  Servile  War. 
cum  id  nuntiatum  esset,  maturat  (B.  G.  i.  7),  when  this  had  been  reported,  he 

made  (makes)  haste. 
cum  ad  Cybistra  quinque  dies  essem  moratus,  regem  Ariobarzanem  insidiis 

libera  vi  (Fam.  xv.  4.  6),  after  remaining  at  Cybistra  for  five  days,  I  freed 

King  Ariobarzanes  from  plots. 
is  cum  ad  me  Laodiceam  venisset  mecumque  ego  eum  vellem,  repente  per- 

cussus  est  atrocissimis  litterls  (id.  ix.  25.  3),  when  Tie  had  come  to  me  at 

Laodicea  and  I  wished  him  to  remain  with  me,  he  was  suddenly,  etc. 

Note  1. — This  construction  is  very  common  in  narrative,  and  cum  in  this  use  is  often 

called  narrative  cum. 

Note  2.  —  Cum  with  the  Imperfect  or  Pluperfect  Inclicative  does  not  (like  cum  with 
the  Imperfect  or  Pluperfect  Subjunctive)  describe  the  time  by  its  circumstances;  it 
defines  the  time  of  the  main  verb  by  denoting  a  coexistent  state  of  things  (Imperfect 
Indicative)  or  a  result  attained  when  the  action  of  the  main  verb  took  place  (Pluper- 
fect).   Thus  the  construction  is  precisely  that  of  postquam  etc.  (§  543.  a). 

Note  3.  —  The  distinction  between  the  uses  defined  in  §§545, 546,  may  be  illustrated 
by  the  following  examples:  (1)  He  had  a  fever  when  he  was  in  Spain  (Shakspere). 
Here  the  wAen-clause  defines  the  time  when  Caesar  had  the  fever,  —  namely,  in  the  year 
of  his  Spanish  campaign  (b.c.  49).  In  Latin  we  should  use  cum  with  the  Imperfect 
Indicative.  (2)  Columbus  discovered  America  when  he  was  seeking  a  new  route  to  ' 
India;  here  the  z^Aew-clause  does  not  define  or  date  the  time  of  the  discovery;  it 
merely  describes  the  circumstances  imder  v/hich  America  was  discovered,  —  namely, 
In  the  course  of  a  voyage  undertaken  for  another  puriwse.  In  Latin  we  should  use  the 
Imperfect  Subjunctive. 

Note  4.  —  The  distinction  explained  in  Note  3  is  unknown  to  early  Latin.  In 
Plautus  quom  always  has  the  Indicative  imless  the  Subjunctive  is  required  for  some 
other  reason. 

a.  When  the  principal  action  is  expressed  in  the  form  of  a  tem- 
poral clause  with  cum,  and  the  definition  of  the  time  becomes  the 
main  clause,  cum  takes  the  Indicative. 

Here  the  logical  relations  of  the  two  clauses  are  inverted ;  hence 
cum  is  in  this  use  called  cum  inversum :  — 


354  SYNTAX :    TEMPORAL   CLAUSES  [§§  540-549 

dies  nondum  decern  intercesserant,  cum  ille  alter  fllius  infans  necatur  (Clu. 

28),  ten  days  had  not  yet  passed,  when  the  other  infant  son  was  killed. 

[Instead  of  when  ten  days  had  not  yet  passed,  etc.] 
iamque  lux  apparebat  cum  procedit  ad  mllites  (Q.  C.  vii.  8.  3),  and  day  was 

already  dawning  when  he  appears  before  the  soldiers. 
hoc  facere  noctu  apparabant,  cum  matres  familiae  repente  in  publicum  pro- 

currerunt  (B.  G.  vii.  26),  they  were  preparing  to  do  this  by  night,  when  the 

women  suddenly  ran  out  into  the  streets. 

547.  Present  time  with  cum  temporal  is  denoted  by  the  Pres- 
ent Indicative ;  future  time,  by  the  Future  or  Future  Perfect 
Indicative :  — 

incidunt  tempera,  cum  ea,  quae  maxime  videntur  digna  esse  iusto  homine. 

fiunt  contraria  (Off.  i.  31),  times  occur  when  those  things  which  seem 

especially  worthy  of  the  upright  man,  become  the  opposite. 
non  dubitabo  dare  operam  ut  te  videam,  cum  id  satis  commode  facere  potero 

(Fam.  xiii.  \),  I  shall  not  hesitate  to  take  pains  to  see  you,  when  I  can  do 

it  conveniently. 
longum  illud  tempus  cum  non  ero  (Att.  xii.  18),  that  long  time  when  I  shall 

be  no  more. 
cum  veneris,  cognosces  (Fam.  v.  7.  3),  when  you  come  (shall  have  come), 

you  will  find  out. 

548.  Cum,  whefiever,  takes  the  construction  of  a  relative  clause 
in  a  general  condition  (see  §  542). 

For  present  time,  either  the  Present  or  the  Perfect  Indicative  is 
used ;  for  past  time,  regularly  the  Pluperfect  Indicative. 
For  est  cum  etc.,  see  §  535.  a.  n.  8. 

Cum  Causal  or  Concessive 
'     549.  Cum  causal  or  concessive  takes  the  Subjunctive  :  — 

id  difficile  non  est,  cum  tantum  equitatu  valeamus  (B.  C.  iii.  8G),  this  is  not 
difficult  since  we  are  so  strong  in  cavalry.     [Causal.] 

cum  solitudo  Insidiarum  et  metus  plena  sit,  ratio  ipsa  monet  amicitias  com- 
parare  (Fin.  i.  BQ),  since  solitude  is  full  of  treachery  and  fear,  reason  it- 
self prompts  us  to  contract  friendships.     [Causal.] 

cum  primi  ordines  concidissent,  tamen  acerrime  reliqui  resistebant  (B.  G. 
vii.  62),  though  the  first  ranks  had  fallen,  still  the  others  resisted  vigor- 
ously.    [Concessive.] 

brevi  spatio  legiones  numero  hominum  expleverat,  cum  initio  non  amplius 
duobus  milibus  habuisset  (Sail.  Cat.  56),  in  a  short  time  he  had  filled 
out  the  legions  with  their  complement  of  men,  though  at  the  start  he  had 
not  had  more  than  two  thousand.     [Concessive.] 


§§  549-551]  ANTEQUAM  AND   PBIUSQUAM  355 

Cum  causal  may  usually  be  translated  by  since;  cum  concessive  by 
although  or  ivhile;  either,  occasionally,  by  when. 

Note  1. — Cum  in  these  uses  is  often  emphasized  by  ut,  utpote,  quippe,  praesertim: 
as,  —  nee  reprehendo:  quippe  cum  ipse  istam  reprehensionem  nou  fugerim  (Att.  x.  3  a), 
I  find  710  fault ;  since  I  myself  did  not  escape  that  blame. 

Note  2. — These  causal  and  concessive  uses  of  cum  are  of  relative  origin  and  are 
parallel  to  qui  causal  and  concessive  (§535.  e).  The  attendant  circumstances  are  re- 
garded as  the  cause  of  the  action,  or  as  tending  to  hinder  it. 

Note  3.  —  In  early  Latin  cum  (quom)  causal  and  concessive  usually  takes  the  Indic- 
ative: as, — quom  tua  res  distrahitur,  utinam  videam  (PL  Trin.  617),  since  your  prop- 
erty is  being  torn  in  pieces,  0  that  I  may  see,  etc. 

a.  Cum  with,  the  Indicative  frequently  introduces  an  explanatory 
statement,  and  is  sometimes  equivalent  to  quod,  on  the  ground  that:  — 

cum  tacent,  clamant  (Cat.  1.  21),  when  they  are  silent^  they  cry  out  (i.e.  their 
silence  is  an  emphatic  expression  of  their  sentiments). 

gratulor  tibi  cum  tantum  vales  apud  Dolabellam  (Fam.  ix.  14.  3),  I  congratu- 
late you  that  you  are  so  strong  with  Dolabella. 

Note.  —  This  is  merely  a  special  use  of  cum  temporal  expressing  coincident  time 
(§545.  a). 

b.  Cum  .  .  .  tum,  signifying  both  .  .  .  and,  usually  takes  the  Indica- 
tive ;  but  when  cum  approaches  the  sense  of  while  or  though,  the  Sub- 
junctive is  used  (§  549)  :  — 

cum  multa  non  probo,  tum  illud  in  primis  (Fin.  i.  18),  while  there  are  many 
things  I  do  not  approve,  there  is  this  in  chief.     [Indicative.] 

cum  difficile  est,  tum  ne  aequum  quidem  (Lael.  26),  not  only  is  it  difficult 
but  even  unjust. 

cum  res  tota  ficta  sit  puerlliter,  tum  ne  efficit  quidem  quod  vult  (Fin.  i.  19), 
while  the  whole  thing  is  childishly  got  up,  he  does  not  even  make  his  point 
(accomplish  what  he  wishes).     [Subjunctive ;  approaching  cum  causal.] 

Antequatn  and  Priusquant 

550.  Antequam  and  priusquam,  before,  introduce  Clauses  of  Time  which  resemble 
those  with  cum  temporal  in  their  constructions.  Priusquam  consists  of  two  parts  (often 
written  separately  and  sometimes  separated  by  other  words),  the  comparative  adverb 
prius,  sooner  {before),  which  really  modifies  the  main  verb,  and  the  relative  particle 
quam,  than,  which  introduces  the  subordinate  clause.  The  latter  is  therefore  a  rela- 
tive clause,  and  takes  the  Indicative  or  the  Subjunctive  (like  other  relative  clauses) 
according  to  the  sense  intended.  The  Subjunctive  with  priusquam  is  related  to  that  of 
purpose  (§  529)  and  is  sometimes  called  the  Anticipatory  or  Prospective  Subjunctive. 
Antequam,  like  priusquam,  consists  of  two  words,  the  first  of  which  is  the  adverb  ante, 
before,  modifying  the  main  verb.  Its  constructions  are  the  same  as  those  of  priusquam, 
but  the  latter  is  commoner  in  classic  prose. 

551.  Antequam  and  priusquam  take  sometimes  the  Indicative^ 
sometimes  the  Subjunctive. 


S56  SYNTAX  :    TEMPORAL  CLAUSES  [§  551 

a.  With  antequam  or  priusquam  the  Perfect  Indicative  stafps  a 
fact  in  past  time :  — 

antequam  tuas  leg!  litteras,  hominem  ire  cupiebam  (Att.  ii.  7.  2),  before  I 

read  your  letter^  I  wished  the  man  to  go. 
neque  ante  dimisit  eum  quam  fidem  dedit  adulescens  (Liv.  xxxix.  10),  and 

she  did  not  let  the  young  man  go  till  he  pledged  his  faith. 
neque  prius  fugere  destiterunt  quam  ad  flumeu  pervenerunt  (B.  G.  i.  53),  nor 

did  they  stop  running  until  they  reached  the  river. 

Note.  —  The  Perfect  Indicative  in  this  construction  is  regular  when  the  main 
clause  is  negative  and  the  main  verb  is  in  an  historical  tense.  The  Imperfect  Indicative 
is  rare;  the  Pluperfect  Indicative,  very  rare.  The  Perfect  Subjunctive  is  rare  and 
ante-classical,  except  in  Indirect  Discourse. 

6,  With  antequam  or  priusquam  the  Imperfect  Subjunctive  is  com- 
mon when  the  subordinate  verb  implies  purpose  or  expectancy  in  past 
time,  or  when  the  action  that  it  denotes  did  not  take  place :  — 

ante  pugnarl  coeptum  est  quam  satis  instrueretur  acies  (Liv.  xxii.  4.  7),  the 

fight  was  begun  before  the  line  could  be  properly  formed. 
priusquam  tu  suum  sibi  venderes,  ipse  possedit  (Phil.  ii.  96),  before  you  could 

sell  him  his  ovm  property^  he  took  possession  of  it  himself. 
priusquam  telum  abici  posset  aut  nostri  propius  accederent,  omnis  Vaii  acies 
terga  vertit  (B.  C.  ii.  34),  before  a  weapon  could  be  thrown  or  our  men 
approached  nearer,  the  whole  line  about  Varus  took  flight. 

Note  1.  —  The  Pluperfect  Subjunctive  is  rare,  except  in  Indirect  Discourse  by  se- 
quence of  tenses  for  the  Future  Perfect  Indicative  (§  484.  c):  as,  —  antequam  homines 
nefarii  de  meo  adventu  audire  potuissent,  in  Macedoniam  perrexi  (Plane.  98),  before 
those  evil  men  could  learn  of  my  coining,  I  arrived  in  Macedonia. 

Note  2.  —  After  an  historical  present  the  Present  Subjunctive  is  used  instead  of  the 
Imperfect:  as,  —  neque  ab  eo  prius  Domitia.nl  milites  discedunt  quam  in  couspectum 
Caesaris  deducatur  (B.  C.  i.  22),  and  the  soldiers  of  Domitius  did  (do)  not  leave  him 
until  he  was  (is)  conducted  into  Cxsar' s presence.  So,  rarelj^  the  Perfect  Subjunctive 
(as  B.  G.  ill.  18). 

c.  Antequam  and  priusquam,  when  referring  to  future  time,  take  the 
Present  or  Future  Perfect  Indicative  ;  rarely  the  Present  Subjunctive: 

priusquam  de  ceteris  rebus  respondeo,  de  amicitia  pauca  dlcam  (Phil.  ii.  3), 
before  I  reply  to  the  rest,  I  laill  say  a  little  about  friendship. 

non  dgfatigabor  antequam  illorum  aiicipites  vias  percepero  (De  Or.  iii.  145), 
I  shall  not  weary  till  I  have  traced  out  their  doubtful  ways. 

antequam  veniat  litteras  mittet  (Leg.  Agr.  ii.  53),  before  he  comes,  he  will  send 
a  letter. 

Note  1.  —  The  Future  Indicative  is  very  rare. 

Note  2.  —  In  a  few  cases  the  Subjunctive  of  present  general  condition  is  found  with 
antequam  and  priusquam  (cf.  §518.  a):  as,  —  in  omnibus  negotiis  priusquam  aggrediare, 
adhibenda  est  praeparatio  diligens  (Off.  i.  73),  in  all  undertakings,  before  you  proceed 
to  action,  careful  preparation  must  be  used. 


§§  552-564]  BUM,  BONEG,  AND  QUOAD  357 

Dutn^  Donee,  and  Quoad 

552.  As  an  adverb  meaning/or  a  time,  awhile,  dum  is  found  in  old  Latin,  chiefly 
as  an  enclitic  (cf.  vixdum,  nondum).  Its  use  as  a  conjunction  comes  either  through 
correlation  (cf.  cum  .  .  ,  turn,  si .  .  .  sic)  or  through  substitution  for  a  conjunction,  as 
in  the  English  the  moment  I  saw  it,  I  understood.  Quoad  is  a  compound  of  the  rela- 
tive quo,  up  to  lohich point,  with  ad.   The  origin  and  early  history  of  donee  are  unknown. 

553.  Dum  and  quoad,  U7itil^  take  the  Present  or  Imperfect  Sub- 
junctive in  temporal  clauses  implying  intention  or  expectancy :  — 

exspectas  fortasse  dum  dicat  (Tusc.  ii.  17),  you  are  waiting  perhaps  for  him 
to  say  (until  he  say).     [Dum  is  especially  commo3:t  after  exspecto.] 

dum  reliquae  naves  convenireut,  ad  horam  nonam  exspectavit  (B.  G.  iv.  23), 
he  waited  till  the  ninth  hour  for  the  rest  of  the  ships  to  join  him. 

comitia  dilata  [sunt]  dum  lex  ferretur  (Att.  iv.  17.  8),  the  election  was  post- 
poned until  a  law  should  be  passed. 

an  id  exspectamus,  quoad  ne  vestigium  quidem  Asiae  civitatum  atque  urbium 
relinquatur  (Phil.  xi.  25),  shall  we  wait  for  this  until  not  a  trace  is  left  of 
the  states  and  cities  of  Asia  f 

Epaminondas  exercebatur  plurimum  luctando  ad  eum  finem  quoad  stans 
complecti  posset  atque  contendere  (Nep.  Epam.  2),  Epaminondas  trained 
himself  in  wrestling  so  far  as  to  be  able  (until  he  should  be  able)  to  grapple 
standing  and  fight  (in  that  way). 

Note  1.  —  Donee  is  similarly  used  in  poetry  and  later  Latin:  as,  —  et  duxit  longe 
donee  curvata  coirent  inter  se  capita  (Aen.  xi.  860),  and  drew  it  (the  bow)  until  the 
curved  tips  touched  each  other. 

Note  2.  —  Dum,  until,  may  be  used  with  the  Present  or  Future  Perfect  Indicative 
to  state  a  future  fact  when  there  is  no  idea  of  intention  or  expectancy ;  but  this  con- 
struction is  rare  in  classic  prose.  The  Future  is  also  found  in  early  Latin.  Donee,  until, 
is  similarly  used,  in  poetry  and  early  Latin,  with  the  Present  and  Future  Perfect  Indica- 
tive, rarely  with  the  Future :  — 

ego  in  Arcano  opperior  dum  ista  cognoseo  (Att.  x.  3),  7  am  waiting  in  the  villa  at 

ArcsB  until  I  find  this  out.     [This  is  really  dum,  wJiile.] 
mihi  usque  curae  erit  quid  agas,  dum  quid  egeris  sciero  (Fam.  xii.  19.  3),  I  shall 
always  feel  anxious  as  to  what  you  are  doing,  until  I  actually  know  (shall 
have  known)  what  you  have  done. 
delicta  maiorum  lues  donee  templa  refeeeris  (Hor.  Od.  iii.  6. 1),  you  shall  suffer  for 

the  sins  of  your  ancestors  until  you  rebuild  the  temples. 
ter  centum  regnabitur  annos,  dSnee  geminam  partii  dabit  Ilia  prolem  (Aen.  i.  272), 
sway  shall  he  held  for  thrice  a  hundred  years,  until  Mia  shall  give  birth  to 
twin  offspring. 

554.  Donee  and  quoad,  until,  with  the  Perfect  Indicative  denote 
an  actual  fact  in  past  time :  — 

donee  rediit  silentium  fuit  (Liv,  xxiii.  31.  9),  there  was  silence  until  he  returned. 
lisque  eo  timui  donee  ad  reiciendos  indices  venimus  (Yerr.  ii.  1.  17),  I  ivas 

anxious  until  the  moment  when  we  came  to  challenge  the  jurors. 
Komae  fuerunt  quoad  L.  Metellus  in  provinciam  profectus  est  (id.  ii.  62), 

they  remained  at  Home  until  Lucius  Metellus  set  out  for  the  province. 


358  SYNTAX:    TEMPORAL   CLAUSES  [§§554-556 

Note. — Dum,  until,  with  the  Perfect  Indicative  is  rare:  as,  —  mansit  in  condi- 
cioue  usque  ad  eum  linem  dum  iudices  reiecti  sunt  (Verr.  i.  16),  lie  remained  true  to  the 
agreement  until  the  Jurors  were  challenged. 

555.  Dum,  donee,  and  quoad,  as  long  as^  take  the  Indicative :  — 
dum  anima  est,  spes  esse  dicitur  (Att.  ix.  10.  3),  as  long  as  there  is  life,  there 

is  said  to  be  hope. 

dum  praesidia  ulla  fuerunt,  in  Sullae  praesidiis  fuit  (Rose.  Am.  126),  so  long 
as  there  were  any  garrisons,  he  was  in  the  garrisons  of  Sulla. 

dum  longius  a  munllione  aberant  Galli,  plus  multitudine  teloruin  proficietant 
(B.  G.  vii.  82),  so  long  as  the  Gauls  were  at  a  distance  from  the  fortifica- 
tions, they  had  the  advantage  because  of  their  rnissiles. 

donee  gratus  eram  tibi,  Persarum  vigui  rege  beatior  (Hor.  Od.  iii.  9.  1),  as 
long  as  I  enjoyed  thy  favor,  I  flourished  happier  than  the  king  of  the 
Persians. 

quoad  potuit  fortissime  restitit  (B,  G.  iv.  12),  he  resisted  bravely  as  long  as 
he  could. 

Note  1.  — Donee  in  this  use  is  confined  to  poetiy  and  later  writers. 

Note  2. — Quam  diu,  as  long  as,  takes  the  Indicative  only:  as,  —  se  oppldotam  diu 
tenuit  quam  diu  in  provincia  Parthi  fuerunt  (Fam.  xii.  19. 2),  he  kept  himself  within  the 
town  as  long  as  the  Parthians  were  in  the  province. 

556.  Dum,  while^t  regularly  takes  the  Present  Indicative  to  de- 
note continued  action  in  past  time. 

In  translating,  the  English  Imperfect  must  generally  be  used :  — 
dum  haec  geruntur,  Caesarl  ntintiatum  est  (B.  G.  i.  46),  while  this  was  going 

on,  a  message  was  brought  to  Ccesar. 
haec  dum  aguntur,  interea  Cleomenes  iam  ad  Elori  lltus  pervenerat  (Verr.  v. 
91),  while  this  was  going  on,  Cleomenes  meanwhile  had  come  down  to  the 
coast  at  Elorum. 
hoc  dum  narrat,  forte  audivi  (Ter.  Haut.  272),  I  happened  to  hear  this  while 
she  was  telling  it. 
Note.  — This  construction  is  a  special  use  of  the  Historical  Present  (§  469). 

a.  A  past  tense  with  dum  (usually  so  long  as)  makes  the  time  em- 
phatic by  contrast ;  but  a  few  irregular  cases  of  dum  with  a  past  tense 
occur  where  no  contrast  is  intended : 

nee  enim  dum  eram  vobiscum,  animum  meum  videbatis  (Cat.  M.  79),  for 
while  I  was  with  you,  you  could  not  see  my  soul.     [Here  the  time  when 
he  was  alive  is  contrasted  with  that  after  his  death.] 
coorta  est  piigna,  par  dum  constabant  ordines  (Liv.  xxii.  47),  a  conflict  began, 

well  matched  as  long  as  the  ranks  stood  firm. 
But,  —  dum  oculos  hostium  certamen   averterat  (id.  xxxii.  24),   while  the 

struggle  kept  the  eyes  of  the  enemy  turned  away. 
dum  unum  adscendere  gradum  conatus  est,  venit  in  periculum  (Mur.  55), 
while  he  cUtempted  to  climb  one  step  [in  rank]  he  fell  into  danger. 


§§  566-558]        CLAUSES  WITH   QUIN  AND   QUOMINUS  359 

Note.  —  In  later  writers,  dum  sometimes  takes  the  Subjunctive  when  the  classical 
usage  would  require  the  Indicative,  and  donee,  until,  is  freely  used  in  this  manner 
(especially  by  Tacitus) :  — 

dum  ea  in  Samnio  gereientur,  in  Etruria  interim  helium  ingens  concitur  (Liv.  x. 
18),  while  this  was  being  done  in  Samnium,  meanwhile  a  great  war  was 
stirred  up  in  Etruria. 
ilia  quidem  dum  te  fugeret,  hydrum  non  vidit  (Georg.  iv.  ^57),  while  she  was  fleeing 

from  you  she  did  not  see  the  serpent. 
dum  per  vicos  deportaretur,  condormiebat  (Suet.  Aug.  78),  while  he  was  being  car- 
ried through  the  streets  he  used  to  fall  dead  asleep. 
Rhenus  servat  nomen  et  violentiam  cursiis  (qua  Germaniam  praevehitur)  donee 
Oceano  misceatur  (Tac.  Ann.  ii.  6),  the  Rhine  keeps  its  name  and  rapid  course 
(where  it  borders  Germany)  until  it  mingles  with  the  ocean. 
temporibusque  AugustI  dicendis  non  defuere  decora  ingenia  donee  gliscente  adii- 
latione  deterrerentur  (id.  i.  1),  for  describing  the  times  of  Augustus  there 
was  no  lack  of  talent  until  it  was  frightened  away  by  the  increasing  servility 
of  the  age. 
For  dum,  provided  that,  see  §  528. 

Clauses  with  QuTn  and  QuOminus 

557.  The  original  meaning  of  quin  is  how  not?  why  not?  (qui-ne),  and  when 
used  with  the  Indicative  or  (rarely)  with  the  Subjunctive  it  regularly  implies  a  general 
negative.  Thus,  quIn  ego  hoc  rogem?  why  shouldn't  I  ask  this?  implies  that  there  is 
no  reason  for  not  asking.  The  implied  negative  was  then  expressed  in  a  main  clause, 
like  nulla  causa  est  or  fieri  non  potest.  Hence  come  the  various  dependent  construc- 
tions introduced  by  quin. 

Quominus  is  really  a  phrase  (quo  minus),  and  the  dependent  constructions  which  it 
introduces  have  their  origin  in  the  relative  clause  of  purpose  with  quo  and  a  com- 
parative (see  §  531.  a). 

558.  A  subjunctive  clause  with  quin  is  used  after  verbs  and 
other  expressions  of  hindering.,  resistmg.,  refusing.,  doubting.,  de- 
laying^ and  the  like,  when  these  are  negatived.,  either  expressly  or 
by  implication :  — 

non  humana  ulla  neque  divina  obstant  quin  socios  aniTcos  trahant  exscindant 

(Sail.  Ep.  Mith.  17),  no  human  or  divine  laws  prevent  them  from  taking 

captive  and  exterminating  their  friendly  allies. 
ut  ne  Suessiones  quidem  deterrere  potuerint  quin  cum  his  consentirent  (B.  G. 

ii.  3),  that  they  were  unable  to  hinder  even  the  Suessiones  from  making 

common  cause  with  them. 
non  posse  milites  continer!  quin  in  urbem  inrumperent  (B.  C.  ii.  12),  that  the 

soldiers  could  not  be  restrained  from  bursting  into  the  city. 
non  recusat  quin  iudices  (Deiot.  43),  he  does  not  object  to  your  judging. 
neque  recusare  quia  armis  contendant  (B.  G.  iv.  7),  and  that  they  did  not 

refuse  to  fight. 
praeterlre  non  potui  quin  scriberem  ad  te  (Caesar  ap.  Cic.  Att.  ix.  6  a),  I  could 

not  neglect  to  write  to  you. 


860  SYNTAX:    DEPENDENT  CONSTRUCTIONS  [§668 

Treveri  totius  hiemis  nullum  tempus  intermlserunt  quin  legates  mitterent 

(B.  G.  V,  55),  the  Treveri  let  no  part  of  the  winter  pass  without  sending 

ambassadors.     [Cf.  B.  G.  v.  53;  B.  C.  i.  78.] 
non  cuuctaiidum  existimavit  quin  pugna  decertaret  (B.  G.  iii.  23),  he  thought 

he  ought  not  to  delay  risking  a  decisive  battle. 
paulum  afuit  quin  Varum  interficeret  (B.  C.  ii.  35),  he  just  missed  killing 

Varus  (it  lacked  little  but  that  he  should  kill). 
Deque  multum  afuit  quin  castris  expellerentur  (id.  ii.  35),  they  came  near  being 

driven  out  of  the  camp. 
facere  non  possum  quin  cotidie  ad  te  mittam  (Att.  xii.  27.  2),  I  cannot  help 

sending  to  you  every  day. 
fieri  niillo  modo  poterat  quin  CleomenI  parceretur  (Verr,  v.  104),  it  was  out 

of  the  question  that  Cleomenes  should  not  be  spared. 
ut  effici  non  possit  quin  eos  oderim  (Phil.  xi.  36),  so  that  nothing  can  prevent 

my  hating  them. 

a,  Quin  is  especially  common  with  non  dubito,  J  do  not  doubt,  non 
est  dubium,  there  is  no  doubt,  and  similar  expressions :  — 

non  dubitabat  quin  ei  crederemus  (Att.  vi.  2.  3),  he  did  not  doubt  that  we 
believed  him. 

illud  cave  dubites  quin  ego  omnia  faciam  (Fam.  v.  20.  6),  do  not  doubt  that 
I  will  do  all. 

quis  ignorat  quin  tria  Graecorum  genera  sint  (Flacc.  64),  who  is  ignorant 
that  there  are  three  races  of  Greeks  ? 

non  erat  dubium  quin  Helvetii  plurimum  possent  (cf.  B.  G.  i.  3),  there  was  no 
doubt  that  the  Helvetians  were  most  powerful. 

Deque  Caesarem  fef ellit  quin  ab  iis  cohortibus  initium  victoriae  oriretur  (B.  C. 
iii.  94),  and  it  did  not  escape  Caesar's  notice  that  the  beginning  of  the  vic- 
tory came  from  those  cohorts. 

Note  1. — Dubito  without  a  negative  is  regularly  followed  by  an  Indirect  Ques- 
tion ;  so  sometimes  non  dubito  and  the  like :  — 

nou  nulli  dubitant  an  per  Sardiniam  veniat  (Fam.  ix.  7),  some  doubt  whether  he 

is  coming  through  Sardinia. 
dubitate,  si  potestis,  a  quo  sit  Sex.  Roscius  occisus  (Rose.  Am.  78),  doubt,  if  you 

can,  by  whom  Sextus  Roscius  was  murdered. 
dubitabam  tu  has  ipsas  litteras  essesne  accepturus  (Att.  xv.  9),  I  doubt  whether 

you  will  receive  this  very  letter.     [Epistolary  Imperfect  (§ 479).] 
quails  sit  futurus,  ne  vos  quidem  dubitatis  (B.  C.  ii.  32),  and  what  it  (the  outcome) 

iviU  be,  you  yourselves  do  not  doubt. 
n5n  dubito  quid  sentiant  (Fam.  xv.  9),  I  do  not  doubt  what  they  think. 
dubium  illi  non  erat  quid  futurum  esset  (id.  viii.  8.  1),  it  was  not  doubtful  to  him 

what  was  going  to  happen. 
Note  2.  —  Non  dubito  in  the  sense  of  I  do  not  hesitate  commonly  takes  the  Infini- 
tive, but  sometimes  quin  with  the  Subjunctive :  — 

nee  dubitare  ilium  appellare  sapientem  (Lael .  1) ,  and  not  to  hesitate  to  call  him  a  sage. 
dubitandum  non  existimavit  quin  proflcisceretur  (B.  G.  ii.  2),  he  did  not  think  he 

ought  to  hesitate  to  set  out. 
quid  dubitas  uti  temporis  opportunitate  (B.  C.  ii.  34),  why  do  you  hesitate  to  take 

advantage  of  the  favorable  moment?    [A  question  implying  a  negative.] 


§§  558,  559]       CLAUSES  WITH  QUiN  AND   QUOMINUS  361 

b.  Verbs  of  hindering  and  refusing  often  take  tlie  subjunctive  with 
ne  or  quOminus  (=  ut  eo  minus),  especially  when  the  verb  is  not  nega- 
tived :  — 

plura  ne  dicam  tuae  me  lacrimae  impediunt  (Plane.  104),  your  tears  prevent 

me  from  speaking  further. 
nee  aetas  impedit  quominus  agri  colendi  studia  teneamus  (Cat.  M.  60),  nor 

does  age  prevent  us  from  retaining  an  interest  in  tilling  the  soil. 
nihil  impedit  quominus  id  faeere  possimus  (Fin.  i.  33),  nothing  hinders  us 

from  being  able  to  do  that. 
obstitisti  ne  transire  copiae  possent  (Yerr.  v.  5),  you  opposed  the  passage  of 
the  troops  (opposed  lest  the  troops  should  cross). 

Note.  —  Some  verbs  of  hindering  may  take  the  Infinitive :  — 
nihil  obest  dicere  (Fam.  ix.  13.  4),  there  is  nothing  to  prevent  my  saying  it. 
prohibet  accedere  (Caec.  46),  prevents  him  from  approaching. 

559.  A  clause  of  Result  or  Characteristic  may  be  introduced  by 
quin  after  a  general  negative,  where  quin  is  equivalent  to  qui  (quae, 
quod)  non:  — 

1.  Clauses  of  Result :  — 

nemo  est  tam  fortis  quin  [=  qui  non]  rei  novitate  perturbetur  (B.  G.  vi,  39), 
no  one  is  so  brave  as  not  to  be  disturbed  by  the  unexpected  occurrence. 

nemo  erat  adeo  tardus  quin  putaret  (B.  C.  i.  69),  no  one  was  so  slothful  as  not 
to  think,  etc. 

quis  est  tam  demens  quin  sentiat  (Balb.  43),  who  is  so  senseless  as  not  to 
think,  etc.? 

nil  tam  difficilest  quin  quaerendS  investigari  possiet  (Ter.  Haut.  675),  noth- 
ing''s  so  hard  but  search  will  find  it  out  (Herrick). 

2.  Clauses  of  Characteristic  :  — 

nemo  nostrum  est  quin  [  =  qui  non]  sciat  (Rose.  Am.  65),  there  is  no  one  of 

us  who  does  not  know. 
nemo  fuit  militum  quin  vulneraretur  (B.  C.  iii.  53),  there  was  not  one  of  the 

soldiers  who  was  not  wounded. 
ecquis  fuit  quin  lacrimaret  (Verr.  v.  121),  was  there  any  one  who  did  not  shed 

tears  ? 
quis  est  quin  intellegat  (Fin.  v.  64),  who  is  there  who  does  not  understand  f 
horum  nihil  est  quin  [  =  quod  non]  intereat  (N.  D.  iii.  30),  there  is  none  of 

these  (elements)  ivhich  does  not  perish. 
nihil  est  illorum  quin  [  =  quod'non]  ego  illi  dixerim  (PL  Bac.  1012),  there  is 

nothing  of  this  that  I  have  not  told  him. 

NoTB.  —  Quin  sometimes  introduces  a  pure  clause  of  result  with  the  sense  of  ut  n5n : 
as,— numquam  tam  male  est  Siculis  quin  aliquid  facete  et  commode  dicant  (Verr.  iv. 
95),  things  are  never  so  bad  with  the  Sicilians  but  that  they  have  something  pleasant 
or  loitty  to  say. 

For  quin  in  independent  constructions,  see  §  449.  b. 


362  SYNTAX:    SUBSTANTIVE   CLAUSES  [§§560-563 


SUBSTANTIVE  CLAUSES 

560.  A  clause  which  is  used  as  a  noun  may  be  called  a  Substantive  Clause,  as 
certain  relative  clauses  are  sometimes  called  adjective  clauses.  But  in  practice  the 
term  is  restricted  to  clauses  which  represent  a  nominative  or  an  accusative  case,  the 
clauses  which  stand  for  au  ablative  being  sometimes  called  adverbial  clauses. 

Even  with  this  limitation  the  term  is  not  quite  precise  (see  p.  367,  footnote  1) .  The 
fact  is  rather  that  the  clause  and  the  leading  verb  are  mutually  complementary ;  each 
reinforces  the  other.  The  simplest  and  probably  the  earliest  form  of  such  sentences 
is  to  be  found  in  the  paratactic  use  (see  §  268)  of  two  verbs  like  volo  abeas,  dicamus 
censeo,  adeam  optimum  est.  From  such  verbs  the  usage  spread  by  analogy  to  other 
verbs  (see  lists  on  pp.  363,  367,  footnotes),  and  the  complementary  relation  of  the 
clause  to  the  verb  came  to  resemble  the  complementary  force  of  the  accusative,  espe- 
cially the  accusative  of  cognate  meaning  (§  390) . 

561.  A  clause  used  as  a  noun  is  called  a  Substantive  Clause. 
a,  A  Substantive  Clause  may  be  used  as  the  Subject  or  Object  of 

a  verb,  as  an  Appositive,  or  as  a  Predicate  Nominative  or  Accusative. 

Note  1.  —  Many  ideas  which  in  English  take  the  form  of  an  abstract  noun  may  be 
rendered  by  a  Substantive  clause  in  Latin.  Thus,  he  demanded  an  investigation  may 
be  postulabat  ut  quaestio  haberetur.  The  common  English  expression  for  with  the 
infinitive  also  corresponds  to  a  Latin  substantive  clause:  as,  —  it  remains  for  me  to 
speak  of  the  piratic  war,  reliquum  est  ut  de  bello  dicam  piratico. 

Note  2. — When  a  Substantive  Clause  is  used  as  subject,  the  verb  to  which  it  is 
subject  is  called  impersonal,  and  the  sign  of  the  construction  in  English  is  commonly 
the  so-called  expletive  it. 

562.  Substantive  Clauses  are  classified  as  follows  :  — 

1.  Subjunctive  Clauses  (  a.  Of  purpose  {command,  wish,  fear)  (§§  563,  564). 

(ut,  ne,  utnon,  etc.).  |  b.  Oi  result  (happen,  effect,  etc.)  (§568). 

2.  Indicative  Clauses  with  quod :  Fact,  Specification,  Feeling  (§  572). 

3.  Indirect  Questions:  Subjunctive,  introduced  by  an  Interrogative  Word 

(§§  573-576). 

4.  Infinitive  Clauses  (  ^-  ff  'J^'  ^^  ordering,  wishing,  etc.  (§  563). 

1  6.  Indirect  Discourse  (§579  ff.). 

Note.  —  The  Infinitive  with  Subject  Accusative  is  not  strictly  a  clause,  but  in  Latin 
it  has  undergone  so  extensive  a  development  that  it  may  be  so  classed.  The  uses  of 
the  Infinitive  Clause  are  of  two  kinds :  (1)  in  constructions  in  which  it  replaces  a  sub- 
junctive clause  with  ut  etc. ;  (2)  in  the  Indirect  Discourse.  The  first  class  will  be  dis- 
cussed in  connection  with  the  appropriate  subjunctive  constructions  (§563) ;  for  Indirect 
Discourse,  see  §  579  ff . 

Substantive  Clauses  of  Purpose 

563.  Substantive  Clauses  of  Purpose  with  ut  (negative  ne)  are 
used  as  the  object  of  verbs  denoting  an  action  directed  toward  the 
future. 


§663]  SUBSTANTIVE    CLAUSES   OF  PURPOSE  363 

Such  are,  verbs  meaning  to  admonish,  ask,  bargain,  command,  de- 
cree, determine,  permit,  persuade,  resolve,  urge,  and  ivish  :  —  ^ 

monet  ut  omnes  susplciones  vitet  (B.  G.  i.  20),  he  warns  him  to  avoid  all 

suspicion. 
hortatur  eos  ne  animo  deficiant  (B.  C.  i.  19),  he  urges  them  not  to  lose  heart. 
te  rogo  atqne  oro  ut  eum  iuves  (Fain.  xiii.  66),  I  beg  and  pray  you  to  aid  hipi. 
his  uti  conquirerent  imperavit  (B.  G.  i.  28),  he  ordered  them  to  search. 
persuadet  Castico  ut  regnuin  occuparet  (id.  i.  3),  he  persuades  Casticus  to 

usurp  royal  power. 
suis  imperavit  ne  quod  omnlno  telum  reicerent  (id.  i.  46),  he  ordered  his  men 

not  to  throw  back  any  weapon  at  all. 

Note.  —  With  any  verb  of  these  classes  the  poets  may  use  the  Infinitive  instead  of 
an  object  clause :  — 

hortamur  fan  (Aen.  ii.  74),  we  urge  [him]  to  speak. 

ne  quaere  doceri  (id.  vi.  614),  seek  not  to  he  told. 

temptat  praevertere  (id.  i.  721),  she  attempts  to  turn,  etc. 
For  the  Subjunctive  without  ut  with  verbs  of  commanding,  see  §  565.  a. 

a.  lubeo,  order,  and  veto,  forbid,  take  the  Infinitive  with  Subject 
Accusative  :  — 

Labienum  iugum  mentis  ascendere  iubet  (B.  G.  i.  21),  he  orders  Labienus  to 

ascend  the  ridge  of  the  hill. 
liberos  ad  se  adduci  iussit  (id.  ii.  5),  he  ordered  the  children  to  be  brought  to  him. 
ab  opere  legates  discedere  vetuerat  (id.  ii.  20),  he  had  forbidden  the  lieutenants 

to  leave  the  work. 
vetuere  [bona]  reddi  (Liv.  ii.  5),  they  forbade  the  return  of  the  goods  (that  the 

goods  be  returned). 

Note.  —  Some  other  verbs  of  commanding  etc.  occasionally  take  the  Infinitive :  — 
pontem  imperant  fieri  (B.  C.  i.  61),  they  order  a  bridge  to  he  huilt. 
res  monet  cavere  (Sail.  Cat.  52.  3),  the  occasion  warns  us  to  he  on  our  guard. 

b.  Verbs  of  ivishing  take  either  the  Infinitive  or  the  Subjunctive. 
With  volo  (nolo,  malo)  and  cupio  the  Infinitive  is  commoner,  and 

the  subject  of  the  infinitive  is  rarely  expressed  when  it  would  be  the 
same  as  that  of  the  main  verb. 

With  other  verbs  of  ivishing  the  Subjunctive  is  commoner  when 
the  subject  changes,  the  Infinitive  when  it  remains  the  same. 
1.  Subject  of  dependent  verb  same  as  that  of  the  verb  of  wishing:  — 
augur  fieri  volui  (Fam.  xv.  4.  13),    I  wished  to  be  made  augur. 
cupio  vigiliam  meam  tibi  tradere  (id.  xi.  24),  I  am  eager  to  hand  Over  my  watch 
to  you. 

1  Such  verbs  or  verbal  phrases  are  id  ago,  ad  id  veni5,  caveo  (ne),  censeo,  cogo,  con- 
cede, constituo,  euro,  decerno,  edico,  flagito,  hortor,  impero,  insto,  mando,  metuo  (ne), 
moneo,  negotium  do,  operam  do,  oro,  persuaded,  peto,  postulo,  praecipio,  precor,  pronuntio, 
quaero,  rogo,  scisco,  timeo  (ne),  vereor  (ne),  video,  volo. 


364  SYNTAX  :    SUBSTANTIVE   CLAUSES  [§  563 

iudicein  me  esse,  non  doctorem  volo  (Or.  117),  I  wish  to  he  a  judge,  not  a 

teacher. 
me  Caesaris  militem  dici  volui  (B.  C.  ii.  32.  13),  I  wished  to  be  called  a  soldier 

of  Ccesar. 
cupio  me  esse  clementem  (Cat.  i.  4),  I  desire  to  be  merciful     [But  regularly, 

cupio  esse  clemens  (see  §  457).] 
omnis  homines,  qui  sese  student  praestare  ceteris  animalibus  (Sail.  Cat.  1), 

all  men  who  wish  to  excel  other  living  creatures. 

2.  Subject  of  dependent  verb  different  from  that  of  the  verb  of  wishing  : 
volo  te  scire  (Fam.  ix.  24.  1),  I  wish  you  to  know. 
vim  volumus  exstingui  (Sest.  92),  we  wish  violence  to  be  put  down. 
te  tua  frui  virtute  cupimus  (Brut.  331),  we  wish  you  to  reap  the  fruits  of  your 

virtue. 
cupi5  ut  impetret  (PI.  Capt,  102),  I  wish  he  may  get  it. 
numquam  optabo  ut  audiatis  (Cat.  ii.  15),  I  will  never  desire  that  you  shall 

hear. 

For  volo  and  its  compounds  with  the  Subjunctive  without  ut,  see  §  565. 

c.  Verbs  of  permitting  take  either  the  Subjunctive  or  the  Infini- 
tive. Patior  takes  regularly  the  Infinitive  vs^ith  Subject  Accusative ; 
so  often  sino  :  — 

permisit  ut  faceret  (De  Or.  ii.  366),  permitted  him  to  make. 

concedo  tibi  ut  ea  praetereas  (Rose.  Am.  54),  I  allow  you  to  pass  by  these 

matters. 
tabernacula  statui  passus  non  est  (B.  C.  i.  81),  he  did  not  allow  tents  to  be 

pitched. 
vinum  importari  non  sinunt  (B.  G.  iv.  2),  they  do  not  allow  wine  to  be  imported. 

d»  Verbs  of  determiriing,  decreeing,  resolving,  bargaining,  take 
either  the  Subjunctive  or  the  Infinitive:  — 

constituerant  ut  L.  Bestia  quereretur  (Sail.  Cat.  43),  they  had  determined  that 

Lucius  Bestia  should  complain. 
proelio  supersedere  statuit  (B.  G.  ii.  8),  he  determined  to  refuse  battle. 
de  bonis  regis  quae  reddi  censuerant  (Li v.  ii.  5),  about  the  king''s  goods,  which 

they  had  decreed  should  be  restored. 
decernit  uti  consules  dilectum  habeant  (Sail.  Cat.  34),  decrees  that  the  consuls 

shall  hold  a  levy. 
edicts  ne  quis  iniussu  pugnaret  (Liv.  v.  19),  having  commanded  that  none 

should  fight  without  orders. 

Note  1.  —  Different  verbs  of  these  classes  with  the  same  meaning  vary  in  their 
construction  (see  the  Lexicon).  For  verbs  of  bargaining  etc.  with  the  Gerundive,  see 
§  500.  4. 

Note  2.  —  Verbs  of  decreeiiig  and  voting  often  take  the  Infiuitive  of  the  Second 
Periphrastic  conjugation: — Regulus  captives  reddendos  [esse]  non  censuit  (Off.  i.  39), 
Eegulus  voted  that  the  captives  should  not  be  returned.  [He  said,  in  giving  his  formal 
opinion :  captivi  non  reddendi  sunt.] 


§§  503-666]         SUBSTANTIVE   CLAUSES  OE  PURPOSE  865 

e.  Verbs  of  caution  and  effort  take  the  Subjunctive  with  ut.  But 
Conor,  try,  commonly  takes  the  Complementary  Infinitive :  — 

cura  ut  quam  priinum  intellegam  (Fam.  xiii.  10.  4),  Ut  me  know  as  soon  as  pos- 
sible (take  care  that  I  may  understand), 
dant  operam  ut  habeant  (Sail,  Cat.  41),  they  take  pains  to  have  (give  their 

attention  that,  etc.). 
impellere  uti  Caesar  nominaretur  (id.  49),  to  induce  them  to  name  CcBsar  (that 

Cajsar  should  be  named), 
conatus  est  Caesar  reficere  pontis  (B.  C.  i.  50),  Cmsar  tried  to  rebuild  the  bridges. 

Note  1.  —  Conor  si  also  occurs  (as  B.  G.  i.  8) ;  cf.  miror  si  etc.,  §572.  b.  n. 
Note  2.  —  Ut  ne  occurs  occasionally  with  verbs  of  caution  and  effort  (cf.  §531):  — 
cura  et  provide  ut  nequid  ei  desit  (Att.  xi.  3.  3),  take  care  and  see  that  he  lacks  nothing. 
For  the  Subjunctive  with  quin  and  quominus  with  verbs  of  hindering  etc.,  see  §  558. 

564.  Verbs  of  fearing  take  the  Subjunctive,  with  ne  affirma- 
tive and  ne  non  or  ut  negative. 

In  this  use  ne  is  commonly  to  be  translated  by  that,  ut  and  ne  non 
by  that  not :  — 

timeo  ne  Verres  fecerit  (Verr.  v.  8),  I  fear  that  Verres  has  done,  etc. 

ne  animum  offenderet  verebatur  (B.  G.  i.  10),  he  feared  that  he  should  hurt 
the  feelings,  etc. 

ne  exheredaretur  veritus  est  (Rose.  Am.  58),  he  feared  that  he  should  be  dis- 
inherited. 

orator  metu5  ne  languescat  senectiite  (Cat.  M.  28),  I  fear  the  orator  grows 
feeble  from  old  age. 

vereor  ut  tibi  possim  concedere  (De  Or.  i.  35),  I  fear  that  I  cannot  grant  you. 

haud  sane  perlculum  est  ne  non  mortem  optandam  putet  (Tusc.  v.  118),  there 
is  no  danger  that  he  will  not  think  death  desirable. 

Note. — The  subjunctive  in  ne-clauses  after  a  verb  of  fearing  is  optative  in  origin. 
To  an  independent  ne-sentence,  as  ne  accidat,  7nay  it  not  happen,  a  verb  may  be  prefixed 
(cf.  §  560),  making  a  complex  sentence.  Thus,  vide  ne  accidat ;  oro  ne  accidat ;  cavet  ne 
accidat ;  when  the  prefixed  verb  is  one  of  fearing,  timeo  ne  accidat  becomes  let  it  not  hap- 
pen, but  I  fear  that  it  may.    The  origin  of  the  ut-clause  is  similar. 

565.  Volo  and  its  compounds,  the  impersonals  licet  and  oportet, 
and  the  imperatives  die  and  fac  often  take  the  Subjunctive  with- 
out ut :  — 

volo  ames  (Att.  ii.  10),  I  wish  you  to  love. 

quam  vellem  me  invitasses  (Fam.  x.  28.  1),  how  I  wish  you  had  invited  me! 

mallem  Cerberum  metueres  (Tusc.  i.  12),  I  had  rather  you  feared  Cerberus. 

sint  enim  oportet  (id.  i.  12),  for  they  must  exist. 

queramur  licet  (Caec.  41),  ive  are  allowed  to  complain. 

fac  diligas  (Att.  iii.  13.  2),  do  love!  [A  periphrasis  for  the  imperative  dflige, 

love  (cf.  §449.  c).] 
die  exeat,  tell  him  to  go  out 


366  SYNTAX:    SUBSTANTIVE   CLAUSES  [§§565,566 

Note  1.  —  In  such  cases  there  is  no  ellipsis  of  ut.  The  expressions  are  idiomatic 
remnants  of  an  older  construction  in  which  the  subjunctives  were  hortatory  or  optative 
and  thus  really  independent  of  the  verb  of  wishing  etc.  In  the  classical  period,  how- 
ever, they  were  doubtless  felt  as  subordinate.  Compare  the  use  of  cave  and  the  sub- 
junctive (without  ne)  in  Prohibitions  (§  450),  which  appears  to  follow  the  analogy  of  fac. 

Note  2.  —  Licet  may  take  (1)  the  Subjunctive,  usually  without  ut;  (2)  the  simple 
Infinitive;  (3)  the  Infinitive  with  Subject  Accusative;  (4;  the  Dative  and  the  Infini- 
tive (see  §  455.  1).     Thus,  /  may  go  is  licet  earn,  licet  ire,  licet  me  ire,  or  licet  mihi  ire. 

For  licet  in  concessive  clauses,  see  §  527.  h. 

Note  3.  —  Oportet  may  take  (1)  the  Subjunctive  without  ut;  (2)  the  simple  Infini- 
tive ;  (3)  the  Infinitive  with  Subject  Accusative.  Thus  /  must  go  is  oportet  earn,  oportet 
ire,  or  oportet  me  ire. 

a.  Verbs  of  commanding  and  the  like  often  take  the  subjunctive 
without  ut :  — 

huic  mandat  Remos  adeat  (B.  G.  iii.  11),  he  orders  him  to  visit  the  Eemi. 
rogat  finem  facial  (id.  i.  20),  he  asks  him  to  cease. 

Mnesthea  vocat,  classein  aptent  socil  (Aen.  iv.  289),  he  calls  Mnestheus  [and 
orders  that]  his  comrades  shall  make  ready  the  fleet. 

Note.  —  The  subjunctive  in  this  construction  is  the  hortatory  subjunctive  used  to 
express  a  command  in  Indirect  Discourse  (§  588) . 


Substantive  Clauses  of  Purpose  with  Passive  Verbs 

566.  A  Substantive  Clause  used  as  the  object  of  a  verb  becomes 
the  subject  when  the  verb  is  put  in  the  passive  (Impersonal  Con- 
struction) :  — 

Caesar  ut  cognosceret  postulatum  est  (B,  C.  i.  87),  CcBsar  was  requested  to 

make  an  investigation  (it  was  requested  that  Csesar  should  make  an 

investigation), 
si  erat  Heraclio  ab  senatu  mandatum  ut  emeret  (Verr.  iii.  88),  if  Heraclius 

had  been  instructed  by  the  senate  to  buy. 
si  persnasum  erat  Cluvio  ut  mentiretur  (Rose.  Com.  51),  if  Cluvius  had  been 

persuaded  to  lie. 
puts  concedi  nobis  oportere  ut  Graeco  verbo  utamur  (Fin.  iii.  15),  I  think 

we  must  be  allowed  to  use  a  Greek  word. 
ne  quid  els  noceatur  a  Caesare  cavetur  (B.  C.  i.  86),  Ccesar  takes  care  that  no 

harm  shall  be  done  them  (care  is  taken  by  Caesar  lest,  etc.). 

a.  With  verbs  of  admonishing,  the  personal  object  becomes  the 
subject  and  the  object  clause  is  retained :  — 

admoniti  sumus  ut  caveremus  (Att.  viii.  11  d.  3),  we  were  warned  to  be  careful. 
cum  moneretur  ut  cautior  asset  (Div.  1.  51),  when  he  was  advised  to  be  more 

cautious. 
moneri  vlsus  est  ne  id  faceret  (id.  56),  he  seemed  to  be  warned  not  to  do  it. 


§§  566-568]  SUBSTANTIVE   CLAUSES   OF  RESULT  367 

h.  Some  verbs  that  take  an  infinitive  instead  of  a  subjunctive 
are  used  impersonally  in  the  passive,  and  the  infinitive  becomes  the 
subject  of  the  sentence  :  — 

loqui  non  conceditur  (B.  G.  vi.  20),  it  is  not  allowed  to  speak. 

c.  With  iubeo,  veto,  and  cogo,  the  subject  accusative  of  the  infinitive 
becomes  the  subject  nominative  of  the  main  verb,  and  the  infinitive  is 
retained  as  complementary  {Fersonal  Construction) :  — 

adesse  iubentur  postrldie  (Verr.  ii.  41),  they  are  ordered  to  be  present  on  the 

follovnng  day. 
ire  in  exsilium  iussus  est  (Cat.  ii.  12),  he  was  ordered  to  go  into  exile. 
Simonides  vetitus  est  navigare  (Div.  ii.  134),  Simonides  was  forbidden  to  sail. 
Mandubii  exire  coguntur  (B.  G.  vii.  78),  the  Mandubii  are  compelled  to  go  out. 

Substantive  Clauses  of  Result  (Consecutive  Clauses) 

567.  Clauses  of  Result  may  be  used  substantively,  (1)  as  the  object  of  facio  etc. 
(§  508) ;  (2)  as  the  subject  of  these  same  verbs  iu  the  passive,  as  well  as  of  other  verJxs 
and  verbal  phrases  (§  569) ;  (3)  in  apposition  with  another  substantive,  or  as  predicate 
nominative  etc.  (see  §§  570,  571)  .1 

568.  Substantive  Clauses  of  Result  with  ut  (negative  ut  non) 
are  used  as  the  object  of  verbs  denoting  the  aecompUshment  of 
an  effort.'^ 

Such  are  especially  facio  and  its  compounds  (efficio,  conficio,  etc.) :  — 

eflficiam  ut  intellegatis  (Clu.  7),  I  will  make  you  understand  (lit.  effect  that 

you,  etc.).     [So,  faciam  ut  intellegatis  (id.  9).] 
commeatus  ut  portarl  possent  efficiebat  (B.  G.  ii.  5),  made  it  possible  that 

supplies  could  he  brought. 
perfeci  ut  e  regno  ille  discederet  (Fam.  xv.  4.  6),  I  brought  about  his  departure 

from  the  kingdom. 
quae  libertas  ut  laetior  asset  regis  superbia  fecerat  (Liv.  ii.  1),  the  arrogance 

of  the  king  had  made  this  liberty  more  welcome. 
gvincunt  Instando  ut  litterae  darentur  (id.  ii.  4),  by  insisting  they  gain  their 

point.,  — that  letters  should  be  sent.     [Here  evincunt  =  efficiunt.] 

1  In  all  these  cases  the  clause  is  not  strictly  subject  or  object.  The  main  verb  orig- 
mally  conveyed  a  meaning  sufficient  in  itself,  and  the  result  clause  was  merely  com- 
plementary. This  is  seen  by  the  frequent  use  of  ita  and  the  like  with  the  main  verb 
(ita  accidit  ut,  etc.).  In  like  manner  purpose  clauses  are  only  apparently  subject  or 
object  of  the  verb  with  which  they  are  connected. 

2  Verbs  and  phrases  taking  an  ut-clause  of  result  as  subject  or  object  are  accedit, 
accidit,  additur,  altera  est  res,  committo,  consequor,  contingit,  efficio,  evenit,  facio,  fit,  fieri 
potest,  fore,  impetro,  integrum  est,  mos  est,  munus  est,  necesse  est,  prope  est,  rectum  est, 
relinquitur,  reliquum  est,  restat,  tanti  est,  tantum  abest,  and  a  few  others. 


368  SYNTAX:    SUBSTANTIVE   CLAUSES  [§§568-571 

Note  1.  —  The  expressions  facere  ut,  committere  ut,  with  the  subjunctive,  often  form 
a  periphrasis  for  tlie  simple  verb:  as,  —  invitus  feci  ut  Flaniinium  e  seuatu  eicerem 
(Cat.  M.  42),  it  was  with  reluctance  that  I  expelled  Flaminius  from  the  senate. 

569.  Substantive  Clauses  of  Result  are  used  as  the  subject  of 
the  following :  — 

1.  Of  passive  verbs  denoting  the  accomplishment  of  an  effort :  — 

impetratum  est  ut  in  senatti  recitarentur  (litterae)  (B.  C.  i.  \),  they  succeeded 
in  having  the  letter  read  in  the  senate  (it  was  brought  about  that,  etc.). 

ita  efficitur  ut  omne  corpus  mortale  sit  (N.  D.  ill.  SO),  it  therefore  is  made 
out  that  every  body  is  mortal. 

2.  Of  Impersonals  meaning  it  happens,  it  remains,  it  follows,  it  is 
necessary,  it  is  added,  and  the  like  (§  568,  footnote)  :  — 

accidit  ut  asset  luna  plena  (B.  G.  iv.  29),  it  happened  to  be  full  moon  (it  hap- 
pened that  it  was,  etc.).     [Here  ut  asset  is  subject  of  accidit.] 

reliquum  est  ut  officiis  certemus  inter  nos  (Fam.  vii.  31),  it  remains  for  us  to 
vie  with  each  other  in  courtesies. 

restat  ut  hoc  dubitemus  (Rose.  Am.  88),  it  is  left  for  us  to  doubt  this. 

sequitur  ut  doceam  (N.  D.  ii.  81),  the  next  thing  is  to  show  (it  follows,  etc.). 

Note  1.  —  The  infinitive  sometimes  occurs:  as,  —  nee  enim  acciderat  mihi  opus 
esse  (Fam.  vi.  11.  l),/or  it  had'not  happened  to  be  necessary  to  me. 

Note  2. — Necesse  est  often  takes  the  subjunctive  without  ut :  as,  — concedas  necesse 
est  (Rose.  Am.  87),  you  must  grant. 

3.  Of  est  in  the  sense  of  it  is  the  fact  that,  etc.  (mostly  poetic):  — 

est  ut  viro  vir  latius  ordinet  arbusta  (Hor.  Od.  iii.  1.  9),  it  is  the  fact  that  one 
man  plants  his  vineyards  in  wider  rows  than  another. 

a.  Fore  (or  futurum  esse)  ut  with  a  clause  of  result  as  subject  is 
often  used  instead  of  the  Future  Infinitive  active  or  passive;  so 
necessarily  in  verbs  which  have  no  supine  stem  :  — 

spero  fore  ut  contingat  id  nobis  (Tusc.  i.  82),  I  hope  that  loill  be  our  happy  lot. 
cum  vidgrem  fore  ut  non  possam  (Cat.  ii.  4),  when  I  saw  that  I  should  not  be  able. 

570.  A  substantive  clause  of  result  may  be  in  apposition  with 

another  substantive  (especially  a  neuter  pronoun):  — 

illud  etiam  restiterat,  ut  te  in  ius  educarant  (Quinct.  33),  this  too  remained  — 
for  them  to  drag  you  into  court. 

571.  A  substantive  clause  of  result  may  serve  as  predicate 
nominative  after  mos  est  and  similar  expressions :  — 

est  mos  hominum,  ut  nolint  eundem  pluribus  rebus  excellere  (Brut.  .84),  it  is 
the  way  of  men  to  be  unwilling  for  one  maji  to  excel  in  several  things. 


§§  sn,  572]  iNBICATlVE   WITH    QtfOJb  869 

a.  A  result  clause,  with  or  without  ut,  frequently  follows  quam 

after  a  comparative  (but  see  §  583.  c) :  — 

Canachi  signa  rigidiora  sunt  quam  ut  imitentur  veritatem  (Brut.  70),  the  statues 
of  Canachus  are  too  stiff  to  represent  nature  (stiff  er  than  that  they  should) . 

perpessus  est  omnia  potius  quam  indicaret  (Tusc.  ii.  52),  he  endured  all  rather 
than  betray,  etc.     [Regularly  without  ut  except  in  Livy.] 

6.  The  phrase  tantum  abest,  it  is  so  far  [from  being  the  case], 
regularly  takes  two  clauses  of  result  with  ut:  one  is  substantive^  the 
subject  of  abest  ]  the  other  is  adverbial,  correlative  with  tantum:  — 

tantum  abest  ut  nostra  mireraur,  ut  usque  eo  diflBciles  ac  morosi  simus,  ut 
nobis  non  satis  faciat  ipse  Demosthenes  (Or.  104),  so  far  from  admiring 
my  own  works^  I  am  difficult  and  captious  to  that  degree  that  not  Demos- 
thenes himself  satisfies  me.  [Here  the  first  ut-clause  is  the  subject  of 
abest  (§  569.  2);  the  second,  a  result*  clause  after  tantum  (§  537);  and 
the  third,  after  usque  eo.] 

c,  Karely,  a  thoKgJit  or  an  idea  is  considered  as  a  result,  and  is 
expressed  by  the  subjunctive  with  ut  instead  of  the  accusative  and 
infinitive  (§  580).     In  this  case  a  demonstrative  usually  precedes : 

praeclarum  illud  est,  ut  eos  .  .  .  amemus  (Tusc.  iii.  73),  this  is  a  noble  thing, 

that  we  should  love,  etc. 
verl  simile  non  est  ut  ille  anteponeret  (Verr.  iv.  11),  it  is  not  likely  that  he 

preferred. 
For  Relative  Clauses  with  quin  after  verbs  of  hindering  etc.,  see  §  558. 

Indicative  with  Quod 

572.  A  peculiar  form  of  Substantive  Clause  consists  of  quod 
(in  the  sense  of  tliat.^  the  fact  that)  with  the  Indicative. 

The  clause  in  the  Indicative  with  quod  is  used  when  the  state- 
ment is  regarded  as  a  fact :  — 

alterum  est  vitium,  quod  quidam  nimis  magnum  studium  conferunt  (Off.  i.  19), 
it  is  another  fault  that  some  bestow  too  much  zeal,  etc.  [Here  ut  conferant 
could  be  used,  meaning  that  some  should  bestow ;  or  the  accusative  and 
infinitive,  meaning  to  bestow  (abstractly) ;  quod  makes  it  a  fact  that  men 
do  bestow,  etc.] 
inter  inanimum  et  animal  hoc  maxime  interest,  quod  animal  agit  aliquid 
(Acad.  ii.  37),  this  is  the  chief  difference  between  an  inanimate  object  and 
an  animal,  that  an  animal  aims  at  something. 
quod  rediit  nobis  mlrabile  videtur  (Off.  iii.  Ill),  that  he  (Regulus)  returned 

seems  wonderful  to  us. 
accidit  perincommode  quod  eum  nusquam  vidisti  (Att.  i.  17.  2).,  it  happened 
very  unluckily  that  you  nowhere  saw  him. 


bio  SYNTAX :    SUBSTANTIVE   CLAUSES  [§§  672,  573 

opportunissiina  res  accidit  quod  German!  venerunt  (B.  G.  iv.  13),  a  very  for- 
tunate thing  happened,  (namely)  that  the  Germans  came. 

praetereo  quod  earn  sibi  domiim  sedemque  delegit  (Clu.  188),  I  pass  over  the 
fact  that  she  chose  that  house  and  home  for  herself. 

mitto  quod  possessa  per  vim  (Flacc.  79),  I  disregard  the  fact  that  they  were 
seized  by  violence. 

Note.  —  Like  other  substantive  clauses,  the  clause  with  quod  may  be  used  as  sub- 
iect,  as  object,  as  appositive,  etc.,  but  it  is  commonly  either  the  subject  or  in  apposi- 
tion with  the  subject. 

a,  A  substantive  clause  with  quod  sometimes  appears  as  an  accu- 
sative of  specification,  corresponding  to  the  English  whereas  or  as 
to  the  fact  that :  — 

quod  mihi  de  nostro  statu  gratularis,  minime  mlramur  te  tuis  praeclaris  operi- 

bus  laetari  (Fam.  i.  7.  7),  as  to  your  congratulating  me  on  our  condition, 

we  are  not  at  all  surprised  that  you  are  pleased  with  your  own  noble  works. 

quod  de  domo  scribis,  ego,  etc.  (Fam.  xiv.  2.  3),  as  to  what  you  write  of  the 

house,  I,  etc. 

6,  Verbs  oi  feeling  and  the  expressio7i  of  feeling  take  either  quod 
(quia)  or  the  accusative  and  infinitive  (Indirect  Discourse) :  — 
quod  scribis  .  .  .  gaudeo  (Q.  Fr.  ill.  1.  9),  I  am  glad  that  you  write. 
facio  libenter  quod  earn  non  possum  praeterire  (Legg.  i.  63),  I  am  glad  that  I 

cannot  pass  it  by. 
quae  perfecta  esse  vehementer  laetor  (Rose.  Am.  136),  I  greatly  rqjoice  that 

this  is  finished. 
qui  quia  non  habuit  a  me  turmas  equitum  fortasse  suscenset  (Att.  vi.  3.  5),  who 

perhaps  feels  angry  that  he  did  not  receive  squadrons  of  cavalry  from  me. 
moleste  tuli  te  senatu!  gratias  non  egisse  (Fam.  x.  27.  1),  I  was  displeased 

that  you  did  not  return  thanks  to  the  senate. 

Note.  —  Miror  and  similar  expressions  are  sometimes  followed  by  a  clause  with  si.l 
This  is  apparently  substantive,  but  really  protasis  (cf.  §563.  e.  K.  i).  Thus,  —  miror 
si  quemquam  amicum  habere  potuit  (Lael.54),  Iwonder  if  he  could  ever  have  a  friend. 
[Originally,  If  this  is  so,  I  wonder  at  it.l 

Indirect  Questions 

573.  An  Indirect  Question  is  any  sentence  or  clause  which  is 
introduced  by  an  interrogative  word  (pronoun,  adverb,  etc.),  and 
which  is  itself  the  subject  or  object  of  a  verb,  or  depends  on  any 
expression  implying  uncertainty  or  doubt. 

In  grammatical  form,  exclamatory  sentences  are  not  distin- 
guished from  interrogative  (see  the  third  example  below)« 

1  Cf .  the  Greek  edvu.&^ia  tl 


§§  574,  575]  INDIRECT  QUESTIONS  371 

574.  An  Indirect  Question  takes  its  verb  in  the  Subjunctive ; 
quid  ipse  sentiam  exponam  (Div.  i.  10),  I  will  explain  what  I  think.     [Direct: 

quid  sentio  ?] 

id  possetne  fieri  consuiuit  (id.  i.  32),  he  consulted  whether  it  could  be  done. 
[Direct:  potestne?] 

quam  sis  audax  omnes  intellegere  potuerunt  (Rose.  Am.  87),  all  could  under- 
stand how  bold  you  are.     [Direct :  quam  es  audax  I] 

doleam  necne  doleam  nihil  interest  (Tusc.  ii.  29),  it  is  of  no  account  whether  I 
suffer  or  not.     [Double  question.] 

quaesivi  a  Catillna  in  conventii  apud  M.  Laecam  fuisset  necne  (Cat.  ii.  13),  / 
asked  Catiline  whether  he  had  been  at  the  meeting  at  Marcus  Loeca''s  or 
not.     [Double  question.] 

rogat  me  quid  sentiam,  he  asks  me  what  I  think.  [Cf.  rogat  me  sententiam,  he 
asks  me  mij  opinion.'] 

hoc  dubium  est,  uter  nostrum  sit  inverecundior  (Acad.  ii.  126),  this  is  doubt- 
ful., which  of  us  two  is  the  less  modest. 

incerti  quatenus  Volero  exerceret  victoriam  (Liv.  ii.  55),  uncertain  how  far 
Volero  would  push  victory.     [As  if  dubitantes  quatenus,  etc.] 

Note.  —  An  Indirect  Question  may  be  the  subject  of  a  verb  (as  in  the  fourth  exam- 
ple), the  direct  object  (as  in  the  first),  the  secondary  object  (as  in  the  sixth),  an  apposi- 
tive  (as  in  the  seventh), 

575.  The  Sequence  of  Tenses  in  Indirect  Question  is  illus- 
trated by  the  following  examples  :  — 

dico  quid  faciam,  I  tell  you  what  I  am  doing. 
dico  quid  facturus  sim,  I  tell  you  what  I  will  (shall)  do. 
dico  quid  fecerim,  I  tell  you  what  I  did  (have  done,  was  doing). 
'  'dixi  quid  facerem,  I  told  you  what  I  was  doing. 
dixi  quid  fecissem,  I  told  you  what  I  had  done  (had  been  doing). 
dixi  quid  facturus  essem,  I  told  you  what  I  would  (should)  do  (was  going  to  do), 
dixi  quid  facturus  fuissem,  I  told  you  what  I  would  (should)  have  done. 

a.  Indirect  Questions  referring  to  future  time  take  the  subjunG- 
tive  of  the  First  Periphrastic  Conjugation  :  — 

prospicio  qui  concursus  futuri  sint  (Caecil.  42),  I  foresee  what  throngs  there 

will  be.     [Direct :  qui  erunt  ?] 
quid  sit  futurum  eras,  fuge  quaerere  (Hor.  Od.  i.  9.  13),  forbear  to  ask  what  will 

be  on  the  morrow.     [Direct :  quid  erit  or  futurum  est  ?] 
posthac  non  scribam  ad  te  quid  facturus  sim,  sed  quid  fecerim  (Att.  x.  18), 
hereafter  I  shall  not  write  to  you  what  I  am  going  to  do,  but  what  I  have 
done.     [Direct :  quid  facies  (or  facturus  eris)  ?  quid  fecisti  ?] 
Note.  —  This  Periphrastic  Future  avoids  the  ambiguity  which  would  be  caused  by 
using  the  Present  Subjunctive  to  refer  to  future  time  in  such  clauses. 

b.  The  Deliberative  Subjunctive  (§  444)  remains  unchanged  in  an 
Indirect  Question,  except  sometimes  in  tense  i  — 


372  SYNTAX:    SUBSTANTIVE   CLAUSES  [§§675,576 

qu5  me  vertam  nescio  (Clu.  4),  I  do  not  know  which  way  to  turn.     [Direct: 

quo  me  vertam  ?] 
neqiie  satis  constabat  quid  agerent  (B.  G.  iii.  14),  and  it  was  not  very  clear  what 

they  were  to  do.     [Direct :  quid  agamus  ?] 
nee  quisquam  satis  certum  habet,  quid  aut  speret  aut  timeat  (Liv.  xxii,  7.  10), 

nor  is  any  one  well  assured  what  he  shall  hope  or  fear.     [Here  the  future 

participle  with  sit  could  not  be  used.] 
incerto  quid  peterent  aut  vitarent  (id.  xxviii.  36.  12),  since  it  was  doubtful 

(ablative  absolute)  what  they  should  seek  or  shun. 

c.  Indirect  Questions  often  take  the  Indicative  in  early  Latin  and 
in  poetry :  — 

vineam  quo  in  agro  conseri  oportet  sic  observato  (Cato  K.  R.  6.  4),  in  what 
soil  a  vineyard  should  he  set  you  must  observe  thus. 

d,  NesciS  quis,  when  used  in  an  indefinite  sense  (somebody  or  other), 
is  not  followed  by  the  Subjunctive. 

So  also  nescio  quo  (unde,  etc.),  and  the  following  idiomatic  phrases 
which  are  practically  adverbs :  — 

mirum  (nimirum)  quam,  marvellously  (marvellous  how), 
mirum  quantum,  tremendously  (marvellous  how  much), 
immane  quantum,  monstrously  (monstrous  how  much), 
sane  quam,  immensely. 
valde  quam,  enormously. 

Examples  are:  — 

qui  istam  nescio  quam  indolentiam  magnopere  laudant  (Tusc.  iii.  12),  who 

greatly  extol  that  freedom  from  pain.,  whatever  it  is. 
mirum  quantum  profuit  (Liv.  ii.  1),  it  helped  prodigiously. 
ita  fato  nescio  quo  contigisse  arbitror  (Fam.  xv.  13),  I  think  it  happened  so 

by  some  fatality  or  other. 
nam  suos  valde  quam  paucos  habet  (id.  xi.  13  a.  3), /or  he  has  uncommonly 

few  of  his  own. 
sane  quam  sum  gavlsus  (id.  xi,  13  a,  4),  I  was  immensely  glad. 
immane  quantum  discrepat  (Hor.  Od.  i.  27.  5),  is  monstrously  ai,  variance. 

576.  In  colloquial  usage  and  in  poetry  the  subject  of  an  In- 
direct Question  is  often  attracted  into  the  main  clause  as  object 
{Accusative  of  Anticipatioii) :  — 

nosti  Marcellum  quam  tardus  sit  (Fam.  viii.  10,  3),  you  know  how  slow  Mar- 
cellus  is.  [For  nostI  quam  tardus  sit  Marcellus.  Cf.  "  I  know  thee  who 
thou  art."] 

Cf.  potestne  igitur  earum  return,  qua  re  futiirae  sint,  iilla  esse  praesensio  (Div. 
ii.  15),  can  there  be,  then,  any  foreknowledge  as  to  those  things,  why  they 
will  occur?    [A  similar  use  of  the  Objective  Genitive.] 


§§  576,  577]  INDIRECT  DISCOURSE  373 

Note.  —  In  some  cases  the  Object  of  Anticipation  becomes  the  Subject  by  a  change 
of  voice,  and  an  apparent  mixture  of  relative  and  interrogative  constructions  is  the 
result :  — 

quidam  saepe  in  parva  pecunia  perspiciuntur  quam  sint  leves  (Lael.  63),  it  is  often 
seen,  in  a  trifling  matter  of  money,  how  unprincipled  some  people  are  (some 
people  are  often  seen  through,  how  unprincipled  they  are) . 
quern  ad  modum  Pompeium  oppiignarent  a  me  indicati  sunt  (Leg.  Agr.  i.  5),  ^^  has 
been  shown  by  me  in  what  way  they  attacked  Pompey  (they  have  been  shown 
by  me,  how  they  attacked). 

a.  An  indirect  question  is  occasionally  introduced  by  si  in  the 
sense  of  whether  (like  if  in  English,  cf.  §  572.  b.  n.):  — 

circumfunduntur  hostes  si  quem  aditum  reperire  possent  (B.  G.  vi.  37),  the 

enemy  pour  round  [to  see]  if  they  can  find  entrance. 
visam  si  domi  est  (Ter.  Haut.  170),  I  will  go  see  if  he  is  at  home. 

Note.  —  This  is  strictly  a  Protasis,  but  usually  no  Apodosis  is  thought  of,  and  the 
clause  is  virtually  an  Indirect  Question. 

For  the  Potential  Subjunctive  with  forsitan  (originally  an  Indirect  Question),  see 
§  447.  a. 

INDIRECT  DISCOURSE 

577.  The  use  of  the  Accusative  and  Infinitive  in  Indirect  Discourse  (ordtio  ohllqua) 
is  a  comparatively  late  form  of  speech,  developed  in  the  Latin  and  Greek  only,  and 
perhaps  separately  in  each  of  them.  It  is  wholly  wanting  in  Sanskrit,  but  some  forms 
like  it  have  grown  up  in  English  and  German. 

The  essential  character  of  Indirect  Discourse  is,  that  the  language  of  some  other 
person  than  the  writer  or  speaker  is  compressed  into  a  kind  of  Substantive  Clause,  the 
verb  of  the  main  clause  becoming  Infinitive,  while  modifying  clauses,  as  well  as  all 
hortatory  forms  of  speech,  take  the  Subjunctive.  T\iq person  of  the  verb  necessarily 
conforms  to  the  new  relation  of  persons. 

The  construction  of  Indirect  Discourse,  however,  is  not  limited  to  reports  of  the 
language  of  some  person  other  than  the  speaker ;  it  may  be  used  to  express  what  any 
one — whether  the  speaker  or  some  one  else  —  says,  thinks,  ov  perceives,  whenever  that 
which  is  said,  thought,  ov  perceived  is  capable  of  being  expressed  in  the  form  of  a  com- 
plete sentence.  For  anything  that  can  be  said  etc.  can  also  he  reported  indirectly  as 
well  as  directly. 

The  use  of  the  Infinitive  in  the  main  clause  undoubtedly  comes  from  its  use  as  a 
case-form  to  complete  or  modify  the  action  expressed  by  the  verb  of  saying  and  its 
object  together.  This  object  in  time  came  to  be  regarded  as,  and  in  fact  to  all  intents 
became,  the  subject  of  the  infinitive.  A  transition  state  is  found  in  Sanskrit,  which, 
though  it  has  no  indirect  discourse  proper,  yet  allows  an  indirect  predication  after  verbs 
of  saying  and  the  like  by  means  of  a  predicative  apposition,  in  such  expressions  as 
"  The  maids  told  the  king  [that]  his  daughter  [was]  bereft  of  her  senses." 

The  simple  form  of  indirect  statement  with  the  accusative  and  infinitive  was  after- 
wards amplified  by  introducing  dependent  or  modifying  clauses ;  and  in  Latin  it  became 
a  common  construction,  and  could  be  used  to  report  whole  speeches  etc.,  which  in  other 
languages  would  have  the  direct  form.  (Compare  the  style  of  reporting  speeches  in 
English,  where  only  the  person  and  tense  are  changed.) 

The  Subjunctive  in  the  subordinate  clauses  of  Indirect  Discourse  has  no  significance 
except  to  make  more  distinct  the  fact  that  these  clauses  are  subordinate ;  consequently 
no  direct  connection  has  been  traced  between  them  and  the  uses  of  the  mood  in  simple 


374  SYNTAX :    SUBSTANTIVE   CLAUSES  [§§  577-580 

sentences.  It  is  probable  that  the  subjunctive  in  indirect  questions  (§  574) ,  in  informal 
indirect  discourse  (§  592) ,  and  in  clauses  of  the  integral  part  (§  5'Jo)  represents  the 
earliest  steps  of  a  movement  by  which  the  subjunctive  became  in  some  degree  a  mood 
of  subordination. 

The  Subjunctive  standing  for  hortatory  forms  of  speech  in  Indirect  Discourse  is 
simply  the  usual  hortatory  subjunctive,  with  only  a  change  of  person  and  tense  (if 
necessary),  as  in  the  reporter's  style. 

578.  A  Direct  Quotation  gives  the  exact  words  of  the  original 
speaker  or  writer  (Ordtio  Recta). 

An  Indirect  Quotation  adapts  the  words  of  the  speaker  or 
writer  to  the  construction  of  the  sentence  in  which  they  are 
quoted  (Ordtio  Obliqua). 

Note.  —  The  term  Indirect  Discourse  (oratio  obliqua)  is  used  in  two  senses.  In 
the  wider  sense  it  includes  all  clauses  —  of  whatever  kind  —  which  express  the  words 
or  thought  of  any  person  indirectly,  that  is,  in  a  form  different  from  that  in  which  the 
person  said  the  words  or  conceived  the  thought.  In  the  narrower  sense  the  term  Indi- 
rect Discourse  is  restricted  to  those  cases  in  which  some  complete  proposition  is  cited 
in  the  form  of  an  Indirect  Quotation,  which  may  be  extended  to  a  narrative  or  an 
address  of  any  length,  as  in  the  speeches  reported  by  Caesar  and  Livy.  In  this  book 
the  term  is  used  in  the  restricted  sense. 


Formal  Indirect  Discourse 

579.  Verbs  and  other  expressions  of  knowing,  thinking,  telling, 
and  perceiving}  govern  the  Indirect  Discourse. 

Note.  —  Inquam,  said  I  (etc.)  takes  the  Direct  Discourse  except  in  poetry. 

Declaratory  Sentences  in  Indirect  Discourse 

580.  In  Indirect  Discourse  tlie  7yiain  clause  of  a  Declaratory 
Sentence  is  put  in  the  Infinitive  with  Subject  Accusative.  All 
subordinate  clauses  take  the  Subjunctive :  — 

scio  me  paene  incredibilem  rem  polliceri  (B.  C.  ill.  86),  I  know  thai,  I  am 
promising  an  almost  incredible  thing.     [Direct :  polliceor.] 

non  arbitror  te  ita  sentire  (Fam.  x.  20.  2),  I  do  not  suppose  that  you  feel 
thus.     [Direct:  sentls.] 

spero  me  liberatum  [esse]  de  metti  (Tusc.  ii.  67),  I  trust  I  have  been  freed 
from  fear.     [Direct :  liberatus  sum.] 

1  Such  are:  (1)  knowing,  scio,  cognosco,  compertum  habeo,  etc.;  (2)  thinking,  puto, 
existimo,  arbitror,  etc. ;  (3)  telliiig,  dico,  niintio,  refero,  polhceor,  promitto,  certiorem  facio, 
etc. ;  (4)  perceiving,  senti5,  comperio,  video,  audi5,  etc.  So  in  general  any  woi'd  that 
denotes  thought  or  mental  and  visual  perception  or  their  expression  may  govern  the 
Indirect  Discourse. 


§680]  INDIRECT   DISCOURSE  375 

[dicit]  esse  non  nullos  quorum  auctoritas  plurimum  valeat  (B.  G.  i.  17),  he 

says  there  are  some,  whose  influence  most  prevails.     [Direct:  sunt  non 

nulli .  .  .  valet.] 
nisi  iurasset,  scelus  se  facturum  [esse]  arbitrabatur  (Verr.  ii.   1.  123),  he 

thought  he  should  incur  guilt,  unless  he  should  take  the  oath.     [Direct : 

nisi  iuravero,  faciam.]  i 

a.  The  verb  of  saying  etc.  is  often  not  expressed,  but  implied  in 
some  word  or  in  the  general  drift  of  the  sentence :  — 

consulis  alterius  nomen  invisum  civitati  fuit :  nimium  Tarquinios  regno 
adsuesse;  initium  a  Prisco  factum;  regnasse  dein  Ser.  Tullium,  etc. 
(Liv.  ii.  2),  the  name  of  the  other  consul  was  hateful  to  the  state;  the  Tar- 
quins  (they  thought)  had  become  too  much  accustomed  to  royal  power,  etc. 
[Here  invisum  imphes  a  thought,  and  this  thought  is  added  in  the 
form  of  Indirect  Discourse.] 

orantes  ut  urbibus  saltern  —  iam  enim  agros  deploratos  esse  —  opem  senatus 
ferret  (id.  xli.  6),  praying  that  the  senate  would  at  least  bring  aid  to  the 
cities — for  the  fields  [they  said]  were  already  given  up  as  lost. 

b.  The  verb  nego,  deni/,  is  commonly  used  in  preference  to  dico  with 
a  negative :  — 

[Stoici]  negant  quidquam  [esse]  bonum  nisi  quod  honestum  sit  (Fin.  ii.  68), 
the  Stoics  assert  that  nothing  is  good  but  what  is  right. 

c.  Verbs  of  promising,  lioping,  expecting,  threatening,  swearing, 
and  the  like,  regularly  take  the  construction  of  Indirect  Discourse, 
contrary  to  the  English  idiom  :  — 

minatur  sese  abire  (PI.  Asin.  604),  he  threatens  to  go  away.     [Direct:  abeo, 

I  am  going  away.  ] 
sperantse  maximum  frtictum  esse  captures  (Lael.  79),  they  hope  to  gain  the 

utmost  advantage.     [Direct:  capiemus.] 
sperat  se  absolutum  iri  (SuU.  21),  he  hopes  that  he  shall  be  acquitted.     [Direct : 

absolvar.  ] 
quem  inimicissimum  futurum  esse  promitto  ac  spondeo  (Mur.  90),  who  I 

promise  and  warrant  will  be  the  bitterest  of  enemies.     [Direct:  erit.] 
dolor  fortitudinem  se  debilitaturum  minatur  (Tusc.  v.  76),  pain  threatens  to 

wear  down  fortitude.     [Direct:  debilitabo.] 
■confldo  me  quod  velim  facile  a  te  impetraturum  (Fam.  xi.  16.  1),  I  trust  1 

shall  easily  obtain  from  you  what  I  wish.     [Direct :  •  quod  volo,  impe- 

trabo.] 
Note. — These  verbs,  however,  often  take  a  simple  Complementary  Infinitive  (§  466). 
So  regularly  in  early  Latin  (except  spero) :  —  i 

pollicentur  obsidos  dare  (B.  G.  iv.  21),  they  promise  to  give  hostages. 
promisi  dolium  viui  dare  (PL  Cist.  542),  I  promised  to  give  ajar  of  wine. 

1  Compare  the  Greek  aorist  infinitive  after  similar  verbs. 


37G  SYNTAX :    SUBSTANTIVE   CLAUSES  [§§  680,  581 

d.  Some  verbs  and  expressions  may  be  used  either  as  verbs  of 
saying,  or  as  verbs  of  commanding,  effecting,  and  the  like.  These 
take  as  their  object  either  an  Infinitive  with  subject  accusative  or  a 
Substantive  clause  of  Purpose  or  Eesult,  according  to  the  sense. 

1 .  Infinitive  with  Subject  Accusative  (Indirect  Discourse)  :  — 

laudem  sapientiae  statuo  esse  maximam  (Earn.  v.  13),  I  hold  that  the  glory  of 
wisdom  is  the  greatest.     [Indirect  Discourse.] 

res  ipsa  monebat  tempus  esse  (Att.  x,  8.  1),  the  thing  itself  warned  that  it 
was  time.     [Cf.  monere  ut,  warn  to  do  something.] 

fac  mihi  esse  persuasum  (N.  D.  i.  75),  suppose  that  I  am,  persuaded  of  that 
[Cf.  facere  ut,  bring  it  about  that.'] 

hoc  volunt  persuadere,  non  interire  animas  (B.  G.  vi.  14),  they  wish  to  con- 
vince that  souls  do  not  perish. 

2.  Subjunctive  (Substantive  Clause  of  Purpose  or  Result):  — 
statuunt  ut  decern  milia  liominum  mittantur  (B.  G.  vii.  21),  they  resolve  that 

10,000  men  shall  be  sent.     [Purpose  clause  (cf.  §  563).] 
huic  persuadet  uti  ad  hostis  transeat  (id.  iii.  18),  he  persuades  him  to  pass 

over  to  the  enemy. 
Pompeius  suis  praedlxerat  ut  Caesaris  impetum  exciperent  (B.  C.  iii.  02), 

Pompey  had  instructed  his  men  beforehand  to  await  Ccesar''s  attack. 
dentintiavit  ut  essent  animo  parati  (id.  iii.  86),  he  bade  them  be  alert  and 

steadfast  (ready  in  spirit). 

Note.  —  The  infinitive  with  subject  accusative  in  this  construction  is  Indirect  Dis- 
course, and  is  to  be  distinguished  from  the  simple  infinitive  sometimes  found  with  these 
verbs  instead  of  a  subjunctive  clause  (§  563.  d). 

581.  The  Subject  Accusative  of  the  Infinitive  is  regularly  ex- 
pressed in  Indirect  Discourse,  even  if  it  is  wanting  in  the  direct : 
orator  sura,  I  am  an  orator ;  dicit  se  esse  oratorem,  he  says  he  is  an  orator. 

Note  1.  —  But  the  subject  is  often  omitted  if  easily  understood :  — 
ign5scere  imprudentiae  dixit  (B.  G.  iv.  27),  he  said  he  pardoned  their  rashness. 
eadem  ab  aliis  quaerit :  reperit  esse  vera  (id.  i.  18),  he  inquires  about  these  same 
things  from  others;  he  finds  that  they  are  true. 
Note  2.  —  After  a  relative,  or  quam  (than),  if  the  verb  would  be  the  same  as  that  of 
the  main  claiise,  it  is  usually  omitted,  and  its  subject  is  attracted  into  tlie  accusative :  — 
te  suspicor  elsdem  rebus  quibus  me  ipsum  coramoveri  (Cat.  M.  1),  /  suspect  that 

you  are  disturbed  by  the  same  things  as  1. 
coufido  tamen  haec  quoque  tibi  non  minus  grata  quam  ipsos  libros  futura  (Plin, 
Ep.  iii.  5.  20),  7  trust  that  these  facts  too  loill  be  no  less  pleasing  to  you  than 
the  books  themselves. 
Note  3.  —  In  poetry,  by  a  Greek  idiom,  a  Predicate  Noun  or  Adjective  in  the  indi- 
rect discourse  sometimes  agrees  with  the  subject  of  the  main  verb:  —  ^ 

vir  bonus  et  sapiens  ait  esse  paratus  (Hor.  Ep.  i.  7.  22),  a  good  and  ivise  man  says 

he  is  prepared,  etc.     [In  prose :  ait  se  esse  paratum.] 
sensit  medios  delapsus  in  hostis  (Aen.  ii.  377),  he  found  himself  fallen  among  the 
foe.     [In  prose:  se  esse  delapsum.] 


§§  682,  583]  INDIRECT   DISCOURSE  377 

582.  When  the  verb  of  saying  etc.  is  passive^  the  construction 
may  be  either  Personal  or  Impersonal.  But  the  Piersonal  con- 
struction is  more  common  and  is  regularly  used  in  the  tenses  of 
incomplete  action :  — 

beate  vixisse  videor  (Lael.  16),  J  seem  to  have  lived  happily. 

Epaminondas  fidibus  praeclare  cecinisse  dicitur  (Tusc.  i.  4),  Epaminondas  is 

said  to  have  played  excellently  on  the  lyre. 
multi  idem  facturi  esse  dicuntur  (Fam.  xvi.  12.  4),  many  are  said  to  be  about 

to  do  the  same  thing.     [Active  :  dicunt  multos  facturos  (esse).] 
primi  traduntur  arte  quadam  verba  vinxisse  (Or.  40),  they  first  are  related  to 

have  joined  words  with  a  certain  skill. 
Bibulus  audiebatur  esse  in  Syria  (Att.  v.  18),  it  was  heard  that  Bibulus  was  in 

Syria  (Bibulus  v^as  heard,  etc.).     [Direct:  Bibulus  est.] 
ceterae  Illyrici  legiones  secutiirae  sperabantur  (Tac.  H.  ii.  74),  the  rest  of  the 

legions  of  Illyricum  were  expected  to  follow. 
videmur  enim  quietiiri  fuisse,  nisi  essemus  lacessiti  (De  Or.  ii.  280),  it  seems 

that  we  should  have  kept  quiet.,  if  we  had  not  been  molested  (we  seem,  etc.). 

[Direct:  quiessemus  .  .  .  nisi  essemus  lacessiti.] 
Note,  —  The  poets  and  later  writers  extend  the  personal  use  of  the  passive  to  verbs 
which  are  not  properly  verba  sentiendi  etc. :  as,  — colligor  dominae  placuisse  (Ov.  Am. 
ii.  6.  61),  it  is  gathered  [from  this  memorial]  that  I  pleased  my  mistress. 

a.  In  the  compound  tenses  of  verbs  of  saying  etc.,  the  impersonal 

construction  is  more  common,  and  with  the  gerundive  is  regular :  — 

traditum  est  etiam  Homerum  caecum  fUisse  (Tusc.  v.  114),  it  is  a  tradition^ 

too,  that  Homer  was  blind. 
ubi  tyrannus  est,  ibi  non  vitiosam,  sed  dicendum  est  plane  ntillam  esse  rem 
publicam  (Rep.  iii.  43),  where  there  is  a  tyrant,  it  must  be  said,  not  that 
the  commonwealth  is  evil,  but  that  it  does  not  exist  at  all. 
Note.  —  An  indirect  narrative  begun  in  the  personal  construction  may  be  continued 
with  the  Infinitive  and  Accusative  (as  De  Or.  ii.  299;  Liv.  v.  41.  9). 

Subordinate  Clauses  in  Indirect  Discourse 

583.  A  Subordinate  Clause  merely  explanatory^  or  containing 
statements  which  are  regarded  as  true  independently  of  the  quo- 
tation, takes  the  Indicative :  — 

quis  neget  haec  omnia  quae  videmus  de5rum  potestate  administrarl  (Cat.  iii. 

21),  who  can  deny  that  all  these  things  we  see  are  ruled  by  the  power  of 

the  gods  ? 
cuius  ingenio  putabat  ea  quae  gesserat  posse  celebrari  (Arch.  20),  by  whose 

genius  he  thought  that  those  deeds  which  he  had  done  could  be  celebrated. 

[Here  the  fact  expressed  by  quae  gesserat,  though  not  explanatory,  is 

felt  to  be  true  without  regard  to  the  quotation:  quae  gessisset  would 

mean,  what  Marius  claimed  to  have  done.] 


378  SYNTAX:    SUBSTANTIVE   CLAUSES  [§§583,584 

Note.  —  Such  a  clause  in  the  indicative  is  not  regarded  as  a  part  of  the  Indirect 
Discourse ;  but.it  often  depends  merely  upon  the  feeling  of  the  writer  whether  he  shall 
use  the  Judicative  or  the  Subjunctive  (of.  §§  591-593). 

a,  A  subordinate  clause  in  Indirect  Discourse  occasionally  takes 
the  Indicative  when  the  fact  is  emphasized  :  — 

factum  eius  hostis  periculum  .  .  .  cum,  Cimbris  et  Teutonis  .  .  .  pulsis,  non 
minorem  laudem  exercitus  quaui  ipse  imperator  meritus  videbatur  (B.  G. 
i.  40),  that  a  trial  of  this  enemy  had  been  made  when,  on  the  defeat  of  the 
Cimbri  and  Teutonic  the  army  seemed  to  have  deserved  no  less  credit  than 
the  commander  himself. 

h.  Clauses  introduced  by  a  relative  which  is  equivalent  to  a 
demonstrative  with  a  conjunction  are  not  properly  subordinate,  and 
hence  take  the  Accusative  and  Infinitive  in  Indirect  Discourse  (see 
§308./):  — 

Marcellus  requlsisse  dicitur  Archimedem  ilium,  quern  cum  audisset  inter- 
fectum  permoleste  tulisse  (Verr.  iv.  131),  Marcellus  is  said  to  have  sought 
for  Archimedes,  and  when  he  heard  that  he  was  slain,  to  have  been  greatly 
distressed,  [quern  =  et  eum.] 
censent  iinum  quemque  nostrum  mundi  esse  partem,  ex  quo  [=  et  ex  eo] 
illud  natiira  consequi  (Fin.  iii.  64),  they  say  that  each  one  of  us  is  a  part 
of  the  universe,  from  which  this  naturally  follows. 

Note.  —  Really  subordinate  clauses  occasionally  take  the  accusative  and  infinitive; 
as,  —  quem  ad  modum  si  non  dedatur  obses  pro  rupto  foedus  se  habiturum,  sic  deditam 
inviolatam  ad  suos  remissurum  (Liv.  ii.  13),  [he  says]  as  in  case  the  hostage  is  not 
given  up  he  shall  consider  the  treaty  as  broken,  so  if  given  up  he  will  return  her 
unharmed  to  her  friends. 

c.  The  infinitive  construction  is  regularly  continued  after  a  com- 
parative with  quam :  — 

addit  se  prius  occisum  Irl  ab  eo  quam  me  violatum  iri  (Alt.  ii.  20.  2),  he  adds 

that  he  himself  will  be  killed  by  him,  before  I  shall  be  injured. 
nonne  adfirmavi  quidvis  me  potius  perpessuruni  quam  ox  Italia  exiturum 
(Fam.  ii.  16.  3),  did  I  not  assert  that  I  would  endure  anything  rather 
than  leave  Italy  ? 
Note.  —  The  subjunctive  with  or  without  ut  also  occurs  with  quam  (see  5  535.  c). 

Tenses  of  the  Infinitive  in  Indirect  Discourse 

584.  The  Present,  the  Perfect,  or  the  Future  Infinitive  ^  is  used 
in  Indirect  Discourse,  according  as  the  time  indicated  is  prese7it, 
jiast^  OY  future  with  reference  to  the  verb  of  saying  etc.  by  which 
the  Indirect  Discourse  is  introduced :  — 

1  For  various  ways  of  expressing  the  Future  Infinitive,  see  §  164.  3.  c. 


§§  584,  585]  TENSES   IN   INDIRECT   DISCOURSE  379 

cado,  lam  falling. 
dicit  se  cadere,  he  says  he  is  falling. 
dixit  se  cadere,  he  said  he  was  falling. 

cadebam,  I  was  falling;  cecidi,  I  fell,  have  fallen; 
cecideram,  I  had  fallen. 
dicit  se  cecidisse,  he  says  he  was  falling,  fdl,  has  fallen,  had  fallen. 
dixit  se  cecidisse,  he  said  he  fell,  had  fallen. 

cadam,  I  shall  fall. 
dicit  se  casurum  [esse] ,  he  says  he  shall  fall. 
dixit  se  casurum  [esse],  he  said  he  should  fall. 

cecidero,  I  shall  have  fallen. 
dicit  fore  ut  ceciderit  [rare],  he  says  he  shall  have  fallen. 
dixit  fore  ut  cecidisset  [rare],  he  said  he  should  have  fallen. 

a.  All  varieties  of  past  time  are  usually  expressed  in  Indirect 
Discourse  by  the  Perfect  Infinitive,  wMch  may  stand  for  the  Imper- 
fect, the  Perfect,  or  the  Pluperfect  Indicative  of  the  Direct. 

Note.  —  Continued  or  repeated  action  in  past  time  is  sometimes  expressed  by  the 
Present  Infinitive,  which  in  sucli  cases  stands  for  the  Imperfect  Indicative  of  the  Direct 
Discourse  and  is  often  called  the  Imperfect  Infinitive. 

This  is  the  regular  construction  after  memini  when  referring  to  a  matter  of  actual 
experience  or  observation :  as,  —  te  memini  haec  dicere,  /  remember  your  saying  this 
(that  you  said  this).     [Direct :  dixisti  or  dicebas.] 

h.  The  present  infinitive  posse  often  has  a  future  sense  :  ■ — 
totius  Galliae  sese  potiri  posse  sperant  (B.  G.  i.  3),  they  hope  that  they  shall 
he  able  to  get  possession  of  all  Gaul. 

Tenses  of  the  Subjunctive  in  Indirect  Discourse 

585.  The  tenses  of  the  Subjunctive  in  Indirect  Discourse  fol- 
low the  rule  for  the  Sequence  of  Tenses  (§  482).  They  depend  for 
their  sequence  on  the  verb  of  saying  etc.  by  which  the  Indirect 
Discourse  is  introduced. 

Thus  in  the  sentence,  dixit  se  Romam  iturum  ut  consulem  videret,  he  said  he 
should  go  to  Rome  in  order  that  he  might  see  the  consul,  videret  follows  the  sequence 
of  dixit  without  regard  to  the  Future  Infinitive,  iturum  [esse],  on  which  it  directly 
depends. 

Note.  — This  rule  applies  to  the  subjunctive  in  subordinate  cla"uses,  to  that  which 
stands  for  the  imperative  etc.  (see  examples,  §  588),  and  to  that  in  questions  (§  586). 

a,  A  subjunctive  depending  on  a  Perfect  Infinitive  is  often  in  the 
Imperfect  or  Pluperfect,  even  if  the  verb  of  saying  etc.  is  in  a  pri- 
mary tense  (cf.  §  485.  j);  so  regularly  when  these  tenses  would  have 
been  used  in  Direct  Discourse  :  — 


380  SYNTAX:    SUBSTANTIVE   CLAUSES  [§§585,586 

Tarquinium  dixisse  ferunt  turn  exsulantem  se  intellexisse  quos  fidos  amicos 
habuisset  (Lael.  53),  they  tell  us  that  Tarquin  said  that  then  in  his  exile 
he  had  found  out  what  faithful  friends  he  had  had.     [Here  the  main  verb 
of  saying,  ferunt,  is  primary,  but  the  time  is  carried  back  by  dixisse  and 
intellexisse,  and  the  sequence  then  becomes  secondary.] 
tantum  profecisse  videmur  ut  a  Graecis  ne  verborum  quidem  copia  vinceremur 
(N.  D.  i.  8),  we  seem  to  have  advanced  so  far  that  even  in  abundance  of 
words  we  are  not  surpassed  by  the  Greeks. 
Note  1.  — The  proper  sequence  may  be  seen,  in  each  case,  by  turning  the  Perfect 
Infinitive  into  that  tense  of  the  Indicative  which  it  represents.    Thus,  if  it  stands  for 
an  imperfect  or  an  historical  perfect,  the  sequence  will  be  secondary ;  if  it  stands  for 
a  perfect  definite,  the  sequence  may  be  either  primary  or  secondary  (§  485.  a). 

Note  2. — The  so-called  imperfect  infinitive  after  memini  (§584.  a.  n.)  takes  the 
secondary  sequence:  as,  — ad  me  adire  quosdam  memini,  qui  dicerent  (Fam.  iii.  10.  6),  I 
remember  that  some  persons  visited  me,  to  tell  me,  etc. 

h.  The  Present  and  Perfect  Subjunctive  are  often  used  in  depend- 
ent clauses  of  the  Indirect  Discourse  even  when  the  verb  of  saying 
etc.  is  in  a  secondary  tense :  — 

dicebant  .  .  .  totidem  Nervios  (pollicerl)  qui  longissimg  absint  (B.  G.  ii.  4), 
they  said  that  the  Nervii,  who  live  farthest  off,  promised  as  many. 

Note.  —  This  construction  comes  from  the  tendency  of  language  to  refer  all  time 
in  narration  to  the  time  of  the  speaker  {repraesentatio) .  In  the  course  of  a  long  pas- 
sage in  the  Indirect  Discourse  the  tenses  of  the  subjunctive  often  vary,  sometimes  fol- 
lowing the  sequence,  and  sometimes  affected  by  repraesentatio.  Examples  may  be 
seen  in  B.  G.  i.  13,  vii.  20,  etc. 

Certain  constructions  are  never  affected  by  repraesentatio.  Such  are  the  Imperfect 
and  Pluperfect  Subjunctive  with  cum  temporal,  antequam,  and  priusquam. 


Questions  in  Indirect  Discourse 

586.  A  Question  in  Indirect  Discourse  may  be  either  in  the 
Subjunctive  or  in  the  Infinitive  with  Subject  Accusative. 

A  real  question^  asking  for  an  answer,  is  generally  put  in  the 
Subjunctive  ;  a  rhetorical  question,  asked  for  effeot  and  implying 
its  own  answer,  is  put  in  the  Infinitive :  — 

quid  sibi  vellet  ?  ctir  in  suas  posscssiones  veniret  (B.  G.  i.  44),  what  did  he 
want?  why  did  he  come  into  his  territories?  [Real  question.  Direct: 
quid  vis  ?  cur  venis  ?] 

num  recentiura  iniuriarum  memoriam  [se]  dcponere  posse  (id.  i.  14),  could 
he  lay  a^ide  the  memory  of  recent  wrongs?  [Rhetorical  Question. 
Direct :  num  possum  ?] 

quem  signum  daturum  fugientibus  ?  quern  ausurum  Alexandre  succedere  (Q.  C. 
iii.  5.  7),  who  will  give  the  signal  on  the  retreat?  who  will  dare  succeed 
Alexander?     [Rhetorical.     Direct:  quis  dabit  .  .  .  audebit.] 


§§586-589]  COMMANDS   IN   INDIRECT   DISCOURSE  381 

Note  1.  — No  sharp  line  can  be  drawn  between  the  Subjunctive  and  the  Infinitive 
in  questions  in  the  Indirect  Discourse.  Whether  the  question  is  to  be  regarded  as 
rhetorical  or  real  often  depends  merely  on  the  writer's  point  of  view :  — 

utrum  partem  regni  petiturum  esse,  an  totum  erepturuia  (Liv.  xlv.  19. 15),  will  you 

ask  part  of  the  regal  poioer  (he  said) ,  or  seize  the  lohole  ? 
quid  tandem  praetoii  faciendum  fuisse  (id.  xxxi.  48),  what,  pray,  ought  aprxtor  to 

have  done  ? 
quid  repente  factum  [esse]  cur,  etc.  (id.  xxxiv.  5i),  what  had  suddenly  happened, 
that,  etc.? 
Note  2.  —  Questions  coming  immediately  after  a  verb  of  asking  are  treated  as  Indi- 
rect Questions  and  take  the  Subjunctive  (see  §  574).    This  is  true  even  when  the  verb 
of  asking  serves  also  to  introduce  a  passage  in  the  Indirect  Discourse.    The  question 
may  be  either  real  or  rhetorical.     See  quaesivit,  etc.  (Liv.  xxxvii.  15). 
For  the  use  of  tenses,  see  §  585. 

587.  A  Deliberative  Subjunctive  (§  444)  in  the  Direct  Dis- 
course is  always  retained  in  the  Indirect :  — 

cur  aliquos  ex  suls  amitteret  (B.  C.  i.  72),  why  (thought  he)  fthould  he  lose 
some  of  his  men  ?     [Direct :  cur  amittam  ?] 

Commands  in  Indirect  Discourse 

588.  All  Imperative  forms  of  speech  take  the  Subjunctive  in 
Indirect  Discourse :  — 

reminisceretur  veteris  incommodi  (B.  G.  i.  13),  remember  (said  he)  the  ancient 

disaster.     [Direct:  reminiscere.] 
finem  facial  (id.  i.  20),  let  him  make  an  end.     [Direct:  fac] 
ferrent  opem,  adiuvarent  (Liv.  ii.  6),  let  them  bring  aid,  let  them  help. 

a.  This  rule  applies  not  only  to  the  Imperative  of  the  direct  dis- 
course, but  to  the  Hortatory  and  the  Optative  Subjunctive  as  well. 

Note  1.  —  Though  these  subjunctives  stand  for  independent  clauses  of  the  direct 
discourse,  they  follow  the  rule  for  the  sequence  of  tenses,  being  in  fact  dependent  on 
the  verb  of  saying  etc.  (cf.  §§  483,  585). 

Note  2.  —  A  Prohibition  in  the  Indirect  Discourse  is  regularly  expressed  by  ne  with 
the  present  or  imperfect  subjunctive,  even  when  noli  with  the  infinitive  would  be  used 
in  the  Direct:  as,  —  ne  pejturbarentur  (B.  G.  vii.  29),  do  not  (he  said)  be  troubled. 
[Direct:  nolite  perturbari.     But  sometimes  nollet  is  found  in  Indirect  Discourse.] 

Conditions  in  Indirect  Discourse 

589.  Conditional  sentences  in  Indirect  Discourse  are  expressed 
as  follows :  — 

1.  The  Protasis,  being  a  subordinate  clause,  is  always  in  the 
Subjunctive. 

2.  The  JV  podosis,  if  independent  and  not  hortatory  or  optative, 
is  always  in  some  form  of  the  Infinitive. 


382  SYNTAX:    SUBSTANTIVE   CLAUSES  [§689 

a.  The  Present  Subjunctive  in  the  apodosis  of  less  vivid  future 
conditions  (§  516.  h)  becomes  the  Future  Infinitive  like  the  Futui-e 
Indicative  in  the  apodosis  of  more  vivid  future  conditions. 

Thus  there  is  no  distinction  between  more  and  less  vivid  future 
conditions  in  the  Indirect  Discourse.  * 

Examples  of  Conditional  Sentences  in  Indirect  Discourse  are  — 

1.  Simple  Present  Condition  (§515):  — 

(dixit)  si  ipse  populo  Romano  non  praescriberet  quern  ad  modum  suo  iure 
titeretur,  non  oportere  sese  a  populo  R5mano  in  suo  iure  impediri  (B.  G, 
1.  36),  lie  said  that  if  he  did  not  dictate  to  the  Roman  peojjle  how  they 
should  use  their  rights,  he  ought  not  to  be  interfered  with  by  the  Roman 
'people  in  the  exercise  of  his  rights.  [Direct :  si  non  praescribd  .  .  .  non 
oportet.] 

praedicavit  ...  si  pace  titi  velint,  iniquum  esse,  etc.  (id.  i.  44),  he  assei'ted 
that  if  they  wished  to  enjoy  peace,  it  was  unfair,  etc.  [Direct:  si  volunt 
.  .  ,  est.     Present  tense  kept  by  repraesentdtio  (§  685.  b.  n.).] 

2.  Simple  Past  Condition  (§  515):  — 

non  dicam  ne  illud  quidem,  si  maxime  in  culpa  fuerit  Apollonius,  tamen  in 
hominem  lionestissimae  civitatis  honestissimum  tain  graviter  aniinad- 
verti,  causa  indicta,  non  oportuisse  (Verr.  v.  20),  I  will  not  say  this 
either,  that,  even  if  Apollonius  was  very  greatly  in  fault,  still  an  honorable 
man  from  an  honorable  state  ought  not  to  have  been  punished  so  severely 
without  having  his  case  heard.     [Direct:  si  fuit .  .  .  non  oportuit.] 

3.  Future  Conditions  (§  516):  — 

(dixit)  quod  si  praeterea  nemo  sequatur,  tamen  se  cum  sola  decimalegione 
iturum  (B.  G.  i.  40),  but  if  nobody  else  should  follow,  still  he  would  go 
withthe  tenth  legion  alone.  [Direct :  si  sequetur  .  .  .  ibo.  Present  tense 
by  repraesentatio  (§  585.  b.  n.).] 

Haeduls  se  obsides  reddittirum  non  esse,  neque  eis  .  .  .  bellum  illaturum,  si 
in  eo  manerent,  quod  convenisset,  stipendiumque  quotannis  penderent : 
si  id  non  fecissent,  longe  els  fraternum  nomen  populi  R^mani  afutu- 
rum  (id.  i.  36),  he  said  that  he  would  not  give  up  the  hostages  to  the 
Haedui,  but  would  not  make  war  upon  them  if  they  observed  the  agreement 
which  had  been  made,  and  paid  tribute  yearly ;  but  that,  if  they  should 
not  do  this,  the  name  of  brothers  to  the  Roman  people  would  be  far  from 
aiding  them.  [Direct :  reddam  .  .  .  inferam  ...  si  manebunt  .  .  .  pen- 
dent :  si  non  f ecerint  .  .  .  aberit.  ] 

id  Datames  ut  audivit,  sensit,  si  in  turbam  exisset  ab  homine  tam  necessa- 
rio  se  relictum,  futurum  [esse]  ut  ceteri  consilium  sequantur  (Nep.  Dat. 
6),  when  Datames  heard  this,  he  saw  that,  if  it  should  get  abroad  that  he 
had  been  abandoned  by  a  man  so  closely  connected  with  him,  everybody 
else  would  follow  his  example.     [Direct :  si  exierit  .  .  .  sequentur.  ] 


§589]  CONDITIONS  IN   INDIRECT  DISCOURSE  383 

(putaverunt)  nisi  me  civitate  expulissent,  obtinere  se  non  posse  licentiam 
cupiditatum  suarum  (Att.  x.  4),  they  thought  that  unless  they  drove  me 
out  of  the  state,  they  could  not  have  free  play  for  their  desires.  [Direct  .- 
nisi  (Ciceronem)  expulerimus,  obtinere  non  poterimus.] 

b.  In  changing  a  Condition  contrary  to  fact  (§  517)  into  the  Indi- 
rect Discourse,  the  following  points  require  notice  :  — 

1.  The  Protasis  always  remains  unchanged  in  tense. 

2.  The  Apodosis,  if  active,  takes  a  peculiar  infinitive  form,  made  by  com- 
bining the  Participle  in  -iirus  with  fuisse. 

3.  If  the  verb  of  the  Apodosis  \.s  passive  or  has  no  supine  stem,  the  pe- 
riphrasis futunim  fuisse  ut  (with  the  Imperfect  Subjunctive)  must  be  used. 

4.  An  Indicative  in  the  Apodosis  becomes  a  Perfect  Infinitive. 
Examples  are :  — 

nee  se  superstitem  filiae  futiirum  fuisse^  nisi  spem  iilciscendae  mortis  eius 
in  auxilio  commilitonum  habuisset  (Liv.  iii.  50.  7),  and  that  he  should 
not  now  he  a  survivor,  etc.,  unless  he  had  had  hope,  etc.  [Direct:  n5n 
superstes  essem,  nisi  habuissem.} 

illud  Asia  cogitet,  ntillam  a  se  neque  belli  externi  n.eque  discordiarum  do- 
mesticarum  calamitatem  afuturam  fuisse,  si  hoc  imperio  non  teneretur 
(Q.  Fr.  i.  1,  34),  let  Asia  (personified)  think  of  this,  that  no  disaster,  etc., 
would  not  be  hers,  if  she  were  not  held  by  this  government.  [Direct  s 
abesset,  si  non  tenerer.] 

quid  inimlcitiarum  creditis  [me]  exceptiirum  fuisse,  si  insontls  lacessissem 
(Q.  C.  vi.  10.  18),  what  enmities  do  you  think  I  should  have  incurred,  if 
I  had  wantonly  assailed  the  innocent  ?     [excepissem  ...  si  lacessissem.] 

invitum  se  dicere,  nee  dictiirum  fuisse,  ni  caritas  rei^  piiblicae  vinceret  (Liv. 
ii.  2),  that  he  spoke  unwillingly  and  should  not  have  spoken,  did  not  love 
for  the  state  prevail.     [Direct:  nee  dixissem  .  .  .  ni  vinceret.] 

nisi  eo  teinpore  quidam  nuntii  de  Caesaris  victoria  .  .  .  essent  allati,  existi- 
mabant  plerique  futurum  fuisse  uti  [oppidum]  amitteretur  (B.  C.  iii.  101), 
most  people  thought  that  unless  at  that  time  reports  of  Caesaris  victory 
had  been  brought,  the  town  would  have  been  lost.  [Direct:  nisi  essent 
allati  .  .  .  amissum  esset.] 

quorum  si  aetas  potuisset  esse  longinquior,  futurum  fuisse  ut  omnibus  per- 
feetis  artibus  hominum  vita  erudiretur  (Tuse.  iii.  69),  if  life  could  have 
been  longer,  human  existence  would  have  been  embellished  by  every  art  in 
its  perfection.  [Direct:  si  potuisset  .  .  .  erudita  esset.] 
■^^  at  plerique  existimant,  si  acrius  insequi  voluisset,  bellum  eo  die  potuisse 
finire  (B.  C.  iii.  51),  but  most  people  think  that,  if  he  had  chosen  to  follow 
up  the  pursuit  more  vigorously,  he  could  have  ended  the  war  on  that  day. 
[Direct:  si  voluisset  .  .  .  potuit.] 
^-  Caesar  respondit  ...  si  alicuius  iniuriae  sibi  conscius  fuisset,  non  fuisse  dif- 
ficile cavere  (B.  G.  i.  14),  CcBsar  replied  that  if  [the  Roman  people]  had 
been  aware  of  any  wrong  act,  it  would  not  have  been  hard  for  them  to  takf 
precautions.     [Direct:  si  fuisset,  non  difficile  fuit  (§  517.  c).] 


384  SYNTAX:    SUBSTANTIVE   CLAUSES  [§§689-691 

Note  1.  —  In  Indirect  Discourse  Present  Conditions  contrary  to  fact  are  not  dis- 
tinguished in  the  apodosis  from  Past  Conditions  contrary  to  fact,  but  the  protasis  may 
keep  them  distinct. 

Note  2.  —  The  periphrasis  f uturum  f uisse  ut  is  sometimes  used  from  choice  when 
there  is  no  necessity  for  resorting  to  it,  but  not  in  Caesar  or  Cicero. 

Note  3.  —  Very  rarely  the  Future  Infinitive  is  used  in  the  Indirect  Discourse  to  ex- 
press the  Apodosis  of  a  Present  Condition  contrary  to  fact.  Only  four  or  five  examples 
of  this  use  occur  in  classic  authors ;  as,  —  Titurius  clamabat  si  Caesar  adesset  neque 
Carnutes,  etc.,  neque  Eburones  tanta  cum  contemptione  nostra  ad  castra  ventures  esse 
(B.  G.  V.  29),  Titurius  cried  out  that  if  Csesar  were  present,  neither  would,  the  Car- 
nutes, etc.,  nor  would  the  Eburones  be  coming  to  our  camp  with  such  contempt. 
[Direct:  si  adesset  .  .  .  venirent.] 

590.  The  following  example  illustrates  some  of  the  foregoing 
principles  in  a  connected  address :  — 

INDIRECT    DISCOURSE  DIRECT   DISCOURSE 

Si  pacem  populus   Romanus  cum  Si  pacem   populus   Romanus  cum 

Helvetiis  faceret,  in  earn  partem  ituros  Helvetils  faciei,  in  earn  partem  ibunt 

atque   ibi    futures   Helvetios,    ubi    eos  atque    ibi   erunt   Helvetii,   ubi  eos  tii 

Caesar  constituisset  atque  esse  voluis-  constitueris    atque    esse    volueris :    sin 

set :    sin    bello   persequi   perseveraret,  bello  persequi  perseverabis,  reminiscere 

reminisceretur    et    veteris    incommodi  [inquit]  et  veteris  incommodi  populi 

populi    Romani,    et   pristinae  virtutis  Roman!,   et  pristinae  virttitis  Helve- 

Helvetiorum.     Quod  improviso  tinum  tiorum.    Quod  improviso  tinum  pagum 

pagum  adortus  esset,  cum  ei  qui  fliimen  adortus  es,  cum  ei  qui  flumen  transie- 

transissent  suls  auxilium  ferre  non  pes-  rant  suls  auxilium  ferre  non  possent,  ne 

sent,  ne  ob  earn  rem  aut  suae  magno  ob  eam  rem  aut  tuae  magno  opere  vir- 

opere  virtiiti  tribueret,  -fiut  ipsos  despi-  tut!  tribueris,  aut  nos  despexeris :  nos 

ceret :  se  ita  a  patribus  maioribusque  ita  a  patribus  m§,ioribusque  nostris  didi- 

suis  didicisse,   ut  magis  virtute  quam  cimus,  ut  magis  virtute  quam  dolo  con- 

dolo  contendereut,  aut  insidiis  niteren-  tendamus,  aut  insidiis  nitamur.     Qua  re 

tut.     Qua  re  ne  committeret,  ut  is  locus  noli  committere,  ut  hie  locus  ubi  consti- 

ubi  constidssent  ex  calamitate  populi  timus  ex  calamitate  populi  Romani  et 

Romani  et  interneclone  exercitus  no-  internecione  exercitus  nomen  capiat, 

men  caperet,  aut   nemoriam  proderet.  aut  memoriam  prodat. 
—  B.  G.  i.  13. 

Intermediate  Clauses 

591.  A  Subordinate  clause  takes  the  Subjunctive  — 

1.  When  it  expresses  the  thought  of  some  other  person  than  the 
speaker  or  writer  (Informal  Indirect  Discourse),  or 

2.  When  it  is  an  integral  part  of  a  Subjunctive  clause  or  equivar 
lent  Infinitive  (Atti-actioii)} 

'•  See  note  on  Indirect  Discourse  (§  577). 


§  692]  INFORMAL   INDIRECT   DISCOURSE  386 

Informal  Indirect  Discourse 

592.  A  Subordinate  Clause  takes  the  Subjunctive  when  it 
expresses  the  thought  of  some  other  person  than  the  writer  or 
speaker :  — 

1.  When  the  clause  depends  upon  another  containing  a  wish,  a 
command,  or  a  question,  expressed  indirectly,  though  not  strictly  in 
the  form  of  Indirect  Discourse  :  — 

animal  sentit  quid  sit  quod  deceat  (Off.  i.  14),  an  animal  feels  what  it  is  that 
is  Jit. 

huic  imperat  quas  possit  adeat  civitates  (B.  G.  iv.  21),  he  orders  him  to  visit 
what  states  he  can. 

hunc  sibi  ex  animo  scrupulum,  qui  se  dies  noctlsque  stimulat  ac  pungit,  ut 
evellatis  postulat  (Rose.  Am.  6),  he  begs  you  to  pluck  from  his  heart  this 
doubt  that  goads  and  stings  him  day  and  night.  [Here  the  relative 
clause  is  not  a  part  of  the  Purpose  expressed  in  evellatis,  but  is  an 
assertion  made  by  the  subject  of  postulat.] 

2.  When  the  main  clause  of  a  quotation  is  merged  in  the  verb  of 
sayiiig,  or  some  modifier  of  it :  — 

si  quid  de  his  rebus  dlcere  vellet,  feci  potestatem  (Cat.  iii.  11),  if  he  wished 
to  say  anything  about  these  matters.^  I  gave  him  a  chance. 

tulit  de  caede  quae  in  Appia  via  facta  esset  (Mil.  15),  he  passed  a  law  con- 
cerning the  ynurder  which  (in  the  language  of  the  bill)  took  place  in  the 
Appian  Way. 

nisi  restituissent  statuas,  vehementer  minatur  (Verr.  ii.  162),  he  threatens  them 
violently  unless  they  should  restore  the  statues.  [Here  the  main  clause, 
"that  he  will  inflict  punishment,"  is  contained  in  minatur.] 

ils  auxilium  suum  pollicitus  si  ab  Suebis  premerentur  (B.  G.  iv.  19),  he 
promised  them  his  aid  if  they  should  be  molested  by  the  Suevi.  [=  polli- 
citus se  auxilium  laturum,  etc.] 

prohibitio  tollendi,  nisi  pactus  esset,  vim  adhibebat  paction!  (Verr.  iii.  37), 
the  forbidding  to  take  away  unless  he  came  to  terms  gave  force  to  the 
bargain. 

3.  When  a  reason  or  an  explanatory  fact  is  introduced  by  a  rela 
tive  or  by  quod  (rarely  quia)  (see  §  540) :  — 

Paetus  omnis  libros  qu5s  f rater  suus  reliquisset  mihi  donavit  (Att.  ii.  1.  12), 
Pcetus  presented  to  me  all  the  books  which  (he  said)  his  brother  had  left. 

Note.  —  Under  this  head  even  what  the  speaker  himself  thought  under  other  cir- 
cumstances may  have  the  Subjunctive.  So  also  with  quod  even  the  verb  of  saying  may 
be  in  the  Subjunctive  (§  540.  n.  2).  Here  belong  also  non  quia,  non  quod,  introducing  a 
reason  expressly  to  deny  it.     (See  §  540.  n.  ^.) 


386  SYNTAX :    INTERMEDIATE   CLAUSES 


[§  593 


Subjunctive  of  Integral  Part  (Attraction) 

593.  A  clause  depending  upon  a  Subjunctive  clause  or  an 
equivalent  Infinitive  will  itself  take  the  Subjunctive  if  regarded 
as  an  integral  part  of  that  clause  :  —  ^ 

imperat,  dum  res  iudicetur,  hominem  adservent :  cum  itidicata  sit,  ad  se  ut 
addticant  (Verr.  iii.  55),  he  orders  tliem^  till  the  affair  should  be  decided, 
to  keep  the  man;  when  it  is  judged,  to  bring  him,  to  him. 

etenim  quis  tam  dissoluto  animo  est,  qui  haec  cum  videat,  tacere  ac  neglegere 
possit  (Rose.  Am.  32), /or  who  is  so  reckless  of  spirit  that,  vihen  he  sees 
these  things,  he  can  keep  silent  and  pass  them  by  ? 

mos  est  Athenis  laudari  in  contione  eos  qui  sint  in  proelils  interfecti  (Or. 
151),  it  is  the  custom  at  Athens  for  those  to  be  publicly  eulogized  who 
have  been  slain  in  battle.     [Here  laudari  is  equivalent  to  ut  laudentur.] 

a.  But  a  dependent  clause  may  be  closely  connected  grammatically 
with  a  Subjunctive  or  Infinitive  clause,  and  still  take  the  Indicative, 
if  it  is  not  regarded  as  a  necessary  logical  part  of  that  clause  :  — 

quodam  modo  postulat  ut,  quern  ad  modum  est,  sic  etiam  appelletur,  tyrannus 
(Att.  X.  4.  2),  in  a  manner  he  demands  that  as  he  is,  so  he  may  be  called, 
a  tyrant. 

nattira  fert  ut  els  faveamus  qui  eadem  pericula  quibus  nos  perfuncti  sumus 
ingrediuntur  (Mur.  4),  nature  prompts  us  to  feel  friendly  towards  those 
who  are  entering  on  the  same  dangers  which  we  have  passed  through. 

ne  hostes,  quod  tantum  multittidine  poterant,  suos  circumvenire  possent 
(B.  G.  ii.  8),  lest  the  enemy,  because  they  were  so  strong  in  numbers,  should 
be  able  to  surround  his  men. 

si  mea  in  te  essent  officia  solum  tanta  quanta  magis  a  te  ipso  praedicarl 
quam  a  me  ponderarl  solent,  verecundius  a  te  .  .  .  peterem  (Fam.  ii.  6), 
if  my  good  services  to  you  were  only  so  great  as  they  are  wont  rather  to 
be  called  by  you  than  to  be  estimated  by  me,  I  should,  etc. 

Note  1.  —  The  use  of  the  Indicative  in  such  clauses  sometimes  serves  to  emphasize 
the  fact,  as  true  independently  of  the  statement  contained  in  the  subjunctive  or  infini- 
tive clause.    But  in  many  cases  no  such  distinction  is  perceptible. 

Note  2.  —  It  is  often  difficult  to  distinguish  between  Informal  Indirect  Discourse 
and  the  Integral  Part:  Thus  in  imperavit  ut  ea  fierent  quae  opus  essent,  essent  may 
stand  for  sunt,  and  then  will  be  Indirect  Discourse,  being  a  part  of  the  thought,  but 
not  a  part  of  the  order ;  or  it  may  stand  for  erunt,  and  then  will  be  Integral  Part,  being 
a  part  of  the  order  itself.  The  difficulty  of  making  the  distinction  in  such  cases  is 
evidence  of  the  close  relationship  between  these  two  constructions. 

1  The  subjunctive  in  this  use  is  of  the  same  nature  as  the  subjunctive  in  the  main 
clause.  A  dependent  clause  in  a  clause  of  purpose  is  really  a  part  of  the  purpose,  as 
is  seen  from  the  use  of  should  and  other  auxiliaries  in  English.  In  a  result  clause  this 
is  less  clear,  but  the  result  construction  is  a  branch  of  the  characteristic  (§  534) ,  to 
which  category  the  dependent  clause  in  this  case  evidently  belongs  when  it  takes  the 
subjunctivBo 


594]  SYNTAX:  IMPORTANT  RULES  387 

594.  IMPORTANT  RULES  OF  SYNTAX 

1.  A  noun  used  to  describe  another,  and  denoting  the  same  person  or 

thing,  agrees  with  it  in  Case  (§  282). 

2.  Adjectives,  Adjective  Pronouns,   and  Participles  agree   vyith  their 

nouns  in  Gender,  Number,  and  Case  (§  286). 

3.  Superlatives  (more  rarely  Comparatives)  denoting  order  and  succes- 

sion—  also  medius,  (ceterus),  reliquus  —  usually  designate  not  what 
object,  but  what  part  of  it,  is  meant  (§  293). 

4.  The  Personal  Pronouns  have  two  forms  for  the  genitive  plural,  that 

in  -um  being  used' pariitively,  and  that  in  -i  oftenest  objectively 
(§  295.  b). 

5.  The  Reflexive  Pronoun  (se),  and  usually  the  corresponding  possessive 

(suus),  are  used  in  the  predicate  to  refer  to  the  subject  of  the  sen- 
tence or  clause  (§  299). 

6.  To  express  Possession  and  similar  ideas  the  Possessive  Pronouns 

must  be  used,  not  the  genitive  of  the  personal  or  reflexive  pro- 
nouns (§  302.  a). 

7.  A  Possessive  Pronoun  or  an  Adjective  implying  possession  may  take 

an  appositive  in  the  genitive  case  agreeing  in  gender,  number,  and 
case  with  an  implied  noun  or  pronoun  (§  302.  e). 

8.  A  Relative  Pronoun  agrees  with  its  Antecedent  in  Gender  and  Num- 

ber, but  its  Case  depends  on  its  construction  in  the  clause  in 
which  it  stands  (§  305). 

9.  A  Finite  Verb  agrees  with  its  Subject  in  Number  and  Person  (§  316). 

10.  Adverbs  are  used  to  modify  Yerbs,  Adjectives,  and  other  Adverbs 

(§  321). 

11.  A  Question  of  simple  fact,  requiring  the  answer  yes  or  no,  is  formed 

by  adding  the  enclitic  -ne  to  the  emphatic  word  (§  332). 

12.  When  the  enclitic  -ne  is  added  to  a  negative  word,  —  as  in  nonne,  — 

an  affirmative  answer  is  expected.     The  particle  num  suggests  a 
negative  answer  (§  332.  &). 

18.  The  Subject  of  a  finite  verb  is  in  the  Nominative  (§  339). 

14.  The  Vocative  is  the  case  of  direct  address  (§  340). 

15.  A  noun  used  to  limit  or  define  another,  and  not  meaning  the  same 

person  or  thing,  is  put  in  the  Genitive  (§  342). 

16.  The  Possessive  Genitive  denotes  the  person  or  thing  to  which  an 

object,  quality,  feeling,  or  action  belongs  (§  343). 


388  SYNTAX  :    IMPORTANT  RULES  [§  594 

17.  The  genitive  may  denote  the  Substance  or  Material  of  which  a 

thing  consists  (§  344). 

18.  The  genitive  is  used  to  denote  Quality,  but  only  when  the  quality  is 

modified  by  an  adjective  (§  345). 

19.  Words  denoting  a  part  are  followed  by  the  Genitive  of  the  lohole  to 

which  the  part  belongs  {Partitive  Genitive,  §  346). 

20.  Nouns  of  action,  agency,  and  feeling  goYeTn  the  Genitive  of  the  object 

{Objective  Genitive,  §  348). 

21.  Adjectives  denoting  desire,  knowledge,  memory,  fulness,  power,  sharing, 

guilt,  and  their  opposites  ;  participles  in  -ns  when  used  as  adjectives; 
and  verbals  in  -ax,  govern  the  Genitive  (§  349.  a,  b,  c). 

22.  Verbs  of  remembering  and  forgetting  take  either  the  Accusative  or 

the  Genitive  of  the  object  (§  350). 

23.  Verbs  of  reminding  take  with  the  Accusative  of  the  person  a  Genitive 

of  the  thing  (§  351). 

24.  Verbs  of  accusing,  condemning,  and  acquitting  take  the  Genitive  of 

the  charge  oi penalty  (§  352). 

25.  The  Dative  is  used  of  the  object  indirectly  affected  by  an  action 

{Indirect  Object,  §  361). 

26.  Many  verbs  signifying  to  favor,  help,  please,  trust,  and  their  contraries  ; 

also,  to  believe,  persuade,  comynand,  obey,  serve,  resist,  envy,  threaten, 
pardon,  and  spare,  take  the  Dative  (§  367). 

27.  Many  verbs  compounded  with  ad,  ante,  con,  in,  inter,  ob,  post,  prae, 

pro,  sub,  super,  and  some  with  circum,  admit  the  Dative  of  the 
indirect  object  (§  370). 

28.  The  Dative  is  used  with  esse  and  similar  words  to  denote  Possession 

(§  373). 

29.  The  Dative  of  the  Agent  is  used  with  the  Gerundive,  to  denote  the 

person  on  whom  the  necessity  rests  (§  374). 

30.  The  Dative  often  depends,  not  on  any  particular  word,  but  on  the 

general  meaning  of  the  sentence  {Dative  of  Reference,  §  376). 

31.  Many  verbs  of  taking  away  and  the  like  take  the  Dative  (especially 

of  a  person)  instead  of  the  Ablative  of  Separation  (§  381). 

32.  The  Dative  is  used  to  denote  the  Purpose  or  End,  often  with  another 

Dative  of  the  person  or  thing  aifected  (§  382). 

33.  The  Dative  is  used  with  adjectives  (and  a  few  adverbs)  of  fitness, 

nearness,  likeness,  service,  inclination,  and  their  opposites  (§  384). 


594]  SYNTAX:    IMPOETANT  RULES  389 

34.  The  Direct  Object  of   a  transitive  verb  is  put  in  the  Accusative 

(§  387). 

35.  An  intransitive  verb  often  takes  the  Accusative  of  a  noun  of  kindred 

meaning,  usually  modified  by  an  adjective  or  in  some  other  man- 
ner {^Cognate  Accusative,  §  390). 

36.  Verbs  of  Jiaming,  choosing^  appointing,  making,  esteeming,  showing,  and 

the  like,  may  take  a  Predicate  Accusative  along  with  the  direct 
object  (§  393). 

37.  Transitive  verbs  compounded  with  prepositions  sometimes  take  (in 

addition  to  the  direct  object)  a  Secondary  Object,  originally  gov- 
erned by  the  preposition  (§  394). 

38.  Some  verbs  of  asking  and  teaching  may  take  two  Accusatives,  one  of 

the  Person,  and  the  other  of  the  Thing  (§  396). 

39.  The  subject  of  an  Infinitive  is  in  the  Accusative  (§  397.  e). 

40.  Duration  of  Time  and  Extent  of  Space  are  expressed  by  the  Accusa- 

tive (§§  424.  c,  425). 

41.  Words  signifying  separation  or  privation  are  followed  by  the  Abla- 

tive (^Ablative  of  Separation,  §  400). 

42.  The  Ablative,  usually  with  a  preposition,  is  used  to  denote  the  source 

from  which  anj^thing  is  derived  or  the  material  of  which  it  consists 
(§  403). 

43.  The  Ablative,  with  or  without  a  preposition,  is  used  to  express  cause 

(§  404). 

44.  The  Voluntary  Agent  after  a  passive  verb  is  expressed  by  the  Abla- 

tive with  a  or  ab  (§  405). 

45.  The  Comparative  degree  is  often  follow^ed  by  the  Ablative  signifying 

than  (§  406). 

46.  The  Comparative  may  be  followed  by  quam,  than.     When  quam  is 

used,  the  two  things  compared  are  put  in  the  same  case  (§  407). 

47.  The  Ablative  is  used  to  denote  the  means  or  instrument  of  an  action 

(§  409). 

48.  The  deponents,  utor,  fnior,  fungor,  potior,  and  vescor,  with  several  of 

their  compounds,  govern  the  Ablative  (§  410). 

49.  Opus  and  usus,  signifying  need,  are  followed  by  the  Ablative  (§  411). 

50.  The  manner  of  an  action  is  denoted  by  the  Ablative,  usually  with 

cum  unless  a  limiting  adjective  is  used  with  the  noun  (§  412). 


390  SYNTAX:    IMPORTANT   RULES  [§594 

51.  Accompaniment    is    denoted   by    the    Ablative,   regularly  with   cum 

(§  413). 

52.  With  Comparatives  and  words  implying  comparison  the  Ablative  is 

used  to  denote  the  degree  of  difference  (§  414). 

53.  The  quality  of  a  thing  is  denoted  by  the  Ablative  with  an  adjective 

or  genitive  Modifier  (§  415). 

54.  The  price  of  a  thing  is  put  in  the  Ablative  (§  416), 

55.  The  Ablative  of  Specification  denotes  that  in  respect  to  which  any- 

thing is  or  is  done  (§  418). 

56.  The  adjectives  dignus  and  indignus  take  the  Ablative  (§  418.  h). 

57.  A  noun  or  pronoun,  with  a  participle  in  agreement,  may  be  put  in 

the  Ablative  to  define  the  time  or  circumstances  of  an  action 
(Ablative  Absolute,-^  419). 

An  adjective,  or  a  second  noun,  may  take  the  place  of  the  participle  in  the 
ablative  absolute  construction  (§  419.  a) . 

58.  Time  when,  or  within  which,  is  denoted  by  the  Ablative ;  time  how 

long  by  the  Accusative  (§  423). 

59.  Relations  of  Place  are  expressed  as  follows:  — 

1.  T\iQ  place  from  which,  by  the  Ablative  with  ab,  de,  ex. 

2.  The  place  to  which  (or  end  of  motion'),  by  the  Accusative  with 

ad  or  in. 

3.  The  place  where,  by  the  Ablative  with  in  {Locative  Ablative). 

(§  426.) 

60.  With  names  of  towns  and  small  islands,  and  with  domus  and  riis,  the 

relations  of  place  are  expressed  as  follows :  — 

1.  The  place  from  which,  by  the  Ablative  without  a  preposition. 

2.  T\iQ  place  to  vjhich,  by  the  Accusative  without  a  preposition. 

3.  The  place  where,  by  the  Locative.     (§  427.) 

61.  The  Hortatory  Subjunctive  is  used  in  the  present  tense  to  express 

an  exhortation,  a  command,  or  a  concession  (§§  439,  440). 

62.  The  Optative  Subjunctive  is  used  to  express  a  tvish.     The  present 

tense  denotes  the  wish  as  possible,  the  imperfect  as  unaccomplished 
in  present  time,  the  pluperfect  as  unaccomplished  in  past  time 
(§  441). 

63.  The  Subjunctive  is  used  in  questions  implying  (1)  doxdit,  indignation, 

or  (2)  an  impossibility  of  the  thing's  being  done  {Deliberative  Sub- 
junctive, §  444). 


594]  SYNTAX.    IMPORTANT   RULES  391 

64.  The  Potential  Subjunctive  is  used  to  suggest  an  action  as  possible  or 

conceivable  (§  446). 

65.  The  Imperative  is  used  in  commands  and  entreaties  (§  448). 

66.  Prohibition  is  regularly  expressed  in  classic  prose  (1)  by  noli  with  the 

Infinitive,  (2)  by  cave  with  the  Present  Subjunctive,  (3)  by  ne  with 
the  Perfect  Subjunctive  (§  450). 

67.  The  Infinitive,  with  or  without  a  subject  accusative,  may  be  used 

with  est  and  similar  verbs  (1)  as  the  Subject,  (2)  in  Apposition  with 
the  subject,  or  (3)  as  a  Predicate  Nominative  (§  452). 

68.  Verbs  which  imply  another  action  of  the  same  subject  to  complete  their 

meaning  take  the  Infinitive  without  a  subject  accusative  (^Comple- 
mentary Infinitive,  §  456). 

69.  The  Infinitive,  with  subject  accusative,  is  used  with  verbs  and  other 

expressions  of  knowing,  thinking,  telling,  and  perceiving  (Indirect 
Discourse,  see  §  459). 

70.  The  Infinitive  is  often  used  for  the  Imperfect  Indicative  in  narration, 

and  takes  a  subject  in  the  Nominative  (Historical  Infinitive,  §  463). 

71.  Sequence  of  Tenses.     In  complex  sentences,  a  primary  tense  in 

the  main  clause  is  followed  by  the  Present  or  Perfect  Subjunctive 
in  the  dependent  clause ;  a  secondary  tense  by  the  Imperfect  or 
■  Pluperfect  (§  483). 

72.  Participles  denote  time  as  present,  past,  or  future  with  respect  to  the 

time  of  the  verb  in  their  clause  (§  489). 

73.  The  Gerund  and  the  Gerundive  are  used,  in  the  oblique  cases,  in 

many  of  the  constructions  of  nouns  (§§  501-507). 

74.  The  Supine  in  -um  is  used  after  verbs  of  motion  to  express  Purpose 

(§  509). 

75.  The  Supine  in  -u  is  used  with  a  few  adjectives  and  with  the  nouns 

fas,  nefas,  and  opus,  to  denote  Specification  (§  510). 

76.  Dum,  modo,  dummodo,  and  tantum  ut,  introducing  a  Proviso,  take 

the  Subjunctive  (§  528). 

77.  Final  clauses  take  the  Subjunctive  introduced  by  ut  (uti),  negative 

ne  (ut  ne),  or  by  a  Relative  Pronoun  or  Relative  Adverb  (§  531). 

78.  A  Relative  Clause  with  the  Subjunctive  is  often  used  to  indicate  a 

characteristic  of  the  antecedent,  especially  where  the  antecedent  is 
otherwise  undefined  (§  535). 

79.  Dignus,  indignus,  aptus,  and  idoneus,  take  a  Subjunctive  clause  with 

a  relative  (rarely  with  ut)  (§  535./).    • 


392  SYNTAX:  IMPORTANT  RULES  [§  6&4 

80.  Claiises  of  Result  take  the  Subjunctive  introduced  by  ut,  so  that 

(negative,  ut  non),  or  by  a  Relative  Pronoun  or  Relative  Adverb 
(§  537). 

81.  The  Causal  Particles  quod,  quia,  and  quoniam  take  the  Indicative 

when  the  reason  is  given  on  the  authority  of  the  writer  or  speaker  ; 
the  Subjunctive  when  the  reason  is  given  on  the  authority  of 
another  (§  540). 

82.  The  particles  postquam  (posteaquam),  ubi,  ut  (i^  primum,  ut  semel), 

simul  atque  (simul  ac,  or  simul  alone)  take  the  Indicative  (usually 
in  the  perfect  or  the  historical  present)  (§  543). 

83.  A  Temporal  clause  with  cum,  wheUf  and  some  past  tense  of  the  Indica- 

tive dates  or  defines  the  time  at  which  the  action  of  the  main  verb 
occurred  (§  545). 

84.  A  Temporal  clause  with  cum  and  the  Imperfect  or  Pluperfect  Sub- 

junctive describes  the  circumstances  that  accompanied  or  preceded 
the  action  of  the  main  verb  (§  546). 

85.  Cum  Causal  or  Concessive  takes  the  Subjunctive  (§  549). 

For  other  concessive  particles,  see  §  527. 

86.  In  Indirect  Discourse  the  main  clause  of  a  Declaratory  Sentence  is 

put  in  the  Infinitive  with  Subject  Accusative.  All  subordinate 
clauses  take  the  Subjunctive  (§  580). 

87.  The  Present,  the  Perfect,  or  the  Future  Infinitive  is  used  in  Indirect 

Discourse,  according  as  the  time  indicated  is  present,  past,  or  future 
with  reference  to  the  verb  of  saying  etc.  by  which  the  Indirect  Dis- 
course is  introduced  (§  584). 

88.  In  Indirect  Discourse  a  real  question  is  generally  put  in  the  Subjunc- 

tive; a  rhetorical  question  in  the  Infinitive  (§  586). 

89.  All  Imperative  forms  of  speech  take  the  Subjunctive  in  Indirect 

Discourse  (§  688). 

90.  A  Subordinate  clause  takes  the  Subjunctive  when  it  expresses  the 

thought  of  some  other  person  than  the  writer  or  speaker  (^Informal 
Indirect  Discourse,  §  592). 

91.  A  clause  depending  on  a  Subjunctive  clause  or  an  equivalent  Infini- 

tive will  itself  take  the  Subjunctive  if  regarded  as  an  integral  part 
of  that  clause  (Attraction,  §  593). 

For  Prepositions  and  their  cases,  see  §§  220,  221. 

For  Conditional  Sentences,  see  §  512  ff .     (Scheme  in  §  614.) 

For  ways  of  expressing  Purpose,  see  §  533. 


§§595-597]  ORDER   OE  WORDS  393 


ORDER  OF  WORDS 

595.  Latin  differs  from  English  in  having  more  freedom  in  the 
arrangement  of  words  for  the  purpose  of  showing  the  relative 
importance  of  the  ideas  in  a  sentence. 

596.  As  in  other  languages,  the  Subject  tends  to  stand  first,  the 

Predicate  last.     Thus, — • 

Pausanias  Lacedaemonius  magnus  homO  sed  varius  in  omni  genere  vltae  fuit 
(Nep.  Paus.  1),  Pausanias  the  Lacedoe.monian  was  a  great  man,  but  in- 
consistent in  the  whole  course  of  his  life. 

Note.  —  This  happens  because,  from  the  speaker's  ordinary  point  of  view,  the  sub- 
ject of  his  discourse  is  the  most  important  thing  in  it,  as  singled  out  from  all  other 
things  to  be  spoken  of. 

a.  There  is  in  Latin,  however,  a  special  tendency  to  place  the  verb  itself 
last  of  all,  after  all  its  modifiers.  But  many  writers  purposely  avoid  the 
monotony  of  this  arrangement  by  putting  the  verb  last  but  one,  followed 
by  some  single  word  of  the  predicate. 

597.  In  connected  discourse  the  word  most  prominent  in  the 
speaker's  mind  comes  first,  and  so  on  in  order  of  prominence. 

This  relative  prominence  corresponds  to  that  indicated  in  Eng- 
lish by  a  graduated  stress  of  voice  (usually  called  emphasis). 

a.  The  difference  in  emphasis  expressed  by  difference  in  order  of  words 
is  illustrated  in  the  following  passages  :  — 

apud  Xenophontem  autem  moriens  Cyrus  maior  haec  dicit  (Cat.  M.  79),  in 
Xenophon  too^  on  kis  death-bed  Cyrus  the  elder  utters  these  words. 

Cyrus  quidem  haec  moriens ;  nos,  si  placet,  nostra  videamus  (id.  82),  Cyrus, 
to  be  sure,  utters  these  words  on  his  death-bed;  let  us,  if  you  please^  con- 
sider our  own  case. 

Cynls  quidem  apud  Xenophontem  eo  sermone,  quem  moriens  ha  or.;:  i\A. 
30),  Cyrus,  to  be  sure,  in  Xenophon,  in  that  speech  which  he  utiereJ  on 
his  death-bed. 

Note.  —  This  stress  or  emphasis,  however,  in  English  does  not  necessarily  show 
any  violent  contrast  to  the  rest  of  the  words  in  the  sentence,  but  is  infinitely  varied, 
constantly  increasing  and  diminishing,  and  often  so  subtle  as  to  be  unnoticed  except 
in  careful  study.  So,  as  a  general  rule,  the  precedence  of  words  in  a  Latin  sentence 
is  not  mechanical,  but  corresponds  to  the  prominence  which  a  good  speaker  would 
mark  by  skilfully  managed  stress  of  voice.  A  Latin  written  sentence,  therefore,  has 
all  the  clearness  and  expression  which  could  be  given  to  a  spoken  discourse  by  the  best 
actor  in  English.    Some  exceptions  to  the  rule  will  be  treated  later. 

The  first  chapter  of  Caesar's  Gallic  War,  if  rendered  so  as  to  bring 
out  as  far  as  possible  the  shades  of  emphasis,  would  run  thus :  — 


394  ORDER   OF  WORDS  [§  59? 

GAUL,i  in  the  widest  sense,  is  di-  Gallia  est  omnis  divisa  in  partis 

vided^   into   three  parts,^  which   are  tris,  quarum  unam  incolunt   Belgae, 

inhabited^  (as  follows):    one^  by  the  aliain  Aqultani,  tertiam  qui  ipsorum 

Belgians,    another^  by   the  Aquitani,  lingua  Celtae,  nostra  Galli  appellan- 

the  third  by  a  people  called  in  their  tur.     Hi  omnes  lingua,  institutis,  legi- 

own''  language  Celts,  in  ours  Gauls.  bus    inter    se    differunt.      Gallos    ab 

These  »  in  their  language,^  institutions,  Aquitanis  Garumna  fltimen,  a  Belgis 

and  laws  are  all  of  them  lo  different.  Matrona  et  Sequana  dividit.     Horum 

The  GAULS"  (proper)  are  separated  12  omnium  fortissimi  sunt  Belgae,  prop- 

from  the  Aquitani  by  the  river  Garonne,  terea  quod  a  cultu  atque  htimanitate 
from  the  Belgians  by  the  Marne  and 
Seine.     Of  these  i^  (tribes)  the  brav- 
est of  alli**  are  the  Belgians,  for  the 
reason  that  they,  live  farthest  ^^  away 

1  GAUL :  emphatic  as  the  subject  of  discourse,  as  with  a  title  or  the  like. 

2  Divided :  opposed  to  the  false  conception  (implied  in  the  use  of  omnis)  that  the 
country  called  Gallia  by  the  Romans  is  one.  This  appears  more  clearly  from  the  fact 
that  Oaesar  later  speaks  of  the  Galli  in  a  narrower  sense  as  distinct  from  the  other  two 
tribes,  who  with  them  inhabit  Gallia  in  the  wider  sense. 

8  Parts :  continuing  the  emphasis  begim  in  divisa.  Not  three  parts  as  opposed  to 
any  other  number,  but  into  parts  at  all. 

4  Inhubited :  emphatic  as  the  next  subject, "  TTie  inhabitants  of  these  parts  are,  etc." 

6  One :  given  more  prominence  than  it  otherwise  would  have  on  account  of  its  close 
connection  with  quarum. 

6  Another,  etc. :  opposed  to  one. 

^  Their  own,  ours :  strongly  opposed  to  each  other. 

8  These  (tribes) :  the  main  subject  of  discourse  again,  collecting  under  one  head 
the  names  previously  mentioned. 

9  Language,  etc. ;  these  are  the  most  prominent  ideas,  as  giving  the  striking  points 
wl  a  distinguish  the  tribes.  The  emphasis  becomes  natural  in  English  if  we  say 
"  tucse  have  a  different  language,  different  institutions,  different  laivs." 

10  All  of  them:  the  emphasis  on  all  marks  the  distributive  character  of  the  adjec- 
tive, as  if  it  were  ^' every  one  has  its  own,  etc." 

11  GAULS :  emphatic  as  referring  to  the  Gauls  proper  in  distinction  from  the  other 
^■v'bes. 

'2  Separated :  though  this  word  contains  an  indispensable  idea  in  the  connection,  yet 
:ias  a  subordinate  position.    It  is  not  emphatic  in  Latin,  as  is  seen  from  the  fact  that 
XV  cannot  be  made  emphatic  in  English.    The  sense  is:  The  Gauls  lie  between  the 
AqvA.tani  on  the  one  side,  and  the  Belgians  on  the  other. 

13  Of  THESE :  the  subject  of  discourse. 

14  All :  emphasizing  the  superlative  idea  in  "  bravest " ;  they,  as  Gauls,  are  assumed 
to  be  warlike,  but  the  most  so  of  all  of  tliem  are  the  Belgians. 

15  Farthest  away:  one  might  expect  absunt  (are  away)  to  have  a  more  emphatic 
place,  but  it  is  dwarfed  in  importance  by. the  predominance  of  the  main  idea,  the  effemi- 
nating influences  from  which  the  Belgians  are  said  to  be  free.  It  is  not  that  they  live 
farthest  off'  that  is  insisted  on,  but  that  the  civilization  of  the  Province  etc.,  which 
would  soften  them,  comes  less  in  tbeir  way.  It  is  to  be  noticed  also  that  absunt  has 
already  been  anticipated  by  the  construction  of  cultd  and  still  more  by  longissime,  so 
that  when  it  comes  it  amounts  only  to  a  formal  part  of  the  sentence.  Thus, —  "  because 
the  civilization  etc.  of  the  Province  (which  would  soften  them)  is  farthest  from  them." 


5  597] 


ORDER   OF   WORDS 


395 


from  the  civilization  and  refinement 
of  the  Province,  and  because  they  are 
LEAST  1  of  all  of  them  subject  to  the 
visits  of  traders,^  and  to  the  (conse- 
quent) importation  of  such  things  as  ^ 
tend  to  soften'*'  their  warlike  spirit; 
and  are  also  nearest  ^  to  the  Germans, 
who  live  across  the  Rhine,^  and  with 
whom  they  are  incessantly  '^  at  war. 
For  the  same  reason  the  Helvetians,  as 
well,  are  superior  to  all  the  other  Gauls 
in  valor,  because  they  are  engaged  in 
almost  daily  battles  with  the  Germans, 
either  defending  their  own  boundaries 
from  them,  or  themselves  making  war 
on  those  of  the  Germans.  Of  all  this 
country,  one  part  —  the  one  which, 
as  has  been  said,  the  Gauls  (proper) 
occupy — BEGINS  at  the  river  Rhone. 
Its  boundaries  are  the  river  Garonne, 
the  ocean,  and  the  confines  of  the  Bel- 
gians. It  even  reaches  on  the  side 
of  the  Sequani  and  Helvetians  the  river 
Rhine.  Its  general  direction  is  towards 
the  north.  The  Belgians  begin  at 
the  extreme  limits  of  Gaul ;  they  reach 


provinciae  longissime  absunt,  minime- 
que  ad  eos  mercatores  saepe  comme- 
ant  atque  ea  quae  ad  effeminandos 
animos  pertinent  important,  proximi- 
que  sunt  Germanis,  qui  trans  Rhenum 
incolunt,  quibuscum  continenter  hel- 
ium gerunt.  Qua  de  causa  Helvetii 
quoque  reliquos  Gallos  virtute  praece- 
dunt,  quod  fere  cotldianis  proeliis  cum 
Germanis  contendunt,  cum  aut  suis 
f  inibus  eos  prohibent,  aut  ipsi  in  eorum 
finibus  bellum  gerunt.  Eorum  una 
pars,  quam  Gallos  obtinere  dictum 
est,  initium  capit  a  flumine  Rhodano ; 
continetur  Garumna  flumine,  Oceano, 
finibus  Belgarum ;  attingit  etiam  ab 
Sequanis  et  Helvetils  flumen  Rhenum  ; 
vergit  ad  septentriones.  Belgae  ab 
extremis  Galliae  finibus  oriuntur: 
pertinent  ad  inferiorem  partem  flu- 
minis  Rheni ;  spectant  in  s*^ptentrio- 
nem  et  orientem  solem.  Aquitania 
a  Garumna  flumine  ad_  Pyrenaeos 
mentis  et  eam  partem  Oceani  quae 
est  ad  Hispaniam  pertinet;  spectat 
inter  occasum  solis  et  septentriones. 


(on  this  side)  as  far  as  the  lower  part 

of  the  Rhine.     They  spread  to  the  northward  and  eastward. 

Aquitania  extends  from  the  Garonne  to  the  Pyrenees,  and  that  part  o '"  he 
ocean  that  lies  towards  Spain.     It  runs  off  westward  and  northward. 

b.  The  more  important  word  is  never  placed  last  for  emphasis.  The 
apparent  cases  of  this  usage  (when  the  emphasis  is  not  misconceived)  are 
cases  where  a  word  is  added  as  an  afterthought,  either  real  or  affected,  and 
so  has  its  position  not  in  the  sentence  to  which  it  is  appended,  but,  as  it 
were,  in  a  new  one. 


1  Least  :  made  emphatic  here  by  a  common  Latin  order,  the  chiasmus  (§  598.  /) . 

2  Traders :  the  fourth  member  of  the  chiasmus,  opposed  to  cultu  and  humanitate. 

s  Such  things  as :  the  importance  of  the  nature  of  the  importations  overshadows  the 
fact  that  they  are  imported,  which  fact  is  anticipated  in  traders. 

4  Soften :  cf .  what  is  said  in  note  15,  p.  394.    They  are  brave  because  they  have 
less  to  .soften  them,  their  native  barbarity  being  taken  for  granted. 

5  Nearest :  the  same  idiomatic  prominence  as  in  note  1  above,  but  varied  by  a  special 
usage  combining  chiasmus  and  anaphora  (§  598./). 

6  Across  the  Rhine :  i.e.  and  so  are  perfect  savages. 

^  Incessantly :  the  continuance  of  the  warfare  becomes  the  all-important  idea,  as 
if  it  were  "  and  not  a  day  passes  in  which  they  are  not  at  war  with  them." 


396  ORDER   OF  WORDS  [§  598 

598.  The  main  rules  for  the  Order  of  Words  are  as  follows :  — 

a.  In  any  phrase  the  determining  and  most  significant  word  comes 

first :  — 

1.  Adjective  and  Noun  :  — 

omnis  homines  decet,  every  man  ought  (opposed  to  some  who  do  not). 

Lucius  Catilina  nobili  genere  natus  fuit,  magna  vi  et  anirai  et  corporis, 
sed  ingetiio  malo  pravoque  (Sail.  Cat.  5),  Lucius  Catiline  was  born  of  a 
NOBLE  family,  with  great  force  of  mind  and  body,  but  with  a  nature 
that  was  evil  and  depraved.  [Here  the  adjectives  in  the  first  part  are 
the  emphatic  and  important  words,  no  antithesis  between  the  nouns 
being  as  yet  thought  of ;  but  in  the  second  branch  the  noun  is  meant 
to  be  opposed  to  those  before  mentioned,  and  immediately  takes  the 
prominent  place,  as  is  seen  by  the  natural  English  emphasis,  thus  mak- 
ing a  chiasmusA] 

.2.  Word  with  modifying  case  :  — 

quid  magis  Epamlnondam,  Thebanorum  imperatorem,  quam  vlctoriae  ThS- 
banorum  consulere  decuit  (In v.  i.  69),  what  should  Epaminondas,  com- 
mander of  the  Thebans,  have  aimed  at  more  than  the  victory  of  the 
Thebans ? 

lacrima  nihil  citius  arescit  (id.  i.  109),  nothing  dries  quicker  than  a  tear. 

nemo  fere  laudis  cupidus  (De  Or.  i.  14),  hardly  any  one  desirous  of  glory 
(cf.  Manil.  7,  avidi  laudis,  eager /or  glory). 

h,  Numeral  adjectives,  adjectives  of  quantity,  demonstrative,  relative, 
and  interrogative  pronouns  and  adverbs,  tend  to  precede  the  word  or  words 
to  which  they  belong :  — 

r*:um  aliqua  perturbatione  (Off.  i.  137),  with  some  disturbance. 

hoc  iino  praestamus  (De  Or.  i.  32),  in  this  one  thing  we  excel. 

ceterae  fere  artes,  the  other  arts. 

Note.  —  This  happens  because  such  words  are  usually  emphatic;  but  often  the 
words  connected  with  them  are  more  so,  and  in  such  cases  the  pronouns  etc.  yield  the 
emphatic  place :  — 

causa  aliqua  (De  Or.  i.  250),  some  case. 

stilus  ille  tuus  (id.  i.  257),  that  well-known  style  of  yours  (in  an  antithesis;  see 

passage).     [lUe  is  idiomatic  in  this  sense  and  position.] 
R5mam  quae  apportata  sunt  (Verr.  iv.  121),  what  were  carried  to  Rome  (in  contrast 
to  what  remained  at  Syracuse) . 

c.  When  sum  is  used  as  the  Substantive  verb  (§  284.  6),  it  regularly 
stands  first,  or  at  any  rate  before  its  subject :  — 

est  virl  magni  piinire  sontis  (Off.  i.  82),  it  is  the  duty  of  a  great  man  to  pun- 
ish the  guilty. 

1  So  called  from  the  Greek  letter  X  (chi),  on  account  of  the  criss-cross  arrangement 
of  the  words.    Thus,  ^x^  (see  /  below) . 


§598J  ORDER   OF   WORDS  397 

d.  The  verb  may  come  first,  or  have  a  prominent  position,  either  (1) 
because  the  idea  in  it  is  emphatic ;  or  (2)  because  the  predication  of  the 
whole  statement  is  emphatic ;  or  (3)  the  tense  only  may  be  emphatic  :  — 

(1)  dicebat  idem  Gotta  (Off.  ii.  59),  Cotia  used  to  say  the  same  thing  (opposed 

to  others'  boasting). 
idem  fecit  adulescens  M.  Antonius  (id.  ii.  49),    the  same  thing  was  done  by 

Mark  Antony  in  his  youth.     [Opposed  to  dixi  just  before.] 
facis  amice  (Lael.  9),  you  act  kindly.     [Cf.  amice  facis,  you  are  very  kind 

(you  act  kindly).] 

(2)  propensior  benignitas  esse  debebit  in  calamitosos  nisi  forte  erunt  digni 

calami tate  (Off.  ii.  62),  liberality  ought  to  be  readier  toward  the  unfortu- 
nate unless  perchance  they  really  deserve  their  misfortune. 
praesertim  cum  scribat  (Panaetius)  (id.  iii.  8),  especially  when  he  does  say 
(in  liis  books).     [Opposed  to  sometliing  omitted  by  him.] 

(3)  fuimus  Troes,  fuit  Ilium  (Aen.  ii.  325), loe  have  ceased  to  be  Trojans,  Troy 

is  now  no  more. 
loquor  autem  de  communibus  amicitiis  (Off.  iii.  45),  but  I  am  speaking  now 
of  common  friendships. 

e»  Often  the  connection  of  two  emphatic  phrases  is  brought  about  by 
giving  the  precedence  to  the  most  prominent  part  of  each  and  leaving  the 
less  prominent  parts  to  follow  in  inconspicuous  places  :  — • 

plures  Solent  esse  causae  (Off.  i.  28),  there  are  usually  several  reasons. 
quos  amisimus  civis,  eos  Martis  vis  perculit  (Marc.  17),  v; hat  fellow-citizens 

we  have  lost,  have  been  stricken  down  by  the  violence  of  war. 
maximas  tibi  omnes  gratias  agimus  (id.  33),  we  all  render  you  the  warmest 

thanks. 
haec  res  tinius  est  propria  Caesaris  (id.  11),  this  exploit  belongs  to  CcBsar 

ALONE. 

obiurgationes  etiam  non  numquam  incidunt  necessariae  (Off.  i.  136),  occa- 
sions for  rebuke  also  sometimes  occur  which  are  unavoidable. 

f.  Antithesis  between  two  pairs  of  ideas  is  indicated  by  placing  the  pairs 
either  (1)  in  the  same  order  {anaphora')  or  (2)  in  exactly  the  opposite  order 
{chiasmus)  :  — 

(1)  rerum  copia  verborum  copiam  gignit  (De  Or.  iii.  125),  abundance  of  mat- 

ter produces  copiousness  of  expression. 

(2)  leges  supplicio  improbos  afificiunt,  defendunt  ac  tuentur  bonos  (Legg.  ii. 

13),  the  laws  visit  punishments  upon  the  wicked,  but  the  good  they 
defend  and  protect. 

Note.  —  Chiasmus  is  very  common  in  Latin,  and  often  seems  in  fact  the  more  inarti- 
ficial construction.  In  an  artless  narrative  one  might  hear,  "The  women  were  all 
droioned,  they  saved  the  men." 

non  igitur  utilitatem  amicitia  sed  utilitas  amicitiam  consecuta  est  (Lael.  51),  it  is 
not  then  that  friendship  has  follov^ed  upon  advantage,  hut  advantage  upon 
friendship.  [Here  the  chiasmus  is  only  grammatical,  the  ideas  being  in  the 
parallel  order.]     (See  also  p.  395 :  longissime,  minime,  proximi.) 


898  ORDER   OF   WORDS  [§§  698,  599 

g,  A  modifier  of  a  phrase  or  some  part  of  it  is  often  embodied  within 
the  phrase  (cf .  a)  :  — 

de  commtini  hominum  memoria  (Tusc.  i.  59),  in  regard  to  the  universal 
memory  of  man. 

h,  A  favorite  order  with  the  poets  is  the  interlocked,  by  which  the  attri- 
bute of  one  pair  comes  between  the  parts  of  the  other  (synchysis)  :  — 
et  superiecto  pavidae  natarunt  aequore  dammae  (Hor.  Od.  i.  2.  11). 

Note.  —  This  is  often  joined  with  chiasmus:  as,  —  arma  nondum  expiatis  uncta 
cruoribus  (id.  ii.  1.  5). 

i.  Frequently  unimportant  words  follow  in  the  train  of  more  emphatic 
ones  with  which  they  are  grammatically  connected,  and  so  acquire  a  promi- 
nence out  of  proportion  to  their  importance  :  — 

dictitabat  se  hortulos  aliquos  emere  velle  (Off.  iii.  58),  he  gave  out  that  he 
wanted  to  buy  some  gardens.  [Here  aliquds  is  less  emphatic  than  emere, 
but  precedes  it  on  account  of  the  emphasis  on  hortulos.] 

J,  The  copula  is  generally  felt  to  be  of  so  little  importance  that  it  may 
come  in  anywhere  where  it  sounds  well;  but  usually  under  cover  of  more 
emphatic  words :  — 

consul  ego  quaesivl,  cum  vos  mihi  essetis  in  cCnsilio  (Rep.  iii.  28),  as  consul 

I  held  an  investigation  in  which  you  attended  me  in  council. 
falsum  est  id  totum  (id.  ii.  28),  that  is  all  false. 

k.  Many  expressions  have  acquired  an  invariable  order  :  — 

res  ptiblica ;  populus  Romanus  ;  honoris  causa ;  pace  tanti  virl. 

Note.  —  These  had,  no  doubt,  originally  an  emphasis  which  required  such  an 
arrangement,  but  in  .the  course  of  time  have  changed  their  shade  of  meaning.  Thus, 
senatus  populusque  Romanus  originally  stated  with  emphasis  the  official  bodies,  but 
became  fixed  so  as  to  be  the  only  permissible  form  of  expression. 

I,  The  Romans  had  a  fondness  for  emphasizing  persons,  so  that  a  name 
or  a  pronoun  often  stands  in  an  emphatic  place :  — 

[dixit]  venalis  quidem  se  hortos  n6n  habere  (Off.  iii.  58),  [said]  that  he  didnH 
have  any  gardens  for  sale,  to  be  sure. 

m.  Kindred  words  often  come  together  (^fgura  etymologicd)  :  — 
ita  sensim  sine  sensti  aetas  senescit  (Cat.  M.  38),  thus  gradually,  without 
being  perceived,  man^s  life  grows  old. 

Special  Rules 
599.  The  following  are  special  rules  of  arrangement :  — 

a.  The  negative  precedes  the  word  it  especially  affects ;  but  if  it  belongs 
to  no  one  word  in  particular,  it  generally  precedes  the  verb ;  if  it  is  espe- 
cially emphatic,  it  begins  the  sentence.     (See  example,  598./.  n.) 


§§599-601]  STRUCTURE   OF  THE   PERIOD  399 

b*  Itaque  regularly  comes  first  in  its  sentence  or  clause;  enim,  autem, 
vero,  quoque,  never  first,  but  usually  second,  sometimes  third  if  the  second 
word  is  emphatic  ;  quidem  never  first,  but  after  the  emphatic  word ;  igitur 
usually  second ;  ne  .  .  .  quidem  include  the  emphatic  word  or  words. 

c,  Inquam,  inquit,  are  always  used  parenthetically,  following  one  or  more 
words.     So  often  credo,  opinor,  and  in  poetry  sometimes  precor. 

d,  (1)  Prepositions  (except  tonus  and  versus)  regularly  precede  their 
nouns ;  (2)  but  a  monosyllabic  preposition  is  often  placed  between  a  noun 
and  its  adjective  or  limiting  genitive  :  — 

quem  ad  modum  ;  quam  ob  rem  ;  magno  cum  metti  ;  omnibus  cum  copiis ; 
nulla  in  re  (cf.  §  598.  i). 

e,  In  the  arrangement  of  clauses,  the  Relative  clause  more  often  comes 
first  in  Latin,  and  usually  contains  the  antecedent  noun  :  — 

quos  amisimus  civis,  eos  Martis  vis  perculit  (Marc.  17),  those  citizens  whom 
we  have  lost,  etc. 

/.  Personal  or  demonstrative  pronouns  tend  to  stand  together  in  the 
sentence :  — 

cum  vos  mihi  essgtis  in  consilio  (Rep.  iii.  28),  when  you  attended  me  in 
counsel. 

Structure  of  the  Period 

600.  Latin,  unlike  modem  languages,  expresses  the  relation  of  words  to  each  other 
by  inflection  rather  than  by  position.  Hence  its  structure  not  only  admits  of  great 
variety  in  the  arrangement  of  words,  but  is  especially  favorable  to  that  form  of  sen- 
tence which  is  called  a  Period.  In  a  period,  the  sense  is  expressed  by  the  sentence  as  a 
whole,  and  is  held  in  suspense  till  the  delivery  of  the  last  word. 

An  English  sentence  does  not  often  exhibit  this  form  of  structure.  It  was  imitated, 
sometimes  with  great  skill  and  beauty,  by  many  of  the  earlier  writers  of  English  prose ; 
but  its  effect  is  better  seen  in  poetry,  as  in  the  following  passage :  — 

High  on  a  throne  of  royal  state,  which  far 
Outshone  the  wealth  of  Ormus  and  of  Ind, 
Or  where  the  gorgeous  East  with  richest  hand 
Showers  on  her  kings  barbaric  pearl  and  gold, 
Satan  exalted  sat.  —  Paradise  Lost,  ii.  1-5. 

But  in  argument  or  narrative,  the  best  English  writers  more  commonly  give  short 
clear  sentences,  each  distinct  from  the  rest,  and  saying  one  thing  by  itself.  In  Latin, 
on  the  contrary,  the  stoiy  or  argument  is  viewed  as  a  whole ;  and  the  logical  relation 
among  all  its  parts  is  carefully  indicated. 

601.  In  the  structure  of  the  Period,  the  following  rules  are  to 
be  observed :  — 

a.  In  general  the  main  subject  or  object  is  put  in  the  main  clause,  not 
m  a  subordinate  one :  — 

Hannibal  cum  recensuisset  auxilia  Gades  profectus  est  (Liv.  xxi.  21),  vjhen 
Bannihal  had  reviewed  the  auxiliaries,  he  set  out  for  Cadiz. 


400  ORDER   OF   WORDS  [§601 

Volsci  exiguam  spem  in  armis,  alia  undique  abscissa,  cum  tentassent,  prae- 
ter  cetera  adversa,  loco  quoque  iniquo  ad  pUgnam  congress!,  iniquiore 
ad  fugam,  cum  ab  omul  parte  caederentur,  ad  preces  a  certamine  versi 
dedito  imperatore  traditisque  armis,  sub  iugum  missi,  cum  singulis 
vestimentis,  ignominiae  cladisque  pleni  dimittuntur  (Li v.  iv.  10).  [Here 
the  main  fact  is  the  return  of  the  Volscians.  But  the  striking  circum- 
stances of  the  surrender  etc. ,  which  in  English  would  be  detailed  in  a 
number  of  brief  independent  sentences,  are  put  into  the  several  subor- 
dinate clauses  within  the  main  clause  so  that  the  passage  gives  a  com- 
plete picture  in  one  sentence.] 

6.  Clauses  are  usually  arranged  in  the  order  of  prominence  in  the  mind 
of  the  speaker ;  so,  usually,  cause  before  result ;  purpose,  manner,  and  the 
like,  before  the  act. 

Co  In  coordinate  clauses,  the  copulative  conjunctions  are  frequently 
omitted  {asyndeton).  In  such  cases  the  connection  is  made  clear  by  some 
antithesis  indicated  by  the  position  of  words. 

d.  A  change  of  subject,  when  required,  is  marked  by  the  introduction 
of  a  pronoun,  if  the  new  subject  has  already  been  mentioned.  But  such 
change  is  often  purposely  avoided  by  a  change  in  structure,  —  the  less 
important  being  merged  in  the  more  important  by  the  aid  of  participles 
or  of  subordinate  phrases  :  — 

quern  ut  barbarl  incendium  effugisse  viderunt,  tells  eminus  missis  inter- 
fecerunt  (Nep.  Ale.  10),  when  the  barbarians  saw  that  he  had  escaped, 
THEY  threw  darts  at  him  at  long  range  and  killed  him. 

celeriter  confecto  negotio,  in  hiberna  legiones  reduxit  (B.  G.  vi.  3),  the  mat- 
ter was  soon  finished,  and  he  led  the  legions,  etc. 

e.  So  the  repetition  of  a  noun,  or  the  substitution  of  a  pronoun  for  it, 
is  avoided  unless  a  different  case  is  required :  — 

dolorem  sinonpotuero  frangere  occultabo  (Phil.  xii.  21),  if  I  cannot  conquer 
the  pain,  I  will  hide  it.     [Cf .  if  I  cannot  conquer  I  will  hide  the  pain.] 

f.  The  Romans  were  careful  to  close  a  period  with  an  agreeable  succes- 
sion of  long  and  short  syllables.     Thus,  — 

quod  scis  nihil  prodest,  quod  nescis  multum  obest  (Or.  166),  what  you  know 
is  of  no  use,  what  you  do  not  know  does  great  harm. 

Note. — In  rhetorical  writing,  particularly  in  oratory,  the  Romans,  influenced  by 
their  study  of  the  Greek  orators,  gave  more  attention  to  this  matter  than  in  other 
forms  of  composition.  Quintilian  (ix.  4.  72)  lays  down  the  general  rule  that  a  clause 
should  not  open  with  the  beginning  of  a  verse  or  close  with  the  end  of  one. 


§§602,603]  QUANTITY   OF   VOWELS  40l 


PROSODY 

QUANTITY 

602.  The  poetry  of  the  Indo-European  people  seems  originally  to  have  been  some- 
what like  our  own,  depending  on  accent  for  its  metre  and  disregarding  the  natural 
quantity  of  syllables.  The  Greeks,  however,  developed  a  form  of  poetry  which,  like 
music,  pays  close  attention  to  the  natural  quantity  of  syllables ;  and  the  Romans  bor- 
rowed their  metrical  forms  in  classical  times  from  the  Greeks.  Hence  Latin  poetry 
does  not  depend,  like  ours,  upon  accent  and  rhyme;  but  is  measured,  like  musical 
strains,  by  the  length  of  syllables.  Especially  does  it  differ  from  our  verse  in  not 
regarding  the  prose  accent  of  the  words,  but  substituting  for  that  an  entirely  differ- 
ent system  of  metrical  accent  or  ictus  (see  §  611.  a).  This  depends  upon  the  character 
of  the  measure  used,  falling  at  regular  intervals  of  time  on  a  long  syllable  or  its  equiva- 
lent. Each  syllable  is  counted  as  either  long  or  short  in  Quantity ;  and  a  long  syllable 
is  generally  reckoned  equal  in  length  to  two  short  ones  (for  exceptions,  see  §  608.  c-e) . 

The  quantity  of  radical  (or  stem)  syllables  —  as  of  short  a  in  pater  or  of  long  a  in 
mater  —  can  be  learned  only  by  observation  and  practice,  unless  determined  by  the 
general  rules  of  quantity.  Most  of  these  rules  are  only  arbitrary  formulas  devised  to 
assist  the  memory ;  the  syllables  being  long  or  short  because  the  ancients  pronounced 
them  so.  The  actual  practice  of  the  Romans  in  regard  to  the  quantity  of  syllables  is 
ascertained  chiefly  from  the  usage  of  the  poets ;  but  the  ancient  grammarians  give  some 
assistance,  and  in  some  inscriptions  long  vowels  are  distinguished  in  various  ways,  — 
by  the  apex,  for  instance,  or  by  doubling  (§  10.  e.  n.). 

Since  Roman  poets  borrow  very  largely  from  the  poetry  and  mythology  of  the 
Greeks,  numerous  Greek  words,  especially  proper  names,  make  an  important  part  of 
Latin  poetry.  These  words  are  generally  employed  in  accordance  with  the  Greek, 
and  not  the  Latin,  laws  of  quantity.  Where  these  laws  vary  in  any  important  point, 
the  variations  will  be  noticed  in  the  rules  below. 


GENERAL  RULES 
603.  The  following  are  General  Rules  of  Quantity  (cf .  §  §  9-1 1 ) : 

Quantity  of  Vowels 
a.  Vowels.     A  vowel  before  another  vowel  or  h  is  short :  as,  via,  traho. 
Exceptions.  —  1.  In  the  genitive  form  -ius,  i  is  long:  as,  utrius,  nullius.     It 
is,  however,  sometimes  short  in  verse  (§  113.  c). 

2.  In  the  genitive  and  dative  singular  of  the  fifth  declension,  e  is  long  between 
two  vowels  :  as,  diei;  otherwise  usually  short,  as  in  fidei,  rei,  spSi. 

Note.  —  It  was  once  long  in  these  also :  as,  plenu^  fidei  (Ennius,  at  the  end  of  a  hex- 
ameter).   A  is  also  long  before  i  in  the  old  genitive  of  the  first  declension:  as,  aulai. 

3.  In  the  conjugation  of  fi5,  1  is  long  except  when  followed  by  er.  Thus,  fio, 
fiebam,  fiam,  but  fieri,  fierem ;  so  also  fit  (§  606.  a.  3). 

4.  In  many  Greek  words  the  vowel  in  Latin  represents  a  long  vowel  or  diph- 
thong, and  retains  its  original  long  quantity :  as,  Troes  (T/owes),  Thalia  {Qa\€ia)r 
heroas  (^pwas),  aer  (drjp). 


402  PROSODY:    QUANTITY  [§603 

Note. — But  many  Greek  words  are  more  or  less  Latinized  in  this  respect:  as, 
Icademia,  ohoria,  Malea,  platea. 

5.  In  dius,  in  Iheu  usually,  and  sometimes  in  Diana  and  ohe,  the  first  vowel  is 
long. 

h.  Diphthongs.     A  Diphthong  is  long :  as,  foedus,  cui,^  aula. 

Exception.  —  The  preposition  prae  in  compounds  is  generally  shortened  before 
a  vowel:  as,  prae-ustis  (Aen.  vii.  524),  prae-eunte  (id.  v.  186). 

Note.  —  U  following  q,  s,  or  g,  does  not  make  a  diphthong  with  a  following  vowel 
(see  §  5.  N.  2).    For  ^-io,  ma-ior,  pe-ior,  etc.,  see  §  11.  d  and  n. 

c.  Contraction.  A  vowel  formed  by  contraction  (crasis)  is  long  :  as,  nil, 
from  nihil ;  cog5  for  fco-agS  ;  mal5  for  ma-volo. 

Note.—  Two  vowels  of  different  syllables  may  be^un  together  without  full  con- 
traction {synizesis,  §  642) :  as,  deinde  (for  deinde),  meos  (for  meos) ;  and  often  two 
syllables  are  united  by  Synseresis  (§  642)  without  contraction :  as  when  parietibus  is 
pronounced  paryetibus. 

d.  A  vowel  before  ns,  nf,  gn,  is  long :  as,  insto,  infans,  signunio 

Quantity  of  Syllables 

e»  A  syllable  is  long  if  it  contains  a  long  vowel  or  a  diphthong :  as, 
ca-rus,  o-men,  foe-dus. 

/.  Position.  A  syllable  is  long  by  position  if  its  vowel,  though  short,  is 
followed  by  two  consonants  or  a  double  consonant :  as,  adventus,  cortex. 

But  if  the  two  consonants  are  a  mute  followed  by  1  or  r  the  syllable  may 
be  either  long  or  short  {common)  ;  as,  alacris  or  alacris ;  patris  or  patris. 

Vowels  should  be  pronounced  long  or  short  in  accordance  with  their  nat- 
ural quantity  without  regard  to  the  length  of  the  syllable  by  position. 

Note  1.  — The  rules  of  Position  do  not,  in  general,  apply  to  final  vowels  before  a 
word  beginning  with  two  consonants. 

Note  2.  —  A  syllable  is  long  if  its  vowel  is  followed  by  consonant  i  (except  in 
biiugis,  quadriiugis) :  see  §  11.  d. 

Note  3.  —  Compounds  of  iacio,  though  written  with  one  i,  commonly  retain  the 
long  vowel  of  the  prepositions  with  which  they  are  compounded,  as  if  before  a  con- 
sonant, and,  if  the  vowel  of  the  preposition  is  short,  the  first  syllable  is  long  by  posi- 
tion on  the  principle  of  §  11.  e. 

obicis  host!  (at  the  end  of  a  hexameter,  Aen.  iv.  549). 
inicit  et  saltu  (at  the  beginning  of  a  hexameter,  Aen.  ix.  552). 
proice  tela  manu  (at  the  beginning  of  a  hexameter,  Aen.  vi.  836). 
Later  poets  sometimes  shorten  the  preposition  in  trisyllabic  forms,  and  preposi- 
tions ending  in  a  vowel  are  sometimes  contracted  as  if  the  verb  began  with  a  vowel; 

(1)  cur  an|nos  obilcis  (Claud,  iv  C.  H.  2t>4). 

(2)  reicg  cajpellas  (Eel.  iii.  96,  at  end). 

Note  4.  —  The  y  or  w  sound  resulting  from  synveresis  (§  642)  has  the  effect  of  a  con- 
sonant in  making  position:  as,  abietis  (abyetis),  fluviorum  {fluvyoi-um) .  Conversely, 
when  the  semivowel  becomes  a  vowel,  position  is  lost:  as,  sililae,  for  silvae. 

i  Rarely  dissyllabic  ciH  (as  Mart.  i.  104.  22) 


5  604]  FINAL   SYLLABLES  403 

FINAL  SYLLABLES 
604.  The  Quantity  of  Final  Syllables  is  as  follows :  — 
a.  Monosyllables  ending  in  a  vowel  are  long :  as,  me,  tu,  hi,  ne. 

1.  The  attached  particles  -ne,  -quS,  -ve,  -ce,  -ptS,  and  re-  (red-)  are  short;  se- 
(sed-)  and  di-  are  long.  Thus,  secedit,  seditio,  exercitumque  reducit,  dimitto.  But 
re-  is  often  long  in  religio  (relligid),  retuli  (rettuli),  repuli  (reppuli). 

&.  Nouns  and  adjectives  of  one  syllable  are  long :  as,  sol,  os  (oris),  bos, 
par,  vas  (vasis),  ver,  vis. 

Exceptions. — cor,  fel,  lac,  mel,  os  (ossis),  vas  (vadis),  vir,  tot,  qu5t. 

c.  Most  monosyllabic  Particles  are  short :  as,  an,  m,  cis,  nee.  But  eras, 
cur,  en,  non,  quln,  sin  —  with  adverbs  in  e :  as,  hie,  hiie,  sic  —  are  long. 

d.  Final  a  in  words  declined  by  cases  is  short,  except  in  the  ablative  sin- 
gular of  the  first  declension  ;  in  all  other  words  final  a  is  long.  Thus,  eS 
Stella  (nominative),  eum  ea  stella  (ablative)  ;  friistra,  voca  (imperative), 
postea,  triginta. 

Exceptions.  —  eiS,  itS,  quia,  puta  (suppose) ;  and,  in  late  use,  triginta  etc. 

e.  Final  e  is  short :  as  in  niibe,  ducite,  saepe. 

Exceptions.  — Final  e  is  long  —  1.  In  adverbs  formed  from  adjectives  of  the 
first  and  second  declension,  with  others  of  like  form :  as,  alte,  longe,  misere,  aperte, 
saepissime.     So  fere,  ferme. 

But  it  is  short  in  bene,  mal5  ;  infeme,  supemS. 

2.  In  nouns  of  the  fifth  declension:  as,  fide  (also  fame),  facie,  hodie,  quare 
(qua  re). 

3.  In  Greek  neuters  plural  of  the  second  declension :  as,  cete ;  and  in  some 
other  Greek  words :  Phoebe,  Circe,  Andromache,  etc. 

4.  In  the  imperative  singular  of  the  second  conjugation  :  as,  vide. 
But  sometimes  cave,  habS,  tac§,  vale,  vide  (cf.  §629.  b.  1). 

/.  Final  i  is  long :  as  in  turri,  fill,  audi. 

Exceptions.  —  Final  i  is  common  in  mihi,  tibi,  sibi,  ibi,  ubi ;  and  short  in  nisi, 
quasi,  sicuti,  cui  (when  making  two  syllables),  and  in  Greek  vocatives :  as,  Alexi. 

gr.  Final  o  is  common  :  but  long  in  datives  and  ablatives ;  also  in  nouns 
of  the  third  declension.  It  is  almost  invariably  long  in  verbs  before  the 
time  of  Ovid. 

Exceptions.  — cit5,  mod5  (dummodo),  imm5,  profecto,  eg6,  du6,  cedo  (the  impera- 
tive); so  sometimes  octo,  ilico,  etc.,  particularly  in  later  writers. 

h.  Final  u  is  long.     Final  y  is  short. 

i.  Final  as,  es,  os,  are  long ;  final  is,  us,  ys,  are  short ;  as,  nefas,  rupes, 
servos  (accusative),  honos ;  hostis,  amiciis,  Teth^s. 


404  PROSODY:    QUANTITY  [§§604-606 

Exceptions.  —  1.  as  is  short  in  Greek  plural  accusatives :  as,  lampadas ;  and 
in  an^s. 

2.  es  is  short  in  the  nominative  of  nouns  of  the  third  declension  (lingual)  hav- 
ing a  short  vowel  in  the  stem  i :  as,  miles  (-itis),  obsSs  (-Wis),  —  except  abies,  aries, 
paries,  pes ;  in  the  present  of  esse  (es,  ades) ;  in  the  preposition  penes,  and  in  the 
plural  of  Greek  nouns  :  as,  heroes,  lampades. 

3.  OS  is  short  in  compos,  impos ;  in  the  Greek  nominative  ending :  as,  barbitos  ; 
in  the  old  nominative  of  the  second  declension :  as,  servos  (later  servus). 

4.  is  in  plural  cases  is  long :  as  in  bonis,  nobis,  vobis,  omnis  (accusative  plural). 

5.  is  is  long  in  the  verb  forms  fis,  sis,  vis  (with  quivis  etc.),  velis,  malis,  nolis, 
edis ;  in  the  second  person  singular  of  the  present  indicative  active  in  the  fourth 
conjugation:  as,  audis ;  and  sometimes  in  the  forms  in  -eris  (future  perfect  indica- 
tive or  perfect  subjunctive). 

6.  us  is  long  in  the  genitive  singular  and  nominative,  accusative,  and  vocative 
plural  of  the  fourth  declension ;  and  in  nouns  of  the  third  declension  having  u 
(long)  in  the  stem:  as,  virtus  (-utis),  incus  (-udis).     But  pecus,  -udis. 

J,  Of  other  final  syllables,  those  ending  in  a  single  consonant  are  short. 
Thus,  amat,  amatiir ;  donee,  fac,  procul,  iubar. 

Exceptions.  —  hie  (also  hie) ;  allee ;  the  ablatives  illoc,  etc. ;  certain  adverbs  in 
-c :  as,  illic,  istiic ;  lien,  and  some  Greek  nouns :  as,  aer,  aether,  crater. 

Perfects  and  Perfect  Participles 

605.  Perfects  and  Perfect  Participles  of  two  syllables  have  the 

first  syllable  long:  as,  iuvi,  iutum  (iiavo),  vidi,  visum  (video);  fugi 

(fugio);  veni  (venio). 

Exceptions.  —  bibi,  dedi,  fidi,  scidi,  stSti,  stiti,  tuli ;  citum,  dStum,  itum,  litum, 
quitum,  ratum,  rutum,  satum,  situm,  statum.  In  some  compounds  of  sto,  statum 
is  found  (long),  as  praestatum. 

a.  In  reduplicated  perfects  the  vowel  of  the  reduplication  is  short ;  the 
vowel  of  the  following  syllable  is,  also,  usually  short:  as,  cecidi  (cado), 
didici  (disco),  piipugi  (pungo),  cuciirri  (curro),  tetSndi  (tendo),  m5m6rdi  (mor- 
deo).     But  cecidi  from  caedo,  pepedi  from  pedo. 

Derivatives 

606.  Rules  for  the  Quantity  of  Derivatives  are :  — 

a.  Forms  from  the  same  stem  have  the  same  quantity :  as,  Sm5,  Sma- 
visti;  genus,  generis. 

Exceptions.  — 1.  bos,  lar,  mas,  par,  pes,  sal,  — also  arbos,  — have  a  long  vowel 
in  the  nominative,  though  the  stem-vowel  is  short  (cf.  genitive  bovis  etc.). 

1  The  quantity  of  the  stem-vowel  mav  be  seen  in  the  genitive  singular. 


§§  606,  607]  RHYTHM  405 

2.  Nouns  in  -or,  genitive  -oris,  have  the  vowel  shortened  before  the  final  r :  as, 
hoEor.  (But  this  shortening  is  comparatively  late,  so  that  in  early  Latin  these 
nominatives  are  often  found  long.) 

3.  Verb-forms  with  vowel  originally  long  regularly  shorten  it  before  final  m, 
r,  ort:  as,  amem,  amer,  dicerer,  amet  (compare  amemus),  diceret,  audit,  fit. 

Note.  —  The  final  syllable  in  t  of  the  perfect  was  long  in  old  Latin,  but  is  short  in 
the  classic  period. 

4.  A  few  long  stem-syllables  are  shortened :  as,  acer,  acerbus.  So  de-igro  and 
pe-iero,  weakened  from  iuro. 

h.  Forms  from  the  same  root  often  show  inherited  variations  of  vowel 
quantity  (see  §  17) :  as,  dico  (of.  maledicus) ;  duco  (dux,  diacis) ;  fido  (perfidus) ; 
vox,  vocis  (v5co);  lex,  legis  (leg5). 

c.  Compounds  retain  the  quantity  of  the  words  which  compose  them : 
as,  oc-cido  (cado),  oc-cido  (caedo),  in-iquus  (aequus). 

Note.  —  Greek  words  compounded  with  irpb  have  o  short :  as,  prSpheta,  prologus. 
Some  Latin  compounds  of  pro  have  o  short :  as,  proficiscor,  profiteor.  Compounds  with 
ne  vary :  as,  nefas,  nego,  nequeo,  nequam. 

RHYTHM 

607.  The  essence  of  Rhythm  in  poetry  is  the  regidar  recurrence  of  syllables 
pronounced  wath  more  stress  than  those  intervening.  To  produce  this  effect  in  its 
perfection,  precisely  equal  times  should  occur  between  the  recurrences  of  the  stress. 
But,  in  the  application  of  rhythm  to  words,  the  exactness  of  these  intervals  is  sacri-. 
ficed  somewhat  to  the  necessary  length  of  the  words;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
words  are  forced  somewhat  in  their  pronunciation,  to  produce  more  nearly  the  proper 
intervals  of  time.  In  different  languages  these  adaptations  take  place  in  different 
degrees ;  one  language  disregarding  more  the  intervals  of  time,  another  the  pronun- 
ciation of  the  words. 

The  Greek  language  early  developed  a  very  strict  rhythmical  form  of  poetry,  in 
which  the  intervals  of  time  were  all-important.  The  earliest  Latin,  on  the  other  hand, 
—  as  in  the  Saturnian  and  Fescennine  verse,  —was  not  so  restricted.  But  the  purely 
metrical  forms  were  aftei-wards  adopted  from  the  Greek,  and  supplanted  the  native 
forms  of  verse.  Thus  the  Latin  poetry  with  which  we  have  to  do  follows  for  the  most 
part  Greek  rules,  which  require  the  formal  division  of  words  (like  music)  into  measures 
of  equal  times,  technically  called  Feet.  The  strict  rhythm  was  doubtless  more  closely 
followed  in  poetry  that  was  sung  than  in  that  which  was  declaimed  or  intoned.  In 
neither  language,  however,  is  the  time  perfectly  preserved,  even  in  single  measures ; 
and  there  are  some  cases  in  which  the  regularity  of  the  time  between  the  ictuses  is 
disturbed. 

The  Greeks  and  Romans  distinguished  syllables  of  two  kinds  in  regard  to  the  time 
required  for  their  pronunciation,  a  long  syllable  having  twice  the  metrical  value  of  a 
short  one.  But  it  must  not  be  supposed  that  all  long  syllables  were  of  equal  length, 
or  even  that  in  a  given  passage  each  long  had  just  twice  the  length  of  the  contiguous 
shorts.  The  ratio  was  only  approximate  at  best,  though  necessarily  more  exact  in 
singing  than  in  recitation.  Nor  are  longs  and  shorts  the  only  forms  of  syllables  that 
are  found.  In  some  cases  a  long  syllable  was  protracted,  so  as  to  have  the  time  of 
three  or  even  of  four  shorts,  and  often  one  long  or  two  shorts  were  pronounced  in  less 
than  their  proper  time,  though  they  were  perhaps  distinguishable  in  time  from  one 


406  PROSODY :    RHYTHM  [§§  607,  608 

short  (see  §608.  c,  d).  Sometimes  a  syllable  naturally  short  seems  to  have  been 
slightly  prolonged,  so  as  to  represent  a  long,  though  in  most  (not  all)  cases  the  appar- 
ent irregularity  can  be  otherwise  explained.  In  a  few  cases,  also,  a  pause  takes  the 
place  of  one  or  more  syllables  to  fill  out  the  required  length  of  the  measure.  This 
could,  of  course,  take  place  only  at  the  end  of  a  word:  hence  the  importance  of 
Caesura  and  Diaeresis  in  prosody  (§  611.  b,  c). 

Measures 

608.  Rhythm  consists  of  the  division  of  musical  sound  into 
equal  intervals  of  time  called  Measures  or  Feet. 

The  most  natural  division  of  musical  time  is  into  measures  con- 
sisting of  either  two  or  three  equal  parts.  But  the  ancients  also 
distinguished  measures  of  five  equal  parts. 

Note. — The  divisions  of  musical  time  are  marked  by  a  stress  of  voice  on  one  or 
the  other  part  of  the  measure.  This  stress  is  called  the  Ictus  (beat),  or  metrical  accent 
(see  §611.  a). 

a,  The  unit  of  length  in  Prosody  is  one  short  syllable.  This  is  called 
a  Mora.  It  is  represented  hy  the  sign  v^,  or  in  musical  notation  by  the 
eighth  note  or  quaver  (P). 

b,  A  long  syllable  is  regularly  equal  to  tvro  morse,  and  is  represented 
by  the  sign  _,  or  by  the  quarter  note  or  crotchet  (i*). 

c,  A  long  syllable  may  be  protracted,  so  as  to  occupy  the  time  of  three 
or  four  morse.  Such  a  syllable,  if  equal  to  three  moras,  is  represented 
by  the  sign  l_  (or  dotted  quarter  i**)  ;  if  equal  to  four,  by  i_i  (or  the  half 
note  or  minim,  f^). 

d,  A  long  syllable  may  be  contracted,  so  as  to  take  practically  the  time 
of  a  short  one.     Such  a  syllable  is  sometimes  represented  by  the  sign  >. 

e,  A  short  syllable  may  be  contracted  so  as  to  occupy  less  than  one  mora. 
/.  A  pause  sometimes  occurs  at  the  end  of  a  verse  or  a  series  of  verses, 

to  fill  up  the  time.  A  pause  of  one  mora  in  a  measure  is  indicated  by  the 
sign  A  ;  one  of  two  morae  by  the  sign  A . 

g.  One  or  more  syllables  are  sometimes  placed  before  the  proper  begin- 
ning of  the  measure.     Such  syllables  are  called  an  Anacriisis  or  prelude.'^ 

The  anacrusis  is  regularly  equal  to  the  unaccented  part  of  the  measure. 

1  The  same  thing  occurs  in  modern  poetry,  and  in  modern  music  any  unaccented 
syllables  at  the  beginning  are  treated  as  an  anacrusis,  i.e.  they  make  an  incomplete 
measure  before  the  first  bar.  This  was  not  the  case  in  ancient  music.  The  ancients 
seem  to  have  treated  any  unaccented  syllable  at  the  beginning  as  belonging  to  the  fol- 
lowing accented  ones,  so  as  to  make  with  them  a  foot  or  measure.  Thus  it  would  seem 
that  thei*e  was  an  original  form  of  Indo-European  poetry  which  was  iambic  in  its 
structure,  or  which,  at  least,  accented  the  second  syllable  rather  than  the  first. 


§609]  MEASURES  407 

609.  The  feet  most  frequently  employed  in  Latin  verse,  to- 
gether with  their  musical  notation,  are  the  following ;  — 

a.  Triple  or  Unequal  Measures  (|)^ 

1.  Trochee     (^  .        =pp:as,..,.. 

2.  Iambus      (w  —        =  I*  I*)  •  ^-s,  duces. 

3.  Tribrach  2  (w  v.^*  w  =  |*  ^  I*)  :  as,  hommis. 

b.   Double  or  Equal  Measures  (|) 

1.  Dactyl         (_  w  w  =  I*   I*  I*) :  as,  cdnsulis. 

2.  Anapaest     (^  w  _  =  I*  j*  i*) :  as,  monXtos. 

3.  Spondee     ( =  i*  i*) :  as,  reges. 

c.  Six-timed  Measures  (f) 

1.  Tonic  a  mdiore  ( \j  \j  =^  j*   j*  j*) :  as,  confecerat. 

2.  Ionic  a  minore  (w  w ~  I*  1^   I*   (*)  •  ^^'  retulissent. 

3.  Choriambns      (_  ^  ^  _  =  ^   (•  |*   i*) :  as,  contulerant. 

do  Quinary  or  Hemiolic  *  Measures  (f) 

1.  Cretic  (_  w  _        =j*   I*   j*):  as,  consuUs. 

2.  PfEon  j)rlmus     (_  w  v^  w  =  I*  j*  I*  |*)  :  as,  consuKbus. 

3.  PcTon  quartus    (www  ~  I*  I*  I*  I*)'  ^^j  ?^?nm. 

4.  Bacchms  (w =i*  i*  i*):  as,  amlcos. 

1  Called  diplasic,  the  two  parts  (Thesis  and  Arsis)  being  in  the  ratio  of  2  to  1. 

2  Not  found  as  a  fundamental  foot,  but  only  as  the  resolution  of  a  Trochee  or  Iambus. 
8  Called  hemiolic,  the  two  parts  being  in  the  ratio  of  1  to  Ih,  or  of  2  to  3. 


408  PROSODY:    RHYTHM  [§609 

Note.  —  Several  compound  feet  are  mentioned  by  the  grammarians,  viz.  Pyrrhic 

{kj  w);  Amphibrach  {\j w);  Antibacchlus  ( w);  ProceleiLsmatic  (w  w  v./  w); 

the  Molossus  ( );  the  2d  and  3d  Paeon,  having  a  long  syllable  in  the  2d  or  3d 

place,  with  three  short  ones ;  1st,  2d,  3d,  and  4th  Epitritus,  having  a  short  syllable  in 
the  1st,  2d,  3d,  or  4th  place,  with  three  long  ones. 


Irrational  Feet 

e.  Feet  with  these  apparent  quantities  do  not  always  occupy  equal  time, 
but  may  be  contracted  or  prolonged  to  suit  the  series  in  which  they  occur. 
They  are  then  called  irrational,  because  the  thesis  and  arsis  do  not  have 
their  normal  ratio.^     Such  are  :  — 


Irrational  Spondee : 

(in  place  of  a  Tro 
(in  place  of  an  Iambus 

Cyclic  Dactyl  (in  place  of  a  Trochee)  : 


(in  place  of  a  Trochee)  -1  >  1  '    \\ 


_£-  v.yvy  or 


x}.}-o^-:.}S 


Cyclic  Anapaest  (in  place  of  an  Iambus) : 

v^  _^  or  w  w-^  =  J$  ^^  ^L  or  J    J^  J. 

The  apparent  dactyl  >  v5  \-/,  as  a  substitute  for  an  iambus,  and  the 
apparent  anapaest  w  w  >,  as  a  substitute  for  a  trochee,  occur  frequently 
in  the  dramatic  writers. 

Note.  —  Narrative  poetry  was  written  for  rhythmical  recitation,  or  chant,  with 
instrumental  accompaniment;  and  Lyrical  poetry  for  rhythmical  melody,  or  singing. 
It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  in  ancient  music  —  which  in  this  differs  widely  from 
modern  —  the  rhythm  of  the  melody  was  identical  with  the  rhythm  of  the  text.  The 
lyric  poetry  was  to  be  sung ;  the  poet  was  musician  and  composer,  as  well  as  author. 
To  this  day  a  poet  is  said  conventionally  to  "  sing." 

Thus  a  correct  understanding  of  the  rhythmical  structure  of  the  verse  gives  us  the 
time,  though  not  the  tune,  to  which  it  was  actually  sung.  The  exact  time,  however, 
as  indicated  by  the  succession  of  long  and  short  syllables,  was  varied  according  to 
certain  laws  of  so-called  "  Rhythmic,"  as  will  be  explained  below.  In  reading  ancient 
verse  it  is  necessary  to  bear  in  mind  not  only  the  varif.  tious  in  the  relative  length  of 
syllables,  but  the  occasional  pause  necessary  to  fill  out  the  measure ;  and  to  remember 
that  the  rhythmical  accent  is  the  only  one  of  importance,  though  the  words  should  be 
distinguished  carefully,  and  the  sense  preserved.  Poetry  should  not  be  scanned,  but 
read  metrically. 

1  It  seems  probable  that  both  thesis  and  arsis  of  an  irrational  foot  were  affected  by 
the  necessity  of  preserving  the  rhythmical  time  of  the  foot. 


§§  610,  611]  THE   MUSICAL  ACCENT  409 

Substitution 

610.  In  many  cases  measures  of  the  same  time  may  be  substi- 
tuted for  each  other,  a  long  syUable  taking  the  place  of  two  short 
ones,  or  two  short  syllables  the  place  of  a  long  one. 

In  the  former  case  the  measure  is  said  to  be  contracted;  in  the 
latter,  to  be  resolved :  — 

a,  A  Spondee  ( )  may  take  the  place  of  a  Dactyl  (_  w  v^)  or  an 

Anapaest  (w  w );  and  a  Tribrach  (v^  w  w)  may  take  the  place  of  a 

Trochee  (_  v^)  or  an  Iambus  (w  _).  The  optional  substitution  of  one 
long  syllable  for  two  short  ones  is  represented  by  the  sign  xj^. 

h.  When  a  long  syllable  having  the  Ictus  (§  611.  a)  is  resolved,  the 
ictus  properly  belongs  to  both  the  resulting  short  syllables ;  but  for  con- 
venience the  mark  of  accent  is  placed  on  the  first :  — 

mine  ex|periar  |  sftn<^  a|ceto  j  tibi  cor  |  acr«  in  |  p^ct6|rg.  — PI.  Bac.  405. 


>!^w  >\J-s^\Ji.  >\6^^\-L>\-L^\^h 


The  Musical  Accent 

611.  That  part  of  the  measure  which  receives  the  stress  of  voice 
(the  musical  accent)  is  called  the  Thesis ;  the  unaccented  part  is 
called  the  Arsis.^ 

a.  The  stress  of  voice  laid  upon  the  Thesis  is  called  the  Ictus  (beat). 
It  is  marked  thus  :  _L  w  w . 

b.  The  ending  of  a  word  within  a  measure  is  called  Caesura.  When 
this  coincides  with  a  rhetorical  pause,  it  is  called  the  Cgesura  of  the  verse, 
and  is  of  main  importance  as  affecting  the  melody  or  rhythm. 

c.  The  coincidence  of  the  end  of  a  word  with  that  of  a  measure  is 
called  Diaeresis. 

1  The  Thesis  signifies  properly  the  putting  doivn  (9i<ns,  from  rWtjixi,  put,  place)  of 
the  foot  in  beating  time,  in  the  march  or  dance  ("  downward  beat "),  and  the  Arsis  the 
raising  (dp<ns,  from  aeipoi,  raise)  of  the  foot  ("  upward  beat").  By  the  Latin  gram- 
marians these  terms  were  made  to  mean,  respectively,  the  ending  and  the  beginning  of 
a  measure.  By  a  misunderstanding  which  has  prevailed  till  recently,  since  the  time  of 
Beutley,  their  true  signification  has  been  reversed.  They  will  here  be  used  in  accord- 
ance with  their  ancient  meaning,  as  has  now  become  more  common.  This  metrical 
accent,  recurring  at  regular  intervals  of  time,  is  what  constitutes  the  essence  of  the 
rhythm  of  poetry  as  distinguished  from  prose,  and  should  be  constantly  kept  in  mind. 
The  error  mentioned  arose  from  applying  to  trochaic  and  dactylic  verse  a  definition 
which  was  true  only  of  iambic  or  anapaestic. 


410  PROSODY:    VERSIFICATION  [§612 

VERSIFICATION 

THE  VERSE 

612.  A  single  line  of  poetry  —  that  is,  a  series  of  feet  set  in  a 
recognized  order  —  is  called  a  Verse. ^ 

Note.  —  Most  of  the  common  verses  originally  consisted  of  two  series  (hemistichs) , 
but  the  joint  between  them  is  often  obscured.  It  is  marked  in  Iambic  and  Trochaic 
Tetrameter  by  the  Diseresis,  in  Dactylic  Hexameter  by  the  Csssura. 

a.  A  verse  lacking  a  syllable  at  the  end  is  called  Catalectic,  that  is,  hav- 
ing a  pause  to  fill  the  measure ;  when  the  end  syllable  is  not  lacking,  the 
verse  is  called  Acatalectic,  and  has  no  such  pause. 

b.  A  final  syllable,  regularly  short,  is  sometimes  lengthened  before  a 
pause  :  2  it  is  then  said  to  be  long  by  Diastole :  — 

nostror"'"  obruimur, — oriturque  miserrima  caedes. — Aen.  ii.  411. 

c.  The  last  syllable  of  any  verse  may  be  indifferently  long  or  short 
(syllaba  anceps). 

Scansion  and  Elision 

d.  To  divide  the  verse  into  its  appropriate  measures,  according  to  the 
rules  of  quantity  and  versification,  is  called  scanning  or  scansion  (scansio, 
a  climbing  or  advance  by  steps,  from  scando). 

Note.  —  In  reading  verse  rhythmically,  care  should  be  taken  to  preserve  the  meas- 
ure or  time  of  the  syllables,  but  at  the  same  time  not  to  destroy  or  confuse  the  words 
themselves,  as  is  often  done  in  scanning. 

e.  In  scanning,  a  vowel  or  diphthong  at  the  end  of  a  word  (unless  an 
interjection)  is  partially  suppressed  when  the  next  word  begins  with  a  vowel 
or  with  h.     This  is  called  Elision  (bruising).^ 

In  reading  it  is  usual  entirely  to  suppress  elided  syllables.  Strictly,  how- 
ever, they  should  be  sounded  lightly. 

1  The  word  Verse  (versus)  signifies  a  turning  back,  i.e.  to  begin  again  in  like 
manner,  as  opposed  to  Prose  (prorsus  or  prSversus) ,  which  means  straight  ahead. 

2  This  usage  is.  comparatively  rare,  most  cases  where  it  appears  to  be  found  being 
caused  by  the  retention  of  an  originally  long  quantity 

8  The  practice  of  Elision  is  followed  in  Italian  and  French  poetry,  and  is  sometimes 
adopted  in  English,  particularly  in  the  older  poets:  — 

T'  inveigle  and  invite  th'  unwary  sense.  —  Cootms  538. 

In  early  Latin  poetry  a  final  syllable  ending  in  s  often  loses  this  letter  even  before  a 
consonant  (cf.  §  15.  7) :  — 

senio  confectu*  quiescit.  —  Enn.  (Cat.  M.  14). 


§§612-615]  DACTYLIC   HEXAMETER  411 

Note.  —  Elision  is  sometimes  called  by  the  Greek  name  Synaloepha  {smearing). 
Rarely  a  syllable  is  elided  at  the  end  of  a  verse  when  the  next  verse  begins  with  a 
vowel;  this  is  called  Synapheia  {binding). 

/•  A  final  m,  with  the  preceding  vowel,  is  suppressed  in  like  manner 
;^when  the  next  word  begins  with  a  vowel  or  h:  this  is  called  Ecthlipsis 
(squeezing  out)  :  — 

monstr""*  horrend""*,  inform*,  ingens,  cui  lumen  ademptum. 

—  Aen.  ill.  658. 
Note  1.  —  Final  m  has  a  feeble  nasal  sound,  so  that  its  partial  suppression  before 
the  initial  vowel  of  the  following  wcrd  was  easy. 

Note  2.  —  The  monosyllables  do,  dem,  spe,  spem,  sim,  sto,  stem,  qui  (plural),  and 
jionosyllabic  interjections  are  never  elided ;  nor  is  an  iambic  word  elided  in  dactylic 
verse.    Elision  is  often  evaded  by  skilful  collocation  of  words. 

g.  Elision  is  sometimes  omitted  when  a  word  ending  in  a  vowel  has  a  spe- 
cial emphasis,  or  is  succeeded  by  a  pause.  This  omission  is  called  Hiatus 
(gaping). 

Note.  —  The  final  vowel  is  sometimes  shortened  in  such  cases. 

FORMS   OF  VERSE 

613.  A  verse  receives  its  name  from  its  dominant  or  funda- 
mental foot :  as,  Dactylic.)  Iambic,  Trochaic^  Anajjcestic ';  and  from 
the  number  of  measures  (single  or  double)  which  it  contains: 
as,  Hexameter.,  Tetrameter.,  Trimeter.,  Dimeter. 

Note.  —  Trochaic,  Iambic,  and  Anapsestic  verses  are  measured  not  by  single  feet, 
but  by  pairs  {dipodia),  so  that  six  Iambi  make  a  Trimeter. 

614.  A  Stanza,  or  Strophe,  consists  of  a  definite  number  of 
verses  ranged  in  a  fixed  order. 

Many  stanzas  are  named  after  some  eminent  poet:  as,  Sapphic 
(from  Sappho),  Alcaic  (from  Alcaeus),  Archilochian  (from  Archilo- 
chus),  Horatian  (from  Horace),  and  so  on. 


Dactylic  Verse 

Dactylic  Hexameter 

615.  The  Dactylic  Hexameter,  or  Heroic  Verse,  consists  theo 
retically  of  six  dactyls.     It  may  be  represented  thus :  — 

irc/irc/iricrirc/irc/irM 


412  PROSODY:    VERSIFICATION  [§615 

Note,  — The  last  foot  is  usually  said  to  be  a  spondee,  but  is  in  reality  a  trochee 
standing  for  a  dactyl,  since  the  final  syllable  is  not  measured. 

a.  For  any  foot,  except  the  fifth,  a  spondee  may  be  substituted. 
6,  Rarely  a  spondee  is  found  in  the  fifth  foot ;  the  verse  is  then  called 
spondaic  and  usually  ends  with  a  word  of  four  syllables. 
Thus  in  Eel.  iv.  49  the  verse  ends  with  incrementum. 

c.  The  hexameter  has  regularly  one  principal  ccesura  —  sometimes  two  — 
almost  always  accompanied  by  a  pause  in  the  sense. 

1,  The  principal  caesura  is  usually  after  the  thesis  (less  commonly  in  the  arsis) 
of  the  third  foot^  dividing  the  verse  into  two  parts  in  sense  and  rhythm.  See 
examples  in  d. 

2.  It  may  also  be  after  the  thesis  (less  commonly  in  the  arsis)  of  the  fourth  foot. 
In  this  case  there  is  often  another  caesura  in  the  second  foot,  so  that  the  verse 
is  divided  into  three  parts:  — 

parte  f6;r6x  1|  arldensqu^  ociillis  ||  et  |  slbila  \  c611a.  —  Aen.  v.  277. 

Note.  —  Often  the  only  indication  of  the  principal  among  a  number  of  caesuras  is 
the  break  in  the  sense. 

A  cgesura  occurring  after  the  first  syllable  of  a  foot  is  called  masculine.  A  caesura 
occurring  after  the  second  syllable  of  a  foot  is  called  feminine  (as  in  the  fifth  foot  of 
the  third  and  fourth  verses  ind).  A  caesura  may  also  be  found  in  any  foot  of  the  verse, 
but  a  proper  csesural  pause  could  hardly  occur  in  the  first  or  sixth. 

When  the  fourth  foot  ends  a  word,  the  break  (properly  a  diaeresis)  is  sometimes 
improperly  called  bucolic  csBSura,  from  its  frequency  in  pastoral  poetry. 

d.  The  first  seven  verses  of  the  ^neid,  divided  according  to  the  fore- 
going rules,  will  appear  as  follows.  The  principal  caesura  in  each  verse  is 
marked  by  double  lines  :  — 

ArmS  vTlrumque  ca|no  ||  Tro|iae  qui  |  priratis  ab  \  oris 
Ttali|am  fa|to  profulgus  ||  Lalvlni3,que  |  venit 
litorS.,  I  mult""*  iljl^  et  ter|ris  1|  iacjtatus  6t  ]  alto 
vi  supe|rum  ||  saejvae  mem6|rem  Iu|nonis  6b  [  irS,m ; 
muM  quo|qu^  et  bel|lo  pas|sus  1|  dum  |  conder6t  |  urbem, 
infer [retquS  d6|os  Latijo,  ||  genus  (  unde  Laltlnum, 
Alba|niquS  pS,ltres,  ||  atjqu^  altae  |  moenia  |  Romae. 

1.  The  feminine  ccesura  is  seen  in  the  following:  — 
Dis  genilti  p6tii|ere :  ||  te|nent  medi|*  omnm|  silvae.  —  Aen.  vi.  131. 

Note.  —The  Hexameter  is  thus  illustrated  in  English  verse :  — 

Over  the  sea,  past  Crete,  on  the  Syrian  shore  to  the  southward, 
Dwells  in  the  well-tilled  lowland  a  dark-haired  ^thiop  people, 
Skilful  with  needle  and  loom,  and  the  arts  of  the  dyer  and  carver. 
Skilful,  but  feeble  of  heart ;  for  they  know  not  the  lords  of  Olympus, 
Lovers  of  men ;  neither  hroad-browed  Zeus,  nor  Pallas  Athene^, 
Teacher  of  wisdom  to  heroes,  bestower  of  might  in  the  battle ; 
Share  not  the  cunning  of  Hermes,  nor  list  to  the  songs  of  Apollo, 
Fearing  the  stars  of  the  sky,  and  the  roll  of  the  blue  salt  water. 

— Kingsley'8  Andromeda. 


§§  616,  617]  ELEGIAC   STANZA  413 

Elegiac  Stanza 

616.  The  Elegiac  Stanza  consists  of  two  verses,  —  a  Hexame- 
ter followed  by  a  Pentameter.^ 

The  Pentameter  verse  is  the  same  as  the  Hexameter,  except  that  it 
omits  the  last  half  of  the  third  foot  and  of  the  sixth  foot :  — 

rLrirLnrnrc/ircrif 

a.  The  Pentameter  verse  is  therefore  to  be  scanned  as  two  half -verses,  the 
second  of  which  always  consists  of  two  dactyls  followed  by  a  single  syllable. 

b.  The  Pentameter  has  no  regular  Caesm-a;  but  the  first  half-verse 
must  always  end  with  a  word  (diceresis,  §  611.  c),  which  is  followed  by  a 
pause  to  complete  the  measure.^ 

c.  The  following  verses  will  illustrate  the  forms  of  the  Elegiac  Stanza  :  — 

cum  subit  I  illi|us  ||  tris|tissima  |  noctis  i|mago 

qua  mihi  |  supre|mum  a  ||  tempus  in  |  urbe  fujit,  A 

cum  repe[to  noc|tem  j]  qua  j  tot  mihi  |  cara  re|liqui, 

labitur  |  ex  ocullls  A  |i  nunc  quoque  |  gutta  mejis.  A 

iam  prope  |  lux  adejrat  ||  qua  |  me  dis|cedere  |  Caesar 
finibus  I  extre|mae  A  ||  iussSrat  |  Aus6ni|ae.  A 

—  Ov.  Trist.  i.  3. 

Note.  —  The  Elegiac  Stanza  differs  widely  in  character  from  hexameter  verse  (of 
which  it  is  a  mere  modification)  by  its  division  into  Distichs,  each  of  which  must  have 
its  own  sense  complete.  It  is  employed  in  a  great  variety  of  compositions,  —  epistolary, 
amatory,  and  mournful,  —  and  was  especially  a  favorite  of  the  poet  Ovid.  It  has  been 
Illustrated  in  English  verse,  imitated  from  the  German:  — 

In  the  Hex|ameter  \  rises  |1  the  |  fountain's  |  silvery  |  column ; 
In  the  Pen|tameter  |  aye  |1  falling  in  |  melody  |  back. 

Other  Dactylic  Verses 

.  617.  Other  dactylic  verses  or  half- verses  are  occasionally  used 
by  the  lyric  poets. 

1  Called  pentameter  by  the  old  grammarians,  who  divided  it,  formally,  into  five 
feet  (two  dactyls  or  spondees,  a  spondee,  and  two  anapaests),  as  follows:  — 

ll_v^w|_v^w|_||_|wv^_I^v^_|| 

2  The  time  of  this  pause,  however,  may  be  filled  by  the  protraction  of  the  preced 
ing  syllable :  — 


414  PEOSODY :    VERSIFICATION  [§§  617,  618 

a.  The  Dactylic  Tetrameter  alternates  with  the  hexameter,  forming  the 
Alcmanian  Strophe,  as  follows  :  — 

o  for|tes  pg|iorSque  |  passi 
mecum  |  saepe  vi|ri,  |1  nunc  ]  vino  |  pellltg  |  curas; 
eras  in  [gens  ite|rabimus  |  aequor. 

—  Hor.  Od.  i,  7  (so  28;  Ep.  12). 

b.  The  Dactj^lic  Penthemim  (five  half -feet)  consists  of  half  a  pentame- 
ter verse.  It  is  used  in  combination  with  the  Hexameter  to  form  the  First 
Archilochian  Strophe:  — 

diffu|gere  ni|ves,  ||  redejunt  lam  [  gramma  |  campis, 

arb6ri|busque  c6|mae ; 
mutat  I  terra  vi|ces  ||  et  |  decres|centia  |  ripas 

flumina  |  praeterejunt.  —  Hor.  Od.  iv.  7. 

For  the  Fourth  Archilochian  Strophe  (Archilochian  heptameter,  alternating  with 
iambic  trimeter  catalectic),  see  §626.  11. 

lAMjiic  Verse 

Iambic  Trimeter 

618.  The  Iambic  Trimeter  is  the  ordinary  verse  of  dramatic 
dialogue.  It  consists  of  three  measures,  each  containing  a  double 
iambus  (iambic  dipody).     The  caesura  is  usually  in  the  third  foot. 

Note.  —  The  sign  ^  -L  denotes  possible  substitution  of  an  Irrational  spondee  ( >— ) 
for  an  iambus  {^JL). 

a.  The  Iambic  Trimeter  is  often  used  in  lyric  poetry  (1)  as  an  inde- 
pendent system,  or  (2)  alternating  with  the  Dimeter  to  form  the  Iambic 
Strophe,  as  follows  :  — 

(1)  lam  i^"^  ^ffTca[ci  ||  do  mSntis  |  sci^ntia^ 

suppl^x  et  olro  ||  regn3,  p6r  |  Pros^rpina^, 

pgr  6t  Dlajnae  ||  non  mov6n|da  numin^, 

per  drtque  lfb|ros  ||  carminum  |  val^ntium 

defixa  ca6|lo  ||  devocalrg  sider^, 

Canidia,  par|ce  |1  vociIdus  |  tandem  sScris, 

citiimque  r^t|ro  ||  r^tro  s61|ve  turbmem. — Hor.  Epod.  17. 

The  last  two  lines  may  be  thus  translated,  to  show  the  movement 
in  English :  — 

Oh !  stay,  Canidia,  stay  thy  rites  of  sorcery, 

Thy  charm  unbinding  backward  let  thy  swift  wheel  fly  1 


§618]  IAMBIC   TRIMETER  415 

.   (2)  beatus  il|le  ||  qui  procul  |  negotiis, 

ut  prfsca  gens  j  mortalium, 
patdrna  rdjra  ||  bubus  6x|erc6t  siiis, 

soltitus  6m|ni  fenore ; 
neqa^  dxcitajtur  ||  classico  |  mil^s  truci, 

nequ^  hdrret  i|ratum  mare.  —  Hor.  Epod.  2. 

h.  In  the  stricter  form  of  Iambic  Trimeter  an  irrational  spondee  (  >  JL) 
or  its  equivalent  (a  cyclic  anapaest  w  v_/-^  or  an  apparent  dactyl  >  w  w, 
§  609.  e)  may  be  regularly  substituted  for  the  first  iambus  of  any  dipody. 
A  tribrach  (w  v^  w)  may  stand  for  an  iambus  anywhere  except  in  the 
last  place.  In  the  comic  poets  any  of  these  forms  or  the  proceleusmatic 
(wvy  \j  \^)  may  be  substituted  in  any  foot  except  the  last: — ^ 

o.  lucis  al|me  rector  ||  ^t  |  caeli  decus ! 

qu*  alt^rna  cur|rti  spatia  ||  flam|mifer^  d,mbiens, 

illustre  la^jtis  j|  ^xseris  |  terris  caput. 

—  Sen.  Here.  Fur.  592-94. 

quid  qua^ris?  dnjnos  ||  sdxagmjta  natus  es. 

—  Ter.  Haut.  62. 

homo  s«"*:  huma|m  I|  nil  a  m^  ali|enum  puto. 
vel  me  m6ne|r^  hoc  ||  v^l  perc6n|tari  puta. 

—  id.  77,  78. 

c.  The  Choliambic  (lame  Iambic)  substitutes  a  trochee  for  the  last 
iambus  :  — 

aeque  ^st  bea|tus  ||  ac  p6e|ma  cum  scribit: 
tarn  gaiidet  in  ]  se,  ||  tamque  se  lp|se  mlratur. 

—  Catull.  xxiii.  15,  16. 

Note.  —  The  verse  may  also  be  regarded  as  trochaic  with  anacrusis :  as,  — 

d.  The  Iambic  Trimeter  Catalectic  is  represented  as  follows :  — 

II  d -A  w  ^  I  ^  II -^  w -^  I  ^  iZ  ^  II 

It  is  used  in  combination  with  other  measures  (see  §  626.  11),  and  is 
shown  in  the  following  :  — 

Vulcanus  ar|dens  ||  urit  6f|ficmas.  — Hor.  Od.  i.  4. 
or  in  English  :  — 

On  purple  peaks  a  deeper  shade  descending.  —  Scott. 

1  The  greater  freedom  of  substitution  in  the  comedy  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  verse 
is  regarded  as  made  up  of  separate  feet  rather  than  of  dipodies. 


416  PROSODY:    VERSIFICATION  [§619 

Other  Iambic  Measures 
619.  Other  forms  of  Iambic  verse  are  the  following :  — 

a.  The  Iambic  Tetrameter  Catalectic  (Septenarius).  This  consists  of 
seven  and  a  half  iambic  feet,  with  diaeresis  after  the  fourtli  and  with  the 
same  substitutions  as  in  Iambic  Trimeter  :  — 

j^am  idclrc^  arc^s[sor,  nuptias  |1  quod  m^  adparajri  sensit. 
quTbus  qui'dem  quam  f acillS  potuerat  [  |  quigsci  s*  hie  |  quiesset ! 

—  Ter.  And.  690,  691. 

The  metrical  scheme  of  these  two  verses  may  be  represented  as  follows  :  — 

Its  movement  is  like  the  following  :  — • 

In  g6od  king  Charles's  g61den  days,  when  Idyalty  no  harm  meant. 

—  Vicar  of  Bray. 

b.  The  Iambic  Tetrameter  Acatalectic  (^Octonarius).  This  consists  of 
eight  full  iambic  feet  with  the  same  substitutions  as  in  Iambic  Trimeter. 
Like  the  Septenarius  it  is  used  in  lively  dialogue  :  — 

dic^t  earn  dare  |  nos  Ph6rmi6|ni  I|  nuptum  ne  ]  suscenseat; 
et  magis  ess*  All""*  idoneiim,  [[  qu*  ipsi  sit  fami|liiri6r. 

—  Ter.  Ph.  720,  721. 

The  metrical  scheme  of  these  two  verses  may  be  represented  as  follows  :  — 

c.  The  Iambic  Dimeter.     This  may  be  either  acatalectic  or  catalectic. 

1.  The  Iambic  Dimeter  Acatalectic  consists  of  four  iambic  feet.  It  is  used 
in  combination  with  some  longer  verse  (see  §  618.  a). 

2.  The  Iambic  Dimeter  Catalectic  consists  of  three  and  a  half  iambic  feet. 
It  is  used  only  in  choruses :  — 

quonam  cru^njta  Ma^nSs, 

praec^ps  amoire  sa^vo, 

rapitiir  quod  lm|  potent! 

f acinus  parat  |  furore  ?  —  Sen.  Med.  850-853. 

Note.  —  Owing  to  the  fact  that  in  modern  music  each  measure  begins  with  a  down- 
ward beat,  some  scholars  regard  all  these  forms  of  Iambic  verse  as  Trochaic  verse 
with  anacrusis  (§  6X8.  c  N.). 


§620]  TROCHAIC   VERSE  417 

Trochaic  Verse 

620.  The  most  common  form  of  Trochaic  verse  is  the  Tetram- 
eter Catalectic  {Septendrius),  consisting  of  four  dipodies,  the  last 
of  which  lacks  a  syllable.  There  is  regularly  diaeresis  after  the 
fourth  foot :  — 

\\j:.^s.^\j-^^^\\j:.^j_^\j_^_Lh\\ 

In  musical  notation  :  — 


'rAn^:v:^:\^:^^ 


ad  t^  advenio,  sp^m,  salAtem,  ||  consili"^",  auxili"*"  i^xpeteiis. 

—  Ter.  And.  319. 
In  English  verse  :  — 

T^ll  me  n6t  in  mournful  numbers  ||  life  is  but  an  ^mpty  dredm. 

—  Longfellow. 

a.  In  the  stricter  form  of  the  Septenarius  substitutions  are  allowed 
only  in  the  even  feet,  but  in  comedy  the  tribrach  \j  \j  kj,  ox  an  irrational 
•spondee  J-  >,  cyclic  dactyl  _L  wv^,  or  apparent  anapaest  w  w  >,  may  be 
substituted  for  any  of  the  first  six  feet ;  a  tribrach  for  the  seventh  :  — 

itid^'"'  habdt  petajs^"^  ac  vestitum :  ||  tarn  consimilist  |  dtqu^  ego. 
sura,  pes,  sta|tura,  tonsus,  ||  oculi,  nasum,  |  v^l  labra, 
malae,  m^ntum,  |  barba,  cdllus;  ||  totus !  qufd  ver|bis  opiist? 
SI  tergum  ci|catric6sum,  ||  nihil  hoc  similist  |  similius. 

—  PI.  Am.  443-446. 

The  metrical  scheme  of  these  four  verses  is  as  follows  :  — 

\\^!J^J^^J-^^\-L>J->\\J->  v^w>|Xw       -iLA|| 

\\-L>J_>\j.^_L>\\J.>        _L>         l^wJlAll 

h.  The  Trochaic  Tetrameter  Acatalectic  (^Octonarius),  consisting  of  four 
complete  dipodies,  occurs  in  the  lyrical  parts  of  comedy. 

Substitutions  as  in  the  Septenarius  are  allowed  except  in  the  last  foot. 

c.  Some  other  forms  of  trochaic  verse  are  found  in  the  lyric  poets,  in 
combination  with  other  feet,  either  as  whole  lines  or  parts  of  lines :  — 

non  Sbiir  ne|qu^  aiireum.     [Dimeter  Catalectic] 

med  renl|det  in  domO  |  lS,cundr.     [Iambic  Trimeter  Catalectic] 

—  Hor.  Od.  ii.  18. 


418  PROSODY:    VERSIFICATION  [§§621-623 

Mixed  Measures 

621.  Different  measures  may  be  combined  in  the  same  verse  in  two  different 
ways.  Either  (1)  a  series  of  cue  kind  is  simply  joined  to  a  series  of  another  kind 
(compare  the  changes  of  rhythm  not  uncommon  in  modern  music) ;  or  (2)  single  feet 
of  other  measures  are  combined  with  the  prevailing  measures,  in  which  case  these  odd 
feet  are  adapted  by  changing  their  quantity  so  that  they  become  irrational  (see  §  G09.  e) . 

When  enough  measures  of  one  kind  occur  to  form  a  series,  we  may  suppose  a 
change  of  rhythm;  when  they  are  isolated,  we  must  suppose  adaptation.  Of  the 
indefinite  number  of  possible  combinations  but  few  are  found  in  Latin  poetry. 

622.  The  following  verses,  combining  different  rhythmical 
series,  are  found  in  Latin  lyrical  poetry:  — 

1.  Greater  Archilochian  (Dactylic  Tetrameter ;  Trochaic  Tripody)  :  — 

\\^^\J.^\J.^\J-^\\J-^\-L^\J.^\\ 
sdlvitur  1  acris  hij^ms  grajta  vic6  H  veris  |  ^t  ra|v6nl. — Hor.  Od.  i.  4. 

Note.  —  It  is  possible  that  the  dactyls  were  cyclic ;  but  the  change  of  measure 
seems  more  probable. 

2.  Verse  consisting  of  Dactylic  Trimeter  catalectic  (Dactylic  Penihemim) ; 
iambic  Dimeter :  — 

scribere  |  v6rsicull6s  1|  amore  p^rjculsiim  gravi.  —  Hor.  Epod.  11.  2. 


Logacedic  Verse 

623.  Trochaic  verses,  containing  in  regular  prescribed  positions 
irrational  measures  or  irrational  feet  (cf.  §  609.  e),  are  called  Loga- 
cedic.    The  principal  logaoedic  forms  are  — 

1.  Logaoedic  Tetrapody  (four  feet)  :  Glyconic. 

2.  Logaoedic  Tripody  (three  feet)  :  Pherecratic  (often  treated  as  a 
syncopated  Tetrapody  Catalectic). 

3.  Logaoedic  Dipody  (two  feet)  ;  this  may  be  regarded  as  a  short  Phere- 
cratic. 

Note.  —  This  mixture  of  irrational  measures  gives  an  effect  approaching  that  oi 
prose:  hence  the  name  Logaoedic  (koyos,  doidr}).  These  measures  originated  in  the 
Greek  lyric  poetry,  and  were  adopted  by  the  Romans.  All  the  Roman  lyric  metres  not 
belonging  to  the  regular  iambic,  trochaic,  dactylic,  or  Ionic  systems,  were  constructed 
on  the  basis  of  the  three  forms  given  above :  viz.,  Logaoedic  systems  consisting  respec-^ 
tively  of  four,  three,  and  two  feet.  The  so-called  Logaoedic  Pentapody  consists  of  five 
Jteetj  but  is  to  be  ree^arded  as  composed  of  two  of  the  others. 


§§  624,  625]  LOGACEDIC   VERSE  419 

624.  Each  logaoedic  form  contains  a  single  dactyl,^  which  may 
be  either  in  the  first,  second,  or  third  place.  The  verse  may  be 
catalectic  or  acatalectic :  — 


Glycol 

lie 

Pherecratic 

i-  II- 
ii.  II 

iii.  II 

-^  ^  \     JL  w  1 

-^  w  1^  w  1 

-^  wl-£-(w)|l 
1     Aw|-^(w)|| 

^  wl^(w)ll 

II- 

11 
II 

II- 

^  w  1-C    w    1-1.(^)11  or 
-^  w  1^    v^    \lL\J-  A 

-^^\    ^(w)|| 

Note.  — The  shorter  Pherecratic  (dipody)  {-L>\j  \  J-kj),M  catalectic,  appears  to 

be  a  simple  Choriambus  ( —  w  w  | A ) ;  and,  in  general,  the  effect  of  the  logaoedic 

forms  is  Choriambic.  In  fact,  they  were  so  regarded  by  the  later  Greek  and  Latin 
metricians,  and  these  metres  have  obtained  the  general  name  of  Choriambic.  But 
they  are  not  true  choriambic,  though  they  may  very  likely  have  been  felt  to  be  such 
by  the  composer,  who  imitated  the  forms  without  much  thought  of  their  origin.  They 
may  be  read  (scanned) ,  therefore,  on  that  principle.  But  it  is  better  to  read  them  as 
logaoedic  measures ;  and  that  course  is  followed  here. 

625.  The  verses  constructed  upon  the  several  Logaoedic  forms 
or  models  are  the  following :  — 

1.  Glyconic  (^Second  Gly conic,  catalectic)  :  — 

^•-^"rrirtr 

Romae  j  principis  |  urbi|um. 
In  English :  — 

Edrms  more  r^al  than  Ifving  md,n.  —  Shelley. 

Note.  —  In  this  and  most  of  the  succeeding  forms  the  foot  preceding  the  dactyl  is 
always  irrational  in  Horace,  consisting  of  an  irrational  spondee  ( >). 

2.  Aristophanic  {First  Pherecratic) :  — 

"^-i^-'-^TTrirrirri 

t^mperat  [ora  ]  frenis.  — Hor.  Od.  i,  8. 

Note.  —  It  is  very  likely  that  this  was  made  equal  in  time  to  the  preceding  by 
protracting  the  last  two  syllables :  — 


^^'^-i^-'-^"rnrTrirrir^''T^i 


\j-Kj\lL\J.h 


rTrmnr^i 


* 


1  Different  Greek  poets  adopted  fixed  types  in  regard  to  the  place  of  the  dactyls, 
and  so  a  large  number  of  verses  arose,  each  following  a  strict  law,  which  were  imi- 
tated by  the  Romans  as  distinct  metres. 


420  PROSODY:    VERSIFICATION  [§625 

3.  Adbnic  (First  Pherecratic,  shortened)  ;  — 

T^rrtiit  I  lirbern.  --  Hor. 
Or  perhaps :  — 

4.  Pherecratic  (Second  Pherecratic)  i  — 

crds  dOndberis  ha^do.  —  Hor., 
Often  scanned  as  follows  ?  — 

5.  Lesser  Asclepiadic  (Second  Pherecratic  with  syncope  and  First  Phere^ 
cratic  catalectic) : — 

\\  JL  >  \  ^  ^  \lL  \\  -<y  yy  ]  -L  ^  \  ^  A  \\ 

Maecenas  atavis  editS  regibus.  —  Hor. 

6.  Greater  Asclepiadic  (the  same  as  5,  with  a  syncopated  Logaoedic  Dipody 
interposed)  :  — 

II  ->!  >  I  -<^  v^  I  L^  i|  -C  w  j  iZ  II  -<^  w  I  JL  w  !  M  A  II 
tu  ne  quaMerfs  —  scire  nefas  —  qu^m  mlhi,  qu^m  tibi.  —  Hor. 

7.  Lesser  Sapphic  (Logaoedic  Pentapody,  with  dactyl  in  the  third  place) :  — 

fntgg^r  vlta^  sc616rfaqu6  ptirus.  —  Hor. 
Or  in  English  :  —  • 

Brilliant  h6pes,  all  w6ven  in  gdrgeous  tfesties. — Longfellow. 

8.  Greater  Sapphic  (Third  Gly conic;  First  Pherecratic):  — 

||JLw|^>!-Ov^|!Z||-C|^v^|tZ|oA|! 
t^  deos  or6  SybSrfn  |I  cur  pr6p6ras  Smandd.  —  Hor. 

9.  Lesser   Alcaic    (Logaoedic     Tetrapody^    two    irrational   dactyls,   two 
trochees)  :  — 

^  \\-i..j\-A^Kj\-L^\J-^\\ 

v(rg!nibiis  puerisque  cdnto.  —  Hor 


§§  625,  626]  METRES   OF   HORACE  421 

10. ^Greater  Alcaic  (Logaoedic  Pentapody,  catalectic,  with  anacrusis,  and 
dactyl  in  the  third  place,  —  compare  Lesser  Sapphic)  :  — 

\\^\J.^\JL>\\-^^\J.^\6h\\ 
j^g^Mwi  ^^  tenacem  |[  propositi  virum. — Hor. 
Note.  —  Only  the  above  logaosdic  forms  are  employed  by  Horace. 

11.  Phalsecean  (Logaoedic  Pentapody,  with  dactyl  in  the  second  place) :  — 

||^>|-Cw|-£wl-^w|Xc7|| 

qua^nam  te  mala  m6ns,  mis^lll  Raitidi, 
agit  pra^cipit^"*  in  meos  lambos?  —  Catull.  xl. 
In  English  :  — 

Gdrgeous  flowerets  in  the  sunlight  shining. — Longfellow. 

12.  Glyconic  Pherecratic  (Second  Glyconic  with  syncope,  and  Second 
Pherecratic)  :  — 

11  -^  d  i  -<.  w  I  ^  w  I  iZ  II  JL  ^  I  -^.  y  I  Li  I  ^  A  11 
6  ColOnia  qua^  ciipfs  |1  p6ntg  ludere  Idngo. — Catull.  xvii, 

METRES   OF  HORACE 

626.  The  Odes  of  Horace  include  nineteen  varieties  of  stanza. 
These  are :  — 

1.  Alcaic,  consisting  of  two  Greater  Alcaics  (10),  one  Trochaic  Dimeter 
with  anacrusis,  and  one  Lesser  Alcaic  (9)^ :  — 

iust^"*  4t  tenacem  ||  propositi  viriim 
non  civi'""*  ardor  ||  prava  iubdntiiim, 
non  viiltus  Instantis  tyranni 

m^nte  quatft  solida,  nequ^  Aiister. — Od.  iii.  3. 

(Foundjn  Od.  1.  9, 16,  17,  26,  27,  29,  31,  34,  35,  37 ;  11.  1,  3,  5,  7,  9, 11, 13, 14, 15, 17, 
19,  20;  m.  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  17,  21,  23,  26,  29;  iv.  4,  9,  14,  15.) 

Note.  — The  Alcaic  Strophe  is  named  after  the  Greek  poet  Alcseus  of  Lesbos,  and 
was  a  special  favorite  with  Horace,  of  whose  Odes  thirty-seven  are  in  this  form.  It 
is  sometimes  called  the  Horatian  Stanza. 

2.  Sapphic  (minor),  consisting  of  three  Lesser  Sapphics  (7)  and  one 

Adonic  (3)  :  —  ^  , 

iam  satfe  terns  ||  nivis  atque  dirae 

grandinfe  mlsit  I|  pater  6t  rub^nte 

d^xterd  sacras  ||  iaculatus  arcis 

•     terruit  lirbem. — Od.  i.  2. 

(Found  in  Od.  i.  2,  10,  12,  20.  22,  25,  30,  32,  38 ;  ii.  2,  4,  6,  8, 10, 10 ;  iii.  8, 11, 14, 18 
20j  22,  27 ;  iv.  2,  6,  11;  Carm.  Saec.) 

i  The  figures  refer  to  the  foregoing  hst  (§  625). 


422  PROSODY:    VERSIFICATION  [§626 

Note.  —  The  Sapphic  Stanza  is  named  after  the  poetess  Sappho  of  Lesbos,  and 
was  a  great  favorite  with  the  ancients.  It  is  used  by  Horace  in  twenty-five  Odes  — 
more  frequently  than  any  other  except  the  Alcaic. 

3.  Sapphic  (major),  consisting  of  one  Aristophanic  (2)  and  one  Greater 

Sapphic  (8)  ;  — 

Lydia  die,  per  6mni9 

t6  de^s  oro,  Sybarfn  |j  cur  properas  amand6. — Od.  i.  8. 

4._Asclepiadean  I  (minor),  consisting  of  Lesser  Asclepiadics  (5)  :  — 

^xSgi  monument""*  II  a^re  per^nnius 
regalique  sitd  1|  pyramid"'"'  altius. — Od.  iii.  30. 
(Found  in  Od.  i.  1;  iii.  30;  iv.  8.) 

5.  Asclepiadean   II,   consisting  of   one    Glyconic  (1)   and  one  Lesser 

Asclepiadic  (5) :  —         ^  ^ 

navis  qua^  tibi  creditiim 
debes  V^rgiliiim,  |I  finibus  Atticis 

r6ddas  Incolumem,  prec6r, 
^t  serves  animad  ||  dimidiiim  mea6. — Od.  i.  3. 

(Found  in  Od.  i.  3,  13,  19,  36;  iii.  9,  15,  19,  24,  25,  28;  iv.  i,  3.) 

6.  Asclepiadean  III,  consisting  of  three  Lesser  Asclepiadics  (5)  and  one 

(rlyconic  (1) : —  ^        , 

qufe  desiderio  ||  sft  pudor  aiit  modiis 
tarn  carl  capitis?  1|  praecipe  lugubrfe 
cantiis,  Melpomene,  ||  cui  liquidam  pat^r 
vocem  cTim  cithara  dedit. — Od.  i,  24. 
(Found  in  Od.  i.  6,  15,  24,  33;  ii.  12;  iii.  10,  16;  iv.  5,  12.) 

7.  Asclepiadean  IV,  consisting  of  two  Lesser  Asclepiadics  (5),  one 
Pherecratic  (4),  and  one  Glyconic  (1)  :  — 

6  f5ns  Bandusia^  II  spl^ndididr  vitro, 
diilcl  digne  mero,  ||  non  sine  fl6ribus, 
eras  donaberis  ha^dO 

cuf  frons  tiirgida  c6rnibus. — Od.  iii.  13. 
(Found  in  Od.  i.  5,  14,  21,  23;  iii  7, 13;  iv.  13.) 

8.  Asclepiadean  V  (major),  consisting  of  Greater  Asclepiadics  (6) :  — 

tu  n6  qua^sierls,  I|  scire  nefasl  |1  qu^m  mihi,  qu^m  tibi 
finein  dl  dederfnt,  ||  Ledconoe,  |I  n^c  Babylonios 
t^ntarls  numer6s. — Od.  i.  11. 

(Found  in  Od.  i.  11,  18;  iv.  10.) 

9.  Aicmanian,  consisting  of  Dactylic  Hexameter  (§  615)  alternating 
with  Tetrameter  (§  617.  a).     (Od.  i  7,  28 ;  Epod,  12.) 


§626]  METRES  OF  HORACE  423 

10.  Archilochian  T,  consisting  of  a  Dactylic  Hexameter  alternating  with 
a  Dactylic  Penthemim  (see  §  617.  b).     (Od.  iv.  7.) 

11.  Archilochian  IV,  consisting  of  a  Greater  Archilochian  (Jieptameter, 
§  622.  1),  followed  by  Iambic  Trimeter  Catalectic  (§  618.  d).  The  stanza 
consists  of  two  pairs  of  verses  :  — 

s61vitur  acris  hi^ms  grata  vice  ||  Veris  ^t  Favoni, 

trahuntque  siccas  ||  machinal  carinas; 
dc  neque  iam  stabulis  gaud^t  pecus,  ||  aut  arator  fgni, 

nee  piata  cams  ||  albicant  prumls. — ^Od.  i.  4. 

12.  Iambic  Trimeter  alone  (see  §  618).     (Epod.  17.) 

13.  Iambic  Strophe  (see  §  618.  a).     (Epod.  1-10.) 

14.  Dactylic  Hexameter  alternating  with  Iambic  Dimeter :  — 

n6x  erat,  ^t  caelo  ||  fulgebat  luna  sereno 

int^r  minora  sidera, 
cum  tti,  magnorum  |1  num^n  laesdra  deorum, 

in  v^rba  idrabas  mea. — Epod.  16.     (So  in  Epod.  14.) 

15.  Dactylic  Hexameter  with  Iambic  Trimeter  (§  618);  — 

dltera  idm  teritur  ||  bellis  civflibus  a^tas, 
suis  et  Ipsa  Roma  j]  viribus  ruit. — Epod.  16. 

16.  Verse  of  Four  Lesser  Ionics  (§  609.  c.  2):  — 

miserar^"*  est  |  nequ^  amori  |  dare  liidum  |  neque  dulcl 
mala  vino  |  laver^  aut  exlanimari  |  metuentis.  —  Od.  iii.  12. 

17.  Iambic  Trimeter  (§  618);  Dactylic  Penthemim  (§  617.  &);  Iambic 

Pettf,  nihfl  me  I|  sicut  ante4  iuvat 
scribere  v^rsiculds  ||  amore  pdrculsum  gravi. — Epod.  11. 

18.  Dactylic  Hexameter;  Iambic  Dimeter;  Dactylic  Penthemim (§  617.  l): 

h6rrida  t^mpestas  ||  caelum  contraxit,  et  fmbres 
nivesque  deduciint  lov^m ;  ||  nunc  mare,  mine  siliia^  .  .  . 

—Epod.  13. 

19.  Trochaic  Dimeter,  Iambic  Trimeter,  each  catalectic  (see  §  620.  c). 

INDEX  TO  THE  METRES  OF  HORACE 

Lib.  I 

1.  Maecenas  atavis :  4.  8.  Lydiadic:  3. 

2.  Jam  satis  terns :  2.  9.  Vides  ut  alta, :  1. 

3.  Sic  te  diva:  5.  10.  Mercuri  facunde  nepOs :  2. 

4.  Solvitur  ficris  hiems:  11.  11.  Tu  ne  quaesieris:  8. 

5.  Quismulta:  7.  12.  Quemvirum:  2. 

6.  Scribens  Vario :  6.  13.  Cum  tu  Lydia :  5. 

7.  Laudabunt  alii :  9.  14.  Onavis:  7. 


424 


PROSODY:    VERSIFICATION 


62G 


15.  Pastor  cum  traheret :  0. 

16.  O  matre  pulchra :  1. 

17.  Velox  ainoenuiu :  1. 

18.  Nullam  Vare:  8. 

19.  Mater  saeva :  5. 

20.  Vilepotabis:  2. 

21.  Diauam  tenerae:  7. 

22.  Integer  \itae :  2. 

23.  Vitas  inuleo:  7. 

24.  Quis  desiderio :  6. 

25.  Parcius  iunctas:  2. 

26.  Musis  amicus :  1. 


Natis  in  usum:  1. 
Te  maris:  9. 
Icci  beatis:  1. 
6  Venus :  2. 
Quid  dedicatum:  1. 
Posciraur:  2. 
Albi  ne  doleas:  G. 
Parous  deorum:  1. 
Odiva:  1. 
Et  ture :  5. 
Nunc  est  bibendum : 
Persicos  odi :  2. 


Lib.  II 


1.  Motum  ex  Metello :  1. 

2.  Nullus  argents :  2. 

3.  Aequam  memento :  1. 

4.  Ne  sit  ancillae :  2. 

5.  Nondum  subacta :  1, 

6.  Septimi  Gades:  2. 

7.  O  saepe  mecum :  1. 

8.  Ulla  si  iuris :  2. 

9.  Non  semper  imbres :  1. 
10.  Rectius  vives :  2. 


11.  Quid  bellieosus :  1. 

12.  No  lis  louga:  6. 

13.  Ille  et  nefasto :  1. 

14.  Eheu  fugaces:  1. 

15.  lam  pauca:  1. 

16.  Otium  divos :  2. 

17.  Cur  me  querellis :  1. 

18.  Nonebur:  19. 

19.  Bacchum  in  remotis :  Ic 

20.  Non  usitata:  1. 


Lib.  Ill 


1.  Odi  profenum:  1. 

2.  Angustam  amice  :  1. 

3.  lustum  et  tenacem :  1. 

4.  Descende  caelo :  1. 

5.  Caelo  tonantem :  1. 

6.  Delicta  maiorum :  1. 

7.  Quidfles:  7, 

8.  Martiis  caelebs :  2. 

9.  Donee  gratus:  5. 

10.  Extremum  Tanain :  6. 

11.  Mercuri  nam  te :  2. 

12.  Miserarum  est :  16. 

13.  O  fons  Bandusiae :  7. 

14.  Herculis  ritu :  2. 

15.  Uxor  pauperis :  5. 


16.  Inclusam  Danaen:  6. 

17.  Aeli  vetusto:  1. 

18.  Faune  nympbfirum :  2. 

19.  Quantum  distet :  5. 

20.  Non  vides:  2, 

21.  Onata  mecum:  1. 

22.  Montium  cu  stos :  2. 

23.  Caelo  supinas:  1. 

24.  Intactis  opulentior :  5. 

25.  Quo  me  Bacche :  5. 

26.  Vixi  puellis :  1. 

27.  Impios  parrae :  2. 

28.  Festo  quid:  5. 

29.  Tyrrbena  regum :  1. 

30.  Exegi  monumeutum :  4. 


Lib.  IV 


1.  Intermissa  Venus :  5. 

2.  Pindarum  qnisquis:  2. 

3.  Quern  tu  Melpomene :  5. 

4.  Qualem  ministrum :  1. 

5.  Di vis  orte  bonis :  6. 

6.  Dive  quera  pr5les ;  2. 

7.  Diffugere  nives :  10. 
8    Dona  rem  patents :  4. 


9.  Ne  forte  credas:  1. 

10.  O  crudelis  adhuc:  8. 

11.  Est  mibi  nonum :  2. 

12.  lam  veris  comites:  6. 

13.  Audivere  Lyce  :  7. 

14.  Quae  cura  patrum :  1. 

15.  Phoebus  volentem :  1. 
Carmen  Saeculdre :  2. 


§§  626-628]  MISCELLANEOUS  425 

Epodes 

1.  Ibis  Liburnis :  13.  10.  Malasoluta:  13. 

2.  Beatusille:  13.  11.  Petti  nihil:  17. 

3.  Parentis  olim :  13.  12.  Quid  tibi  vis :  9. 

4.  Lupis  et  agnis :  13.  13.  Iloi-rida  tempestas :  18. 

5.  At  o  deorum :  13.  14.  Mollis  inertia :  14. 

6.  Quid  immerentis :  13.  15.  Noxerat:  14. 

7.  Quo  quo  scelesti :  13.  16.  Altera  iam:  15. 

8.  Rogare  longo:  13.  17.  Iam  iam  efiticaci:  12. 

9.  Quaiido  repostum :  13. 

627.  Other  lyric  poets  use  other  combinations  of  the  above 
mentioned  verses :  — 

a,  Glyconics  with  one  Pherecraiic  (both  imperfect) :  — 

Diajna^  siimus  |  fn  fidg 
puel[l"^  ^t  ptie|r*  Integrl : 
Dialnara,  puelr*  fntegrf 

pueljladque  ca|ua|mus. — Catull.  xxxiv. 

h,  Sapphics,  in  a  series  of  single  lines,  closing  with  an  Adonic:—- 
An  majgis  dllri  tremujere  |  Manes 
H^rcujl^'"  ?  ^t  vilsiim  canis  |  infelrorum 
fugit  I  abrup|tis  trepi|dus  cajtenis  ? 
fallilmiir :  laejlB  venit  |  ^cce  j  vultii, 
qu^m  tuilit  Poe|as ;  humelrisque  |  tela 
gfetat  I  ^t  no|tas  p6pu|lfs  pha|r6tras 

H^rculis  I  heres.  —  Sen.  Here.  Oet.  1600-1606. 

c.  Sapphics  followed  by  Glyconics^  of  indefinite  number  (id.  Here.  Fur. 

830-874,  875-894). 

MISCELLANEOUS 

628.  Other  measures  occur  in  various  styles  of  poetry. 

a.  Anapaestic  (§  609.  b.  2)  verses  of  various  lengths  are  found  in  dramatic 
poetry.  The  spondee,  dactyl,  or  proceleusmatic  may  be  substituted  for  the 
anapaest:—         ^^^  h5m6st  [  omnF"*  hSmilnum  pra^|cipu6s 

v61iipta|tTbus  gau|dnsqu^  an|tep6tens. 
ita  c6mlm6da  qua^  |  ciipP  e]venmnt, 
quod  ago  I  siibit,  ^dlseciii  ]  sequitfir: 
ita  gaiildium  siiplpeditat.  — PL  Trin.  1115-1119. 

b,  Bacchiac  (§  609.  d.  4)  verses  (five-timed)  occur  in  the  dramatic  poets,  — 
very  rarely  in  Terence,  more  commonly  in  Plautus,  —  either  in  verses  of  two 
feet  (Dimeter)  or  of  fom-  (Tetrameter).     They  are  treated  very  freely,  as  are 


426  PROSODY :    VERSIFICATION  [§§  628,  629 

all  measures  in  early  Latin.     The  long  syllables  may  be  resolved,  or  the 
molossus  (three  longs)  substituted  :  — 

multas  res  |  simit^  in  |  me6  cor|de  v(5rso, 

mult^"*  in.  co|gitando  |  dolor^"^  in|dipisc6r. 

egom^t  me  |  cog^  4t  malcer^  ^t  dejfatfgo; 

mS,gister  |  mih*  ^xer|cit6r  am  mus  mine  est. 

—  PI.  Trin.  223-226. 

c.  Cretic  measures  (§  609.  d.  1)  occur  in  the  same  manner  as  the  Bac- 
chiac,  with  the  same  substitutions.     The  last  foot  is  usually  incomplete  :  — 

amor  amijcus  mThi  |  ne  fiias  |  umqnam. 

his  ego  I  d^  artibus  |  gratiam  |  fS-cio. 

nil  eg*'  is|t6s  moror  |  fadceos  |  mores,  —id.  267,  293,  297. 

d,  Saturnian  Verse.  In  early  Latin  is  found  a  rude  form  of  verse,  not 
borrowed  from  the  Greek  like  the  others,  but  as  to  the  precise  nature  of 
which  scholars  are  not  agreed.^ 

1.  According  to  one  view  the  verse  is  based  on  quantity,  is  composed  of 
six  feet,  and  is  divided  into  two  parts  by  a  caesura  before  the  fourth  thesis. 
Each  thesis  may  consist  of  a  long  syllable  or  of  two  short  ones,  each  arsis 
of  a  short  syllable,  a  long  syllable,  or  two  short  syllables ;  but  the  arsis, 
except  at  the  beginning  of  the  verse  and  before  the  caesura,  is  often  entirely 
suppressed,  though  rarely  more  than  once  in  the  same  verse :  — 

dabunt  malum  Met^Ili  ||  Na^vio  poetae. 

2.  According  to  another  theory  the  Saturnian  is  made  up,  without  regard 
to  quantity,  of  alternating  accented  and  unaccented  syllables ;  but  for  any 
unaccented  syllable  two  may  be  substituted,  and  regularl}^  are  so  substituted 
in  the  second  foot  of  the  verse  :  — 

dabunt  malum  Metdlli  ||  Na^vio  poStae. 

EARLY  PROSODY 

629.  The  prosody  of  the  earlier  poets  differs  in  several  re- 
spects from  that  of  the  later.^ 

a.  At  the  end  of  words  s,  being  only  feebly  sounded,  does  not  make 
position  with  a  following  consonant;  it  sometimes  disappeared  altogether. 
This  usage  continued  in  all  poets  till  Cicero's  time  (§  15.  7). 

1  The  two  principal  theories  only  are  given.  There  are  numerous  variations,  par- 
ticularly of  the  second  theory  here  stated. 

2  Before  the  Latin  language  was  used  in  literature,  it  had  become  much  changed 
by  the  loss  of  final  consonants  and  the  shortening  of  final  syllables  under  the  influence 
of  accent.  In  many  cases  this  change  was  still  in  progress  in  the  time  of  the  early 
poets.  This  tendency  was  arrested  by  the  study  of  grammar  and  by  literature,  but 
Sihows  itself  again  in  the  Romance  languages. 


§629]  EARLY  PROSODY  -  427 

b.  A  long  syllable  immediately  preceded  or  followed  by  the  ictus  may 
be  shortened  (iambic  shortening^  :  — 

1.  In  a  word  of  two  syllables  of  which  the  first  is  short  (this  effect  remained  in 
a  few  words  like  puts,  cave,  vale,  vide,  ego,  modo,  duo^):  — 

abi  (Ter.  Ph.  59);  bom  (id.  616) ;  homo  suavis  (id.  411). 

2.  If  it  is  either  a  monosyllable  or  the  first  syllable  of  a  word  which  is  pre- 
ceded by  a  short  monosyllable  :  — 

sed  has  tabellas  (PI.  Pers.  195) ;  quid  hic  nunc  (id.  Epid.  157) ;  per  mplu- 
vium  (Ter.  Ph.  707) ;  eg^  ost^nderem  (id.  793). 

3.  "When  preceded  by  a  short  initial  syllable  in  a  word  of  more  than  three 
syllables : — 

veniistatis  (Ter.  Hec.  848) ;  senectutem  (id.  Ph.  434) ;  Syracusas  (PI.  Merc. 
37) ;  amicitia  (id.  Ps.  1263). 

c.  In  a  few  isolated  words  position  is  often  disregarded.^  Such  are  ille, 
immo,  inde,  iste,  6mnis,  nempe,  quippe,  unde. 

d.  The  original  long  quantity  of  some  final  syllables  is  retained. 

1.  The  ending  -or  is  retained  long  in  nouns  with  long  stem-vowel  (original  r- 
stems  or  original  s-stems) :  — 

m6do  quom  diet*  in  m^  Ingerebas  6dium  nOn  uxor  eram  (PI.  Asin.  927). 
Ita  m*  in  p^ctor^  atque  c6rde  facit  amor  inc^ndium  (id.  Merc.  500). 
atque  quanto  n6x  fuisti  16ngi6r  hac  prdxuma  (id.  Am.  648). 

2.  The  termination  -es  (-itis)  is  sometimes  retained  long,  as  in  miles,  superstes. 

3.  All  verb-endings  in  -r,  -s,  and  -t  may  be  retained  long  where  the  vowel  is 
elsewhere  long  in  inflection  :  — 

r^gredior  audisse  me  (PI.  Capt.  1023);  atqu^  ut  qui  fueris  et  qui  nunc  (id. 
248);  me  nominat  haec  (id.  Epid.  iv.  1.  8);  faciat  ut  semper  (id.  Poen. 
ii.  42);  infuscabat,  amabo  (cretics,  id.  Cist.  i.  21);  qui  amet  (id.  Merc. 
1021) ;  ut  fit  in  b^llo  capitur  alter  filius  (id.  Capt.  25);  tibi  sit  ad  me 
revisas  (id.  True.  ii.  4.  79). 

e.  Hiatus  (§  612.  g)  is  allowed  somewhat  freely,  especially  at  a  pause 
in  the  sense,  or  when  there  is  a  change  of  speaker.^ 

1  Cf.  ambo  (also  a  dual,  p.  59,  footnote),  in  which  the  6  is  retained  because  of  the 
length  of  the  first  syllable. 

'^  Scholars  are  not  yet  agreed  upon  the  principle  or  the  extent  of  this  irregularity. 

3  The  extent  of  this  license  is  still  a  question  among  scholars ;  but  in  the  present 
sUte  of  texts  it  must  sometimes  be  allowed. 


428  MISCELLANEOUS  [§§  630,  B31 


MISCELLANEOUS 

Reckoning  of  Time 

630.  The  Roman  Year  was  designated,  in  earlier  times,  by  the  names  of  the 
Consuls ;  but  was  afterwards  reckoned  from  the  building  of  the  City  {ah  urbe  conditd, 
anno  urbis  condUae),  the  date  of  which  was  assigned  by  Varro  to  a  period  correspond- 
ing with  B.C.  753.  In  order,  therefore,  to  reduce  Roman  dates  to  those  of  the  Christian 
era,  the  year  of  the  city  is  to  be  subtracted  from  754:  e.g.  a.u.c.  691  (the  year  of 
Cicero's  consulship)  corresponds  to  b.c.  (33. 

Before  Caesar's  reform  of  the  Calendar  (b.c.  46),  the  Roman  year  consisted  of  355 
days:  March,  May,  Quintilis  (July),  and  October  having  each  31  days,  February  hav- 
ing 28,  and  each  of  the  remainder  29.  As  this  calendar  year  was  too  short  for  the 
solar  year,  the  Romans,  in  alternate  years,  at  the  discretion'of  the  poiitijices,  inserted 
a  month  of  varying  length  (mensis  inter  col  dr  is)  after  February  23,  and  omitted  the 
rest  of  February.  The  "  Julian  year,"  by  Caesar's  reformed  Calendar,  had  365  days, 
divided  into  months  as  at  present.  Every  fourth  year  the  24th  of  February  (vi.  Kal. 
Mart.)  was  counted  twice,  giving  29  days  to  that  month :  hence  the  year  was  called 
bisseztilis.  The  month  Quintilis  received  the  name  lulius  (July),  in  honor  of  Julius 
Caesar;  and  Sextilis  was  called  Augustus  (August),  in  honor  of  his  successor.  The 
Julian  year  (see  below)  remained  unchanged  till  the  adoption  of  the  Gregorian  Calen- 
dar (a.d.  1582),  which  omits  leap-year  three  times  in  every  four  hundred  years. 

631.  Dates,  according  to  the  Roman  Calendar,  are  reckoned 
as  follows:  — 

a»  ThQ  first  day  of  the  month  was  called  Kalendae  (^Calends). 

Note.  — Kalendae  is  derived  from  calare,  to  call,  — the  Calends  being  the  day  on 
which  the  pontiffs  publicly  announced  the  New  Moon  in  the  Comitia  Caldta.  This 
they  did,  originally,  from  actual  observation. 

b.  On  the  fifteenth  day  of  March,  May,  July,  and  October,  but  the  thir- 
teenth of  the  other  months,  were  the  Idus  (Ides),  the  day  of  Full  Moon. 

c.  On  the  seventh  day  of  March,  May,  July,  and  October,  but  the  fifth 
of  the  other  months,  were  the  Nonae  (Nones  or  ninths). 

d.  From  the  three  points  thus  determined,  the  days  of  the  month  were 
reckoned  backwards  as  so  many  days  before  the  Nones,  the  Ides,  or  the 
Calends.  The  point  of  departure  was,  by  Roman  custom,  counted  in  the 
reckoning,  the  second  day  being  three  days  before,  etc.  This  gives  the  fol- 
lowing rule  for  determining  the  date  :  — 

If  the  given  date  be  Calends,  add  tivo  to  the  number  of  days  in  the  month  pre- 
ceding, —  if  Nones  or  Ides,  add  one  to  that  of  the  day  on  which  they  fall,  —  and 
from  the  number  thus  ascertained  subtract  the  given  date.     Thus,  — 

VIII.  Kal.  Feb.  (31  -f  2  -  8)  =  Jan.  25. 

IV.  Non.  Mar.  (7  -f- 1  -  4)  =  Mar.  4. 

IV.  Id.  Sept.  (13  -h  1  -  4)  =  Sept.  10. 


§§  631,  632] 


CALENDAR 


429 


Note.  — The  name  of  the  month  appears  as  an  adjective  in  agreement  with  Kalen- 
dae,  Nonae,  Idus. 

For  peculiar  constructions  in  dates,  see  §  424.  g. 

e.  The  days  of  the  Roman  month  by  the  Julian  Calendar,  as  thus  ascer- 
tained, are  given  in  the  following  table :  — 


January 


February 


March 


April 


1.  Kal.  Ian.            Kal.  Feb. 

Kal.  Marti ae 

Kal.  Apriles 

2.  IV.  Nou.  Ian.        iv.  Non.  Feb. 

VI.  Non.  Mart. 

IV.  Non.  Apr. 

3.  III.    " 

III.    " 

V.      "          " 

III.    " 

4.  prid." 

"           prid."        " 

IV.      "             " 

prid." 

5.  NoN.  Ian.             Non.  Feb. 

III.  " 

Non.  APRiLfis 

6.  VIII.  Id 

.  Ian.         VIII.  id.  Feb. 

prid." 

vm.  id.  Apr. 

7.  vn.    " 

"              VII.     "        " 

NoN.  Martiae 

VII.     "        " 

8.  VI.     " 

VI.      "        " 

VIII.  id.  Mart. 

VI.       "         " 

9.  V.       " 

V.        "       " 

VII.     "          " 

V.         "         " 

10.  IV.     " 

"                IV.        "         " 

VI.       "         " 

IV.       "         " 

11.  III.     " 

III.    "     " 

V.        "         " 

III.    "     " 

12.  prid.  " 

prid.  "       " 

IV.       " 

prid.  "      " 

13.  IdusU 

LN.              iDiJs  Feb. 

III.     " 

Idus  Apriles. 

14.  XIX.  K. 

il.  Feb.      XVI.  Kal.  Martias 

prid.  "        " 

XVIII.  Kal.  Maias 

15.  xvm.  ' 

'        "           XV.        "            " 

ioiis  Martiae 

xvn.      "         •♦ 

16.  XVII.    ' 

'        "            XIV.       " 

XVII.  Kal.  Aprilis. 

XVI.         " 

17.  XVI.     ' 

.        <<           XIII.      "            " 

XVI.        * 

XV.            "             " 

18.  XV.      ' 

'        "            XII.        " 

XV.          ' 

XIV. 

19.  XIV.     ' 

'         "             XI.          "             " 

XIV.         ' 

XIII. 

20.  XIII. 

'         "            X.            "             " 

XIII.        ' 

XII.            "             " 

21.  XII. 

'         "             IX.          " 

XII. 

XI. 

22.  XI. 

'      "         vni.    "         " 

XI.           * 

X. 

23.  X. 

'        "           VII.       " 

X.              ' 

IX.             "             " 

24.  ES.       ' 

5             "                  VI.               "                   " 

IX.             ' 

VIII.          "             " 

25.  vm.     ' 

'        "            V. 

vm.      ' 

VII. 

26.  VII.      ' 

'         "             IV.          " 

VII.         ' 

VI. 

27.  VI. 

'      "        III.      "        " 

VI.            ' 

V. 

28.  V. 

*      "         prid.    "         " 

V. 

IV. 

29.  IV. 

'       "          [prid.  Kal.  Mart,  in 

IV.            ' 

III. 

30.  ni.       ' 

'      "             leap-year,  the  vi. 

III. 

prid.      " 

31.  prid.    ' 

'      "             Kal.  (24th)  being 

prid.      ' 

(So  June,  Sept., 

(So  Au 

g.,  Dec.)        counted  twice.] 

(So  May 

,  July,  Oct.) 

Nov.) 

Note.  —  Observe  that  a  date  before  the  Julian  Reform  (b.c.  46)  is  to  be  found  not 
by  the  above  table,  but  by  taking  the  earlier  reckoning  of  the  number  of  days  in  the 
month. 

Measures  of  Value,  etc. 

632.  The  money  of  the  Komans  was  in  early  times  wholly  of  cop- 
per. The  unit  was  the  as,  which  was  nominally  a  pound  in  weight,  but 
actually  somewhat  less.     It  was  divided  into  twelve  unciae  (ounces). 


430  MISCELLANEOUS  [§§  632-636 

In  the  third  century  b.c.  the  as  was  gradually  reduced  to  one-half 
of  its  original  value.  In  the  same  century  silver  coins  were  intro- 
duced, —  the  denarius  and  the  sestertius.  The  denarius  =  10  asses ; 
the  sestertius  =  2^  asses. 

633.  The  Sestertius  was  probably  introduced  at  a  time  when  the 
as  had  been  so  far  reduced  that  the  value  of  the  new  coin  (2-^  asses) 
was  equivalent  to  the  original  value  of  the  as.  Hence,  the  Sester- 
tius (usually  abreviated  to  U  %  or  HS)  came  to  be  used  as  the  unit 
of  value,  and  nummus,  coin,  often  means  simply  sestertius.  As  the 
reduction  of  the  standard  went  on,  the  sestertius  became  equivalent 
to  4  asses.  Gold  was  introduced  later,  the  aureus  being  equal  to 
100  sesterces.  The  approximate  value  of  these  coins  is  seen  in  the 
following  table :  — 

2^  asses  =  1  sestertius  or  nummus,  value  nearly  5  cents  (2^d.). 

10    asses  or  4  sestertii  =  1  denarius  .     "        "      20    "      (10  d.). 

1000    sestertii  =  1  sestertium      ..."        "      $50.00    (£10). 

Note.  —  The  word  sestertius  is  a  shortened  form  of  semis-tertius,  the  third  one,  a 
half.    The  abbreviation  ++&  or  HS  =  duo  et  semis,  two  and  a  half.' 

634.  The  sestertium  (probably  originally  the  genitive  plural  of  ses- 
tertius depending  on  mille)  was  a  sum  of  money,  not  a  coin  ;  the  word 
is  inflected  regularly  as  a  neuter  noun  :  thus,  tria  sestertia=:  $150.00. 

When  sestertium  is  combined  with  a  numeral  adverb,  centena  milia, 
hundreds  of  thousands,  is  to  be  understood :  thus  deciens  sestertium 
(deciens  hs)  —  deciens  centena  milia  sestertium  =  $50,000.  Sestertium  in 
this  combination  may  also  be  inflected  :  deciens  sestertii,  sestertio,  etc. 

In  the  statement  of  large  sums  sestertium  is  often  omitted  as  well 
as  centena  milia:  thus  sexagiens  (Rose.  Am.  2)  signifies,  sexagiens 
[centena  milia  sestertium]  =  6,000,000  sesterces  =  $300,000  (nearly). 

635.  In  the  statement  of  sums  of  money  in  Eoman  numerals,  a 
line  above  the  number  indicates  thousands ;  lines  above  and  at  the 
sides  also,  hundred-thousands.  Thus  hs  dc  =  600  sgstertii;  hs  dc  = 
600,000  sestertii,  or  600  sestertia;  hs  [dc]  =  60,000,000  sestertii,  or 
60,000  sestertia. 

636.  The  Eoman  Measures  of  Length  are  the  following:  — 

12  inches  (unciae)  =  1  Roman  Foot  (pes;  11.65  English  inches). 
1^  Feet  =  1  Cubit  (cubitum).  —  2^  Feet  =  1  Step  (gradus). 
5    Feet  =  1  Pace  {passus).  — 1000  Paces  {mllle  passuum)  =  1  Mile. 


§§636-638]       MEASURES   OF  WEIGHT  AND   CAPACITY  431 

The  Roman  mile  was  equal  to  4850  English  feet. 

The  iiigerum,  or  unit  of  measure  of  land,  was  an  area  of  240  (Roman) 
feet  long  and  120  broad;  a  little  less  than  |  of  an  English  acre. 

637.  The  Measures  of  Weight  are  — 

12  unciae  (ounces)  =  one  pound  {libra,  about  |  lb.  avoirdupois). 

Fractional  parts  (weight  or  coin)  are  — 

j^^,  uncia.  y\,  quincunx.  |,  dodrdns. 

I,  sextans. 
I,  quadrdns. 
A,  triens. 

The  Talent  (talentum)  was  a  Greek  weight  (rdXavTov)  =  60  librae. 

638.  The  Measures  of  Capacity  are  — 

12  cyathl    =  1  sextdrius  (nearly  a  pint). 
16  sextdrii  =  1  modius  (peck). 

6  sextdrii  =  1  congius  (3  quarts,  liquid  measure). 

8  congii    =  1  amphora  (6  gallons). 


I,  semis. 

f,  dextans. 

1^2,  septunx. 

}l,  deunx. 

|,  bes  or  bessis. 

if,  as. 

432  GLOSSARY  [§§  639, 640 


GLOSSAET 

OF    TERMS    USED   IN   GRAMMAR,    RHETORIC,    AND    PROSODY 

639.  Many  of  these  terms  are  pedantic  names  given  by  early  grammarians  to  forms 
of  speech  used  naturally  by  writers  who  were  not  conscious  that  they  were  using  fig- 
ures at  all  —  as,  indeed,  they  were  not.  Thus  when  one  says,  "It  gave  me  no  little 
pleasure,"  he  is  unconsciously  using  litotes;  when  he  says,  "John  went  up  the  street, 
James  down,"  antithesis;  when  he  says,  "High  as  the  sky,"  hyperbole.  Many  were 
given  under  a  mistaken  notion  of  the  nature  of  the  usage  referred  to.  Thus  med  and 
ted  (§  143.  a.  n.)  were  supposed  to  owe  their  d  to  paragoge,  siimpsi  its  p  to  epenthesis. 
Such  a  sentence  as  "  See  my  coat,  how  well  it  fits !  "  was  supposed  to  be  an  irregularity 
to  be  accounted  for  by  prolepsis. 

Many  of  these,  however,  are  convenient  designations  for  phenomena  which  often 
occur ;  and  most  of  them  have  an  historic  interest,  of  one  kind  or  another. 

640.   Grammatical  Terms 

Anacoluthon:  a  change  of  construction  in  the  same  sentence,  leaving  the 

first  part  broken  or  unfinished. 
Anastrophe:  inversion  of  the  usual  order  of  words. 
Apodosis:  the  conclusion  of  a  conditional  sentence  (see  Protasis). 
Archaism:  an  adoption  of  old  or  obsolete  forms. 
Asyndeton:  omission  of  conjunctions  (§  323.6). 
Barbarism:  adoption  of  foreign  or  unauthorized  forms. 
Brachylogy :  brevity  of  expression. 
Crasis:  contraction  of  two  vowels  into  one  (§  15.  3). 
Ellipsis:  omission  of  a  word  or  words  necessary  to  complete  the  sense. 
Enallage:  substitution  of  one  word  or  form  for  another. 
Epenthesis:  insertion  of  a  letter  or  syllable. 
Hellenism:  use  of  Greek  forms  or  constructions. 
Hendiadys  (%v  8ta  Svotv) :  the  use  of  two  nouns,  with  a  conjunction,  instead 

of  a  single  modified  noun. 
Hypallage:  interchange  of  constructions. 
Hysteron  proteron:   a  reversing  of  the  natural  order  of  ideas. 

This  term  was  applied  to  cases  where  the  natural  sequence  of  events  is  violated  in 
language  because  the  later  event  is  of  more  importance  than  the  earlier  and  so  comes 
first  to  the  mind.  This  was  supposed  to  be  an  artificial  embellishment  in  Greek,  and 
so  was  imitated  in  Latin.  It  is  still  found  in  artless  narrative ;  cf .  "  Bred  and  Born  in 
a  Brier  Bush  "  (Uncle  Remus). 

Metathesis:  transposition  of  letters  in  a  word. 

Paragoge :   addition  of  a  letter  or  letters  to  the  end  of  a  word. 

Parenthesis :  insertion  of  a  phrase  interrupting  the  construction. 


§§  640,  641]  RHETORICAL  FIGURES  433 

Periphrasis:  a  roundabout  way  of  expression  {circumlocution). 
Pleonasm:  the  use  of  needless  words. 

Polysyndeton:  the  use  of  an  unnecessary  number  of  copulative  conjunctions. 
Prolepsis :  the  use  of  a  word  in  the  clause  preceding  the  one  where  it  would 

naturally  appear  (anticipation'). 
Protasis:  a  clause  introduced  by  a  conditional  expression  (if,  when,  whoever), 

leading  to  a  conclusion  called  the  Apodosis  (§  512). 
Syncope:  omission  of  a  letter  or  syllable  from  the  middle  of  a  word. 
Synesis  (constructio  ad  sensum) :  agreement  of  words  according  to  the  sense, 

and  not  the  grammatical  form  (§  280.  a). 
Tmesis :  the  separation  of  the  two  parts  of  a  compound  word  by  other  words 

(cutting) . 

This  term  came  from  the  earlier  separation  of  prepositions  (originally  adverbs)  f rbm 
the  verbs  with  which  they  were  afterwards  joined ;  so  in  per  ecastor  scitus  puer,  a  very 
fine  hoy,  egad!  As  this  was  supposed  to  be  intentional,  it  was  ignorantly  imitated  in 
Latin ;  as  in  cere-  comminuit  -brum  (Ennius) . 

Zeugma :  the  use  of  a  verb  or  an  adjective  with  two  different  words,  to 
only  one  of  which  it  strictly  applies  (yoking). 

641.   Rhetorical  Figures 

Allegory:  a  narrative  in  which  abstract  ideas  figure  as  circumstances,  events, 

or  persons,  in  order  to  enforce  some  moral  truth. 
Alliteration:  the  use  of  several  words  that  begin  with  the  same  sound. 
Analogy:  argument  from  resemblances. 
Anaphora:  the  repetition  of  a  word  at  the  beginning  of  successive  clauses 

(§598./). 
Antithesis:  opposition,  or  contrast  of  parts  (for  emphasis  :  §  598./). 
Antonomasia:  use  of  a  proper  for  a  common  noun,  or  the  reverse :  — 

sint  Maecenates,  non  deertyit,  Flacce,  Marones,  so  there  he  patrons  (like  Mae- 
cenas), poets  (like  Virgil)  will  not  he  lacking,  Flaccus  (Mart.  viii.  56.  5). 

ilia  furia  et  pestis,  that  fury  and  plague  (i.e.  Clodius);  Homeromastix,  scourge 
of  Homer  (i.e.  Zoilus). 

Aposiopesis:  an  abrupt  pause  for  rhetorical  effect. 

Catachresis :  a  harsh  metaphor  (abusio,  misuse  of  words). 

Chiasmus:  a  reversing  of  the  order  of  words  in  corresponding  pairs  of  phrases 

(§  598./). 
Climax:  a  gradual  increase  of  emphasis,  or  enlargement  of  meaning. 
Euphemism :  the  mild  expression  of  a  painful  or  repulsive  idea :  — 

si  quid  ei  accident,  if  anything  happens  to  him  (i.e.  if  he  dies). 

• 

Euphony:  the  choice  of  words  for  their  agreeable  sound. 

Hyperbaton:  violation  of  the  usual  order  of  words. 


434  GLOSSARY  [§§  641,  642 

Hyperbole:  exaggeration  for  rhetorical  effect. 

Irony:  the  use  of  words  which  naturally  convey  a  sense  contrary  to  what  is 

meant. 
Litotes:  the  affirming  of  a  thing  by  denying  its  contrary  (§  326.  c). 
Metaphor:    the    figurative    use    of    words,   indicating    an    object   by  some 

resemblance. 
Metonymy:  the  use  of  the  name  of  one  thing  to  indicate  some  kindred  thing. 
OnomatopcEia:  a  fitting  of  sound  to  sense  in  the  use  of  words. 
Oxymoron :  the  use  of  contradictory  words  in  the  same  phrase  :  — 

insaniens  sapientia,  foolish  wisdom. 

Paronomasia:  the  use  of  words  of  like  sound. 

Prosopopoeia:  personification. 

Simile:  a  figurative  comparison  (usually  introduced  by  like,  or  as). 

Synchysis:  the  interlocked  order  (§  598.  h). 

Synecdoche:  the  use  of  the  name  of  a  part  for  the  whole,  or  the  reverse. 

642.   Terms  of  Prosody 

Acatalectic :  complete,  as  a  verse  or  a  series  of  feet  (§  612.  o). 
Anaclasis:  breaking  up  of  rhythm  by  substituting  different  measures. 
Anacrusis:  the  unaccented  syllable  or  syllables  preceding  a  verse  (§  608.  g). 
Antistrophe:  a  series  of  verses  corresponding  to  one  which  has  gone  before 

(cf.  strophe). 
Arsis:  the  unaccented  part  of  a  foot  (§  611). 
Basis:  a  single  foot  preceding  the  regular  movement  of  a  verse. 
Ccesura:  the  ending  of  a  word  within  a  metrical  foot  (§611.  b). 
Catalectic :  see  Catalexis. 
Catalexis:  loss  of  a  final  syllable  (or  syllables)  making  the  series  eatalectic 

(incomplete,  §  612.  a). 
Contraction:  the  use  of  one  long  syllable  for  two  short  (§  610). 
Conception:  shortening  of  a  long  syllable,  for  metrical  reasons. 
Diceresis:  the  coincidence  of  the  end  of  a  foot  with  the  end  of  a  word 

within  the  verse  (§  611.  c). 
Dialysis:  the  use  of  i  (consonant)  and  v  as  vowels  (siliia  =  silva,  §  603./.  n.  ^). 
Diastole:  the  lengthening  of  a  short  syllable  by  emphasis  (§  612.  b). 
Dimeter:  consisting  of  two  like  measures. 
Dipody:  consisting  of  two  like  feet. 
Distich:  a  system  or  series  of  two  verses. 
Ecthlipsis:  the  suppression  of  a  final  syllable  in  -m  before  a  word  beginning 

with  a  vowel  (§612./). 
Elision:  the  cutting  off  of  a  final  before  a  following  initial  vowel  (§  612.  e). 
Hepiameter:  consisting  of  seven  feet. 


§642]  TERMS   OP  PROSODY  435 

Hexameter :  consisting  of  six  measures. 

Hexapody:  consisting  of  six  feet. 

Hiatus:  the  meeting  of  two  vowels  without  contraction  or  elision  (§  612.  g\. 

Ictus:  the  metrical  accent  (§  611.  a). 

Irrational:  not  conforming  strictly  to  the  unit  of  time  (§609.  e). 

Logacedic:  varying  in  rhythm,  making  the  effect  resemble  prose  (§  623). 

Manometer:  consisting  of  a  single  measure. 

Mora:  the  unit  of  time,  equal  to  one  short  syllable  (§  608.  a). 

Pentameter:  consisting  of  five  measures. 

Pentapody :  consisting  of  five  feet. 

Penthemimeris:  consisting  of  five  Jialf-feet. 

Protraction:  extension  of  a  syllable  beyond  its  normal  length  (608.  c). 

Resolution:  the  use  of  two  short  syllables  for  one  long  (§  610). 

Strophe:  a  series  of  verses  making  a  recognized  metrical  whole  (stanza), 

which  may  be  indefinitely  repeated. 
Synceresis:  i  (vowel)  and  u  becoming  consonants  before  a  vowel  (§  603. 

C.  N.,/.  N.4). 

Synalcepha:  the  same  as  elision  (§  612.  e.  n%). 

Synapheia:  elision  betw^een  Wo  verses  (§  612.  e.  n.). 

Syncope:  loss  of  a  short  vowel. 

Synizesis:  the  running  together  of  two  vowels  without  full  contraction  (§  603. 

C.  N.). 

Systole:  shortening  of  a  syllable  regularly  long. 
Tetrameter :  consisting  of  four  measures. 
Tetrapody:  consisting  of  four  feet. 
Tetrastich:  a  system  of  four  verses. 
Thesis:  the  accented  part  of  a  foot  (§  611). 
Trimeter:  consisting  of  three  measures. 
Tripody:  consisting  of  three  feet. 
Tristich:  a  system  of  three  verseSc 


INDEX   OF   YEEBS 


Regular  verbs  of  the  First,  Second,  and  Fourth  Conjugations  are  given  only  in 
special  cases.  Compounds  are  usually  omitted  when  they  are  conjugated  like  the 
simple  verbs.  The  figures  after  the  verbs  indicate  the  conjugation.  References  are 
to  sections.  For  classified  lists  of  important  verbs  see  §209  (First  Conjugation), 
§  210  (Second  Conjugation),  §  211  (Third  Conjugation),  §212  (Fourth  Conjugation), 
§§  190,  191  (Deponents),  §  192  (Semi-Deponents). 


ab-do,  3,  -didi,  -ditum,  209.  a.  n. 

ab-eo,  see  eo. 

ab-icio,  3,  -ieci,  -iectum  [iacio]. 

ab-igo,  3,  -egi,  -actum  [ago]. 

ab-nuo,  3,  -nui,  — . 

ab-oleo,  2,  -evi,  -itum. 

ab-olcsco,  3,  -evi,  —  [aboleo]. 

ab-ripio,  3,  -ripui,  -reptum  [rapio]. 

abs-condo,  3,  -di  (-didi),  -ditum  [coado]. 

ab-sisto,  3,  -stiti,  — . 

ab-sum,  abesse,  afui,  (afuturus)« 

ac-cendo,  3,  -cendi,  -censum. 

accerso,  see  arcesso. 

ac-cidit  (impers.),  207,  208.  c. 

ac-cido,  3,  -cidi,  —  [cado]. 

ac-cido,  3,  -cidi,  -eisum  [caedo]. 

ac-cio,  4,  reg.  [cio]. 

ac-cipio,  3,  -cepi,  -ceptum  [capio]. 

ac-colo,  3,  ~ui,  — . 

ac-credo,  see  credo. 

ac-cumbo,  3,  -culmi,  -itum. 

ac-curro,  3,  -curri  (-cucurri),  -cursum. 

acesco,  3,  -acui,  —  [co-]. 

ac-quiro,  3,  -quisivi,  -quisitum  [quaero]. 

acuo,  3,  -ui,  -utum,  174,  17(5.  d. 

ad-do,  3,  -didi,  -ditum,  209.  a.  n. 

ad-eo,  see  eo. 

ad-hibeo,  2,  -ui,  -itum  [habeo]. 

ad-igo,  3,  -egi,  -actum  [ago]. 

ad-imo,  .3,  -emi,  -emptuni  [emo]. 

ad-ipiscor,  -i,  -eptus. 

ad-nuo,  3,  -nui,  — . 

ad-oleo,  2,  -ui,  — . 

ad-olesco,  3,  -evi,  -ultum. 

ad-sentior,  -iri,  -sensus. 

ad-sideo,  2,  -sedi,  -sessum  [sedeo]. 

ad-sido,  3,  -sedi,  — . 

ad-spergo,  3,  -spersi,  -spersum  [spargo]. 

ad-sto,  1,  -stiti,  — . 

ad-sum,  -esse,  -fui,  (-futurus). 

af-f-ari,  aff&tus,  206.  c. 

af-fero,  -ferre,  attuli,  alia  turn. 

af-fi«i6,  3,  -feci,  -fectum  [facio]. 


af-fligo,  3,  -xi,  -ctum. 
ag-gredior,  -i,  -gressus  [gradior]. 
agnosco,  3,  -ovi,  aguitum  [nosco]. 
ago,  3,  egi,  actum.    [For  regular  comps. 

see  ab-igo ;  for  others,  see  cogo,  circum- 

per-.] 
aio,  defect.,  206.  a, 
albeo,  2,  -ui,  — . 
alesco,  3,  -ui,  -alitum. 
algeo,  2,  alsi,  — . 
algesco,  3,  alsi,  — . 
al-lego,  3,  -egi,  -ectum. 
al-licio,  3,  -lexi,  — . 
alo,  3,  alui,  altum  (alitum). 
amb-igo,  3,  — ,  —  [ago]. 
ambio,  -ire,  -ii  (-ivi),  -itum   (ambibat) 

203.  d. 
araicio,  4,  amixi  (-cui),  amictum. 
amo,  180,  184;   amarim,  amasse,  amas 

sem,  181.  a;  amassis,  183.  5. 
ango,  3,  anxi,  — . 
ante-cello,  3,  — ,  — . 
ante-sto,  1,  -steti,  — . 
anti-sto,  1,  -steti,  — . 
aperio,  4,  aperui,  apertum. 
apiscor,  -i,  aptus  [ad-ipiscor]. 
ap-pello,  3,  -puli,  -pulsum. 
ap-peto,  3,  -petivi  (-ii),  -itum. 
ap-primo,  3,  -pressi,  -pressum  [premo], 
arceo,  2,  -ui,  —  [co-erceo]. 
arcesso  (accerso),  3,  -ivi,  arcessitum. 
ardeo,  2,  arsi,  (arsiirus). 
ardesco,  3,  arsi,  — . 
areo,  2,  — ,  — . 
aresco,  3,  -arui,  — . 
arguo,  3,  -ui,  -litum. 
ar-rigo,  3,  -rexi,  -rectum  [rego]. 
ar-ripio,  3,  -ui,  -reptum  [rapio]. 
a-scendo,  3,  -di,  -scensum  [scando]. 
a-spergo,  see  ad-spergo. 
a-spiKO,  2>,  'Oxi,  -ectum  [-spicio]. 
at-tendo,  3,  -di,  -turn, 
at-tineo,  2,  -tinui,  -tentum  [teneo]. 


436 


n^DEX    OF   VERBS 


437 


at-tingo,  3,  -tigi,  -tactuin  [tango]. 

alrtollo,  3,  — ,  —  [tollo]. 

audeo,  audere,  ausus,  192  (ausim,  183,  3; 

sodes,  13.  N.). 
audio,  4,  audivi,  auditum,  187  (contracted 

forms,  181.  b). 
au-fero,  -ferre,  abstuli,  ablatunic 
augeo,  2,  auxi,  auctum. 
ausim,  see  audeo. 
ave  (have),  avete,  aveto,  206.  g. 
aveo,  2,  — ,  — . 

balbfitio,  4,  — ,  — , 

batuo,  3,  -ui,  — . 

bibo,  3,  bibi,  (potum). 

bullio,  4,  rag.  (bullo,  -are)  [e-bullio]. 

cado,  3,  cecidi,  casum  [ac-,  con-,  oc-cido], 
178.  b. 

caecutio,  4,  — ,  — . 

•caedo,  3,  cecidi,  caesum  [ac-,  oc-cido,  etc.], 

cale-facio,  like  facio,  269.  a. 

cale-facto,  1,  — ,  — ,  266.  «. 

caleo,  2,  -ui,  (caliturus). 

calesco,  3,  -ui,  — . 

calleo,  2,  -ui,  — o 

calveo,  2,  — ,  — c 

candeo,  2,  -ui,  — . 

candesco,  3,  -candui,  — - 

caneo,  2,  -ui,  — . 

canesco,  3,  canui,  — . 

cano,  3,  cecini,  —  [con-cino]. 

cantillo,  1,  reg.,  263.  3. 

capesso,  3,  capessivi,  — ,  263.  2.  6  (in- 
cipisso,  3,  — ,  — ). 

capio,  3,  cepi,  captum  [ac-cipio  etc. ;  also 
ante-capio],  188. 

careo,  2,  -ui,  (-iturus). 

carpo,  3,  -psi,  -ptum,  177.  b  [de-cerpo]. 

caveo,  2,  ca^i,  cautum. 

cavillor,  -ari,  -atus,  263.  3. 

cedo  (imperative),  cedite  (cette),  206.  g, 

cedo,  3,  cessi,  cessum. 

-cello  (only  in  comj).,  see  per-cello,  ex- 
cello,  ante-cello,  prae-cello). 

-cendo,  3,  -cendi,  -censum  (only  in  comp., 
as  in-cendo). 

censeo,  2,  -ui,  censum. 

cerno,  3,  crevi,  -cretum. 

cieo  ^(-cio),  ciere  (-cire),  civi,  cTtum 
(-citum)  [ac-cio,  con-,  ex-cio]. 

cingo,  3,  cins,  cinctum. 

-cio,  see  cieo. 

circum-do,  -dare,  -dedi,  -dritum,  209.  a.  n. 

circum-sisto,  3,  -steti  (-stiti),  — . 

circum-spicio,  3,  -ex5,  -ectum. 

circum-sto,  1,  -stitI  (-steti),  — . 

clango,  3,  — ,  — . 

claresco,  3,  clarui,  — . 

ciaudeo,  2,  — ,  — ,  see  claudo  (limjp)^ 

claudo  (limp),  3,  — ,  — . 


claudo  {dose),  3,  clausi,  clausum  [ex- 
clude]. 

clueo,  2,  — ,  — . 

co-emo,  3,  -emi,  -emptum. 

coepi,  -isse,  coepturus,  205. 

co-erceo,  2,  -ui,  -itum  [arceo]. 

co-gnosco,  3,  -gnovi,  -gnitum  [nosco]. 

cogo,  3,  coegi,  coactum,  15.  3  [ago]. 

col-lido,  3,  -lisi,  lisum  [laedo]. 

col-ligo,  3,  -legi,  -lectum. 

col-luceo,  2,  — ,  —  [luceo]. 

colo,  3,  colui,  cultum  [ex-,  ac-,  in-]. 

comburo,  3,  -ussi,  -ustum  [uro]. 

com-edo,  3  (esse),  -edi,  -esum  (-estum). 

com-miniscor,  -i,  -mentus. 

como,  3,  compsi,  comptum. 

com-pello,  3,  -puli,  -pulsum. 

com-perco,  3,  -persi,  —  [parco]. 

comperio,  4,  -peri,  compertum. 

comperior,  -iri,  compertus,  191.  n. 

com-pesco,  3,  -cm,  — . 

com-pingo,  3,  -pegi,  -pactum  [pango]. 

com-pleo,  2,  -evi,  -etum. 

com-primo,  3,  -pressi,  -pressum  [premo]. 

com-pungo,  3,  -punxi,  -punctum  [pungo.]. 

con-cido,  3,  -cidi,  —  [cado]. 

con~cido,  3,  -cTdi,  -cisum  [caedo]. 

con-cino,  3,  -ui,  —  [cano]. 

con-cipio,  3,  -cepi,  -ceptum  [capio]. 

con-cio  (-cieo), 4  (2), -civi, -citum  (-citum). 

con-cludo,  3,  -clusi,  -cliisum  [claudo]. 

con-cupisco,  3,  -cupivi,  -cupitum. 

con-curro,  3,  -curri  (-cucurri) ,  -cursum. 

con-cutio,  3,  -cussi,  -cussum  [quatioj. 

con-do,  3,  -didi,  -ditum,  209.  a.  N. 

co-necto,  3,  -nexui,  -nexum,  16. 

con-fercio,  4,  — ,  -fertum  [farcio]. 

con-fero,  -ferre,  -tuli,  collatum. 

con-ficio,  3,  -feci,  -fectum  [facio]. 

con-fit,  defect.,  204.  c. 

con-fiteor,  -eri,  -fessus  [fateor]. 

con-fringo,  3,  -fregi,  -fractum  [frango]. 

con-gruo,  3,  -ui,  —  [-gruo]. 

con-icio,  3,  -ieci,  -iectum,  6.  d  [iacio]. 

co-nitor,  -i,  -nisus  (-nixus),  16. 

co-niveo,  2,  -nivi  (-nixi),  — ,  16. 

con-quiro,  3,  -quisivi,  -quisitum  [quaero]. 

con-sisto,  3,  -stiti,  — . 

con-spergo,  3,  -spersi,  -spersum  [spargo]. 

con-spicio,  3,  -spexi,  -si>ectum,  174. 

con-stitu5,  3,  -ui,  -stitutura  [statuo]. 

con-sto,  1,  -stiti  (-stfi turns)  (constat,  207). 

con-sue-facio,  like  facio,  266.  a. 

con-suesco,  3,  -evi,  -etum  (consuerat, 
181.  a). 

con-sulo,  3,  -ui,  -sultum. 

con-tendo,  3,  -tendi,  -tentum. 

con-ticesco,  3,  -ticui,  — . 

con-tineo,  2,  -tinui,  -tentum  [teneo]. 

con-tingo,  3,  -tigi,  -tactum  [tango]  (con- 
tingit,  impers.,  208.  c). 


438 


INDEX   OF    VEKBS 


con-tundo,  3,  -tudl,  -tusum  [tundo]. 

coquo,  3,  coxl,  coctuiu. 

cor-rigo,  3,  -rexi,  -rectum  [rego]. 

cor-ripio,  3,  -ripui,  -reptum  [rapio]. 

cor-ruo,  3,  -ui,  —  [ruoj. 

crebresco,  3,  -crebrul,  —  [in-,  per-]. 

credo,  3,  -didi,  -ditum,  209.  a.  N.  [-do]. 

crepo,  1,  -ui  (-crepavi),  -crepitum. 

cresco,  3,  creyl,  cretum,  176.  h.  1. 

crocio,  4,  — ,  — . 

crudesco,  3,  -crudui,  —  [re-]. 

cubo,  1,  -ui  (cubavl),  -cubitum. 

cudo,  3,  -cudi,  -cusum  [in-cudo]. 

-cumbo  [cub]  (see  ac-cumbo ;  compounds 

with  de-,  ob-,  pro-,  re-,  and  sub-,  lack 

the  p.p.). 
cupio,  3,  cuplvi,  cupitum,  174. 
-cupisco,  3,  see  con-cupisco. 
curro,  3,  cucurrl,  cursum  [in-curro]. 

debeo,  2,  -ui,  -itum,  15.  3. 

de-cerpo,  3,  -cerpsi,  -cerptum  [carpo]. 

decet  (impers.),  decere,  decuit,  208.  c. 

de-cipio,  3,  -cepi,  -ceptum  [capio]. 

de-curro,  3,  -curri  (-cucurri),  -cursum. 

de-do,  3,  -didi,_-ditum  [do],  209.  a.  n. 

de-fendo,  3,  -_di,  -fensum,  178.  6.  n.  i. 

de-fetiscor,  -i,  -fessus. 

de-fit,  defect.,  204.  c. 

dego,  3,  — ,  —  [ago]. 

delectat  (impers.),  208.  c. 

deleo,  2,  -evi,  -etura. 

de-libuo,  3,  -libui,  -libutum. 

de-ligo,  3,  -leg!,  -lectum  [lego] . 

demo,  3,  dempsi,  demptum. 

de-pello,  3,  -pull,  -pulsum. 

de-prirao,  3,  -pressi,  -pressum  [premo]. 

depso,  3,  -sui,  -stum. 

de-scendo,  3,  -di,  -scensum  [scandoj. 

de-silio,  4,  -silul  (-silii),  [-sultum]  [salio]. 

de-sino,  3,  -sii  (-sivi),  -situm  [sino]. 

de-sipio,  3,  — ,  —  [sapio]. 

de-sisto,  3,  -stiti,  -stitum  [sisto]. 

de-spicio,  3,  -spexi,  -spectum. 

de-spondeo,  2,  -dI,_-sponsum  [spondeo]. 

de-struo,  3,  -struxi,  -structum. 

de-sum,  -esse,  -fui,  (-futurus)  [sum]. 

de-tendo,  3,  [-di],  -sum. 

de-tineo,  3,  -ui,  -tentum  [teneo]. 

de-vertor,  -I,  — . 

dico,  3,  dixi,  dictum,  p.  87,  footnote  4 

(dixti,  181.  6.  N.  2;  die,  182). 
dif-fero,  -ferre,  distuli,  dilfitum  [fero]. 
dif-fiteor,  -en,  —  [fateor]. 
dl-gnosco,  3,  -gnovi,  —  [ndsco]. 
dl-ligo,  3,  -lexi,  -lectum  [lego], 
di-luo,  3,  -lui,  -latum  [luo]. 
di-mico,  1,  -avi,  -atum. 
di-nosco,  see  dl-gnosco. 
dir-ibeo,  2,  — ,  -itum  [habeo]. 
dir-imo,  3,  -end,  -emptum  [emo]. 


di-ripio,  3,  -ripui,  -reptum  [rapio]. 

di-ruo,  3,  -rui,  -rutum  [ruo]. 

disco  [dic],  3,  didici,  — .   [So  compounds.] 

dis-crepo,  1,  -ui  or  -avi,  — . 

dis-curro,  3,  -curri  (-cucurri),  -cursum. 

dis-icio,  3,  dis-ieci,  -iectum  [iacio]. 

dis-pando,  3,  — ,  -ppusiim  (-pessum)  [pan- 
do]. 

dis-sideo,  2,  -sedi,  —  [sedeo]. 

dis-silio,  4,  -ui,  — . 

dis-tendo,  3,  -di,  -turn. 

di-stinguo,  3,  -stinxi,  -stmctum. 

di-sto,  1,  — ,  — . 

ditesco,  3,  — ^,  — . 

di-vido,  3,  -visi,  -visum. 

do  [da]  (give),  dare,  dedi,  datum,  174, 
176.  e,  202,  209.  a.  n.  (duim,  perduim, 
183.  2). 

-do  [dha]  iptit) ,  3,  -didi,  -ditum  (only  iii 
comp. ,  see  ab-do,  credo,  vendo) ,  209.  a.  n  . 

doceo,  2,  -ui,  doctum. 

doleo,  2,  -ui,  (-iturus). 

-dolesco,  3,  -dolui,  —  [con-]. 

domo,  1,  -ui,  -itum. 

-dormisco,  3,  -dormivi,  —  [con-]. 

diico,  3,  duxi,  ductum  (due,  182). 

dulcesco,  3,  — ,  — . 

duresco,  3,  durui,  — . 

e-bullio,  4,  ebullii,  — . 

edo  (eat),  3,  edere  (esse),  edi,  esum,  201. 

e-do (put forth),  3,  -didi,  -ditum,  209.  a.  n. 

ef-fero,  -ferre,  extuli,  elatum. 

ef-ficio,  3,  -feci,  -fectum  [facio]. 

egeo,  2,  -ui,  — . 

e-icio,  3,  -ieci,  -iectum  [iacio]. 

e-licio,  3,  -uI,  -citum. 

e-ligo,  3,  -legi,  -lectum  [lego]. 

e-mico,  1,  -micui,  -miciitum. 

e-mineo,  2,_-ui,  —  [-mineo]. 

emo,  3,  emi,  emptum,  15. 11  [ad-,  dir-imo, 
co-emo] . 

e-neco,  1,  -ui  (-avi),  -nectum  (-atum)  [neco] . 

ens,  see  sum. 

eo, ire,  ii  (Ivi), itum,  203  (itum  est,  203.  a; 
iri,  id. ;  itur,  impers.,  208.  d;  ad-eo,  ad- 
eor,  in-eo,  203.  a ;  ambio,  203.  d ;  prod- 
eo,  -ire,  -ii,  -itum,  203.  e).    See  veneo. 

e-rigo,  3,  -rexi,  -rectum. 

escit,  escunt  (see  sum),  170.  b.  n. 

esurio,  4,  — ,  esuriturus,  263.  4. 

e-vado,  3,  -vasi,  -vasum  (evasti,  181.  b.  N.2). 

e-vanesco,  3,  evanui,  — . 

e-venit  (impers.),  207,  208.  c. 

e-vilesco,  3,  -vilui,  — . 

ex-cello,  3,  -eel lui,  -celsum. 

ex-cio  (-cieo),  4  (2),  -ivi  (-ii),  -Ttum  (-itum), 

ex-cipio,  3,  -cepi,_-ceptum  [capio]. 

ex-cludo,  3,  -clusi,  -clusum  [claudo]. 

ex-colo,  3,  -ui,  -enltum  [colo]. 

ex-curro,  3,  -curri  (-cucurri),  -cursum 


INDEX   OF    VERBS 


439 


ex-erceo,  2,  -cui,  -citum  [arceo]. 

ex-inio,  3,  -emi,  -emptum  [emo], 

ex-olesco,  3,  -olevi,  -oletum. 

ex-pello,  3,  -puK,  -pulsum. 

ex-perglscor,  3,  -pei-rectus. 

ex-perior,  4,  -pertiis. 

ex-pleo,  2,  -evi,  -etiiin. 

ex-plico,  1,  (unfold), -nl,  -itum;  (explain), 

-avT,  -atum. 
ex-plodo,  3,  -si,  -sum  [plaud5]. 
ex-pungo,  3,  -i)unxi,  -puuctum. 
ex-(s)ilio,  3,  -ui  (-ii),  —  [salio]. 
ex-sisto,  3,  -stiti,  -stitiim. 
ex-stinguo,  3,  -stiuxi,  -stinctum. 
ex-sto,  1,  — ,  (-staturus). 
ex-teudo,  3,  -di,  -turn  (-sum), 
exuo,  3,  -ui,  -utum. 

facesso,  3,  facessiAa  (facessi),  facessitum, 

263.  2,  b. 
facio,  3,  feci,  factum,_204  (fac,  182;  faxo, 

-Im,  183.  3 ;  cou-ficio  aud  other  comjDS. 

in  -licio,  204.  a;  bene-facio  etc.,  204.  b; 

con-sue-facio,  cale-facio,  cale-facto,  26f3. 

a), 
-facto,  1  (in  compounds),  26G.  a. 
fallo,  3,fefelli,falsum,  177.  c,  178.  6.  n.4, 
farcio,  4,  farsi,  fartum  [re-fercio]. 
fateor,  -eri,  fassus  [con-fiteor], 
fatisco,  3,  — _,  — . 
faveo,  2,  favi,  fautura. 
-fendo,  3,  -fendi,  -feusum,  see  defends, 
ferio,  4,  — ,  — . 
fero,  ferre,  tuli,  latum,  176.  d.  N.  i,  200 

(fer,  182)   [af-,  au-,  con-,  dif-,  ef-,  in-, 

of-,  re-,  suf-fero]. 
ferveo,  2,  fervi  (ferbui),  — ;  also,  fervo,  3. 
fervesco,  3,  -fervi  (-ferbui),  — . 
fido,  fidere,  fisus,  192  [con-fido]. 
figo,  3,  fixi,  fixum. 
findo   [fid],  3,   fidi,   fissum,   176.   c.   2, 

177.  c.  N. 
fingo  [fig],  3,  finxi,  fictura,  177.  6.  u. 
fio,  fieri,  factus,  204  (see  facio)  (fit,  im- 

pers.,  208.  c;  confit,  defit,  infit,  effieri, 

interfieri,  iuterfiat,  superfit,  204.  c). 
flecto,  3,  fiexi,  flaxum. 
fleo,  2,  -evi,  -etum,  176.  e  (flestis,  181.  a), 
-fligo,  only  in  comp.,  see  af-fligo, 
floreo,  2,  -ui,  — . 
florescQ,  3.  florui,  — . 
fluo,  3,  fluxi,  fluxum,  261.  Nc 
fodio,  3,  fodi,  fossum. 
[for],  fan,  fatus,  179.  a,  206.  c  (af-fari,  pro- 

fatus,  prae-,  inter-fatur,  etc.,  206.  c). 
fore,  forem,  etc.,  see  sura, 
foveo,  2s  ioxli  fotnm. 
frango  [frag],  3,  fregi,  fractum,  176.  6.  1 

[per-f  ringo] . 
fremo,  3,  fremui,  — . 
frendo,  3,  — ,  fresum  (fressum). 


frico,  1,  -ui,  frictum  (fricatum). 

frigeo,  2,  — ,  — . 

frigesco,  3,  -frixi,  —  [per-,  re-]o 

frigo,  3,  frixi,  frictum. 

frondeo,  2,  — ,  — . 

fruor,  -i,  fructus. 

fuam,  -as,  etc.  (see  sum),  170.  b.  N. 

fugio,  3,  fugi,  (fuglturus). 

fulcio,  4,  fulsi,  fultum. 

fulgeo,  2,  -si,  — . 

fulgo,  3,  — ,  — . 

fulgurat  (impers.),"208.  a. 

fundo  [fud],  3,  fudi,  fusum,  176.  6.  1. 

fungor,  -i,  functus. 

furo,  3,  — ,  — . 

fuvimus,  fuvisset  (see  sum),  170.  6.  n. 

gannio,  4,  — ,  — . 

gaudeo,  gaudere,  gavisus,  192. 

-gemisco,  3,  -gemui,  — . 

gemo,  3,  gemui,  — . 

gero,  3,  gessi,  gestum. 

gestio,  4,  -ivi,  — ,  262.  a. 

gigno  [gen],  3,  genui,  genitum,  176.  c.  1 

glisco,  3,  — ,  — . 

glubo,  3,  — ,  — . 

gradior,  -i,  gressus  [ag-gredior]. 

grandinat  (impers.)p  208.  a. 

-gruo,  3,  see  con-,  in-gruo. 

habeo,   2,  -ui,   -itum   [in-hibeo,'    debeo 

dir-ibeo]. 
haereo,  2,  haesi,  haesum. 
haeresco,  3,  — ,  — . 

haurio,  4,  liausi,  haustum  (hausurus). 
have,  see  ave. 
hebeo,  2,  — ,  — . 
hebesco,  3,  — ,  — . 
hinnio,  4,  — ,  — . 
hirrio,  4,  — ,  — . 
hisco,_3,  — ,  —  [de-hiscoj. 
horreo,  2,  horrui,  — . 
horresco,  3,  -horrui,  — . 

ico,  3,  ici,  ictum. 

ignosco,  3,  -novi,  -notum  [nosco]. 

il-licio,  3,  -lexi,  -lectum  [-licio]. 

il-lido,  3,  -lisi,  -lisum  [laedo]. 

imbuo,  3,  -ui,  -utum. 

im-mineo,  2,  — ,  —  [-mineo]. 

im-pell6_,  3,  -puli,  -pulsum  [pello]. 

im-petro,  1,  reg.  (-assere,  183.  5). 

im-pingo,  3,  -pegi,  -pactum  [pang6]. 

im-pleo,  2,  -evi,  -etum. 

im-plico,  1,  -avi  (-ui),  -atum  (-itum), 

in-ceudo,  3,  -di,  -sum. 

in-cesso,  3,  incessi^a,  — . 

in-cido,  3,  -cidi,  (-casurus)  [cado]. 

in-cido,  3,  -cidi,  -cisum  [caedo]. 

in-cipio,  3,  -cepi,  -ceptum  [capio]. 

in-cludo,  3,  -si,  -sum  [claudo]. 


140 


INDEX   OF    VERBS 


in-col6,  3,  -colui,  —  [col5]. 

in-crepo,  1,  -ui  (-avi),  -itum. 

in-curro,  3,  -curri  (-cucurri),  -cursum 

in-cutio,  3,  -cussi,  -cussum. 

iud-igeo,  2,  -ui,  —  [egeoj. 

ind-ipiscor,  3,  -eptus  [apiscor]. 

iu-do,  3,  -didi,  -ditum,  209.  a.  n, 

iudulgeo,  2,  iudulsi,  induitum. 

induo,  3,  -ui,  -utum. 

iueptio,  4,  — ,  — , 

iu-fero,  -ferre,  -tuli,  illatum. 

in-fit,  see  fio. 

in-gredior,  3,  -gressus  [gradior]. 

iu-gruo,  3,  -ui,  —  [-gi'uoj . 

in-hibeo,  2,  -ui,_-ituni  [habeojo 

in-olesco,  3,  -olevi,  — . 

inquam,  defect.,  206.  b. 

in-quiro,  3,  -quisivi,  -quisitum  [quaero]. 

in-sideo,  2,  -sedi,  -sessum  [sedeo]. 

in-sido,  3,  -sedi,  -sessum. 

in-silio,  3,  -ui,  [-sultumj  [salioj, 

in-sisto,  3,  -stiti,  — , 

in-spicio,  3,  -spexi,  -spectum. 

in-stituo,  3,  -ui,  -utum  [statuo]. 

in-sto,  1,  -stiti,  (-staturus). 

intel-lego,  3,  -lexi,  -lectum. 

inter-do,  -dare,  -dedi,  -datum,  209.  a.  n. 

inter-est,  -esse,  -fuit  (impers.),  208.  b. 

inter-fatur,  see  for. 

inter-ficio,  3,  -feci,  -fectum  [facio]. 

iater-sto,  1,  -steti,  — ,  209.  a.  n. 

in-tueop,  -eri,  -tu.\tus  [tueorj. 

irascor,  -i,  iratus. 

ir-ruo,  3,  -rui,  —  [ruo]. 

iaceo,  2,  -ui,  — . 

iacio,  3,  ieci,  iactum  [ab-icio,  etc. ;  dis- 

icio,  porr-icio]. 
iubeo,  2,  iussi,  iussum  (iusso,  183.  3). 
iudico,  1,  reg.  (-assit,  183.  5). 
iimgo,  3,  iunxi,  iunctum. 
iuvenesco,  3,  — ,  — . 
iuvo  (ad-),  1,  iuvi,  iiitmn  (-aturus). 

labasco,  3,  — ,  — . 

labor,  -i,  lapsus. 

lacesso,  3,  lacessivi,  lacessitum,  263.  6. 

laedo,  3,  laesi,  laesum  [il-lido]. 

lambo,  3,  — ,  — . 

langueo,  2,  langui,  — . 

languesco,  3,  langui,  — , 

latoo,  2,  -ui,  — . 

latesco,  3,  -litui,  —  [de-litesco] . 

lavo,  3,  lavi,  lautum  (lotum)  (also  reg.  of 

1st  conj.). 
lego,  3,  legi,  loctum  [for  compounds  see 

211.  e,  footnote,  also  de-ligo,  di-ligo, 

intel-lego,  ueglego]. 
Iev5,  1,  reg.  (-asso,  183.  5). 
libet  (lubet),  -ere,  -uit,  208.  c  (libitum  est ; 

libens). 


liceo,  2,  licui,  — . 

licet,  -ere,  licuit,  (-iturum),  207,  208.  c 

(licitum  est,  licens). 
-licio,  3  [for  Iacio,  only  in  comp. ;  see  al 

licio,  e-licio,  pel-licio]. 
lino  [li],  3,  levi  (livi),  litum. 
liuquo  [lic],  3,  -liqui,  -lictum. 
liqueo,  2,  liqui  (iicui),  — . 
liquesco^  3,  -licui,  — . 
liquor,  -i,  — . 
liveo,  2,  — ,  — . 
loquor,  -i,  locutus,  261.  N. 
luceo,  2,  luxT,  — . 
lucesco  (-Cisco;,  3,  -luxi,  —  [il-]. 
ilido,  3,  lusi,  lusum. 
lugeo,  2,  luxi,  — . 
luo,  3,  lui,  -latum  [de-luo,  solvo]. 

madeo,  2,  madui,  — . 

madesco,  3,  madui,  — . 

maereo,  2,  — ,  — . 

malo,  malle,  malui,  — ,  199  (mavolo,  ma- 

velim,  mavellem,  id.  k.). 
maudo,  3,  raaudi,  mansum. 
maneo,  2,  mansi,  mansum  [per-maneo]. 
mansuesco,  see  -suesco. 
marcesco,  3,  -marcui,  —  [e-]. 
maturesco,  3,  maturui,  — . 
medeor,  -eri,  — . 
memini,  defect.,  205. 
mereo  or  mereor,  merere  or  -eri,  meritus 

190.5'. 
mergo,  3,  mersi,  mersum. 
metior,  -iri,  mensus. 
meto,  .3,  messui,  -messum. 
metuo,  3,  -ui,  -utum. 
mico,  1,  micui,  — . 

-mineo,  2,  -ui,  —  [e-,  im-,  pro-mineo]. 
-miuiscor,  -i,  -mentus  [com-,  re-], 
rainuo,  3,  -ui,  -iitum. 
miror,  mirari,  miratus. 
misceo,  2,  -cui,  mixtum  (mistum). 
misereor,  -en,  miseritus  (raisertus),  208. 

6.  X. 
miseret,  impers.,  208.  6. 
mitesco,  3,  — ,  — . 
mitto,  3,  misi,  missum,  176.  d.  n.  2. 
molior,  -iri,  -itus. 
molo,  3,  molui,  molitum. 
moneo,  2,  -ui,  -itum,  185. 
mordeo,  2,  momordi,  morsum. 
morior,  -i  (-iri),  mortuus  (moriturus). 
moveo,  2,  movi,  motum  (commorat,  181. &). 
mulceo,  2,  mulsi,  mulsum. 
mulgeo,  2,  -si,  mulsum. 
muttio,  4,  -ivi,  — . 

nanciscor,  -i,  nactus  (nanctus) . 
nascor,  -i,  natus. 

neco,  1,  -avi  (-ui),  -atum,  209,  footnote  2 
[e-neco]. 


INDEX   OF    VEKBS 


441 


necto  [nec],  3,  nexi  (nexui)^  nexum. 

neglego,  3,  neglexi,  -lectmn,  211.  e.  foot- 
note 2. 

neo,  2,  nevi,  — . 

nequeo,  defect.,  206.  d. 

nigresco,  3,  nigrui,  — . 

ningit,  3,  ninxit  (impers.),  208.  a. 

niteo,  2,  — ,  — . 

nitesco,  3,  nituT,  — . 

nitor,  -1,  nisus  (nixus). 

-niveo,  2,  -nivi  (-nixi),  — . 

no,  1,  navi,  — ^  179.  a. 

noceo,  2,  nocui,  — . 

nolo,  nolle,  nolui,  — ,  199  (nevis,  nevolt, 
id.  N.). 

nosco  [gnoI  ,  3,  novi,  notum  [ag-,  cog-,  di(g)-; 
ig-uosco],  205.  b.  N.  2  (nosse,  181.  a). 

notesco,  3,  -ni,  — . 

nubo,  3,  nupsi,  nuptum. 

-nuo,  3,  -nui,  —  [ab-,  ad-nuo]c 

©b-do,  3,  -didi,  -ditura,  209.  a.  n. 

ob-liviscor,  -i,  oblitus. 

ob-mutesco,  3,  -mutui,  — . 

ob-sideo,  2,  -sedl,  -sessum  [sideo]. 

ob-sldo,  3,  — ,  — . 

ob-sisto,  3,  -stitT,  -stitum. 

ob-solesco,  3,  -evl,  -etum. 

ob-sto,  1,  -stiti,  (-staturus) . 

ob-tineo,  2,  -ui,  -tentum  [teneo]. 

ob-tingit  (impers.),  208.  c. 

ob-tundo,  3,  -tudi,  -tiisum  (-tunsum). 

ob-venit  (impers.),  208.  c. 

oc-callesco,  3,  -callul,  — . 

oc-cido,  3,  -cidi,  -  casum  [cado]. 

oc-cido,  3,  -cidi,  -cisum  [caedoj. 

oc-cino,  3,  -cinui,  —  [cano]» 

oc-cipio,  3,  -cepi,  -ceptum. 

occulo,  3,  occulul,  occultum. 

oc-curro,  3,  -curri  (-cucurri),  -cursum. 

odi,  odisse,  osurus  (perosus),  205. 

of-fero,  -ferre,  obtuli,  oblatum. 

-oleo  (grow)  [see  ab-,  ad-]. 

oleo  (smell),  2,  olui,  — . 

operio,  4,  operui,  opertum. 

oportet,  -ere,  -uit  (impers.),  208.  c. 

op-pango,  3,  -peg!,  -pactum  [pango]. 

opperior,  -iri,  oppertus. 

op-primo,  3,  -pressi,  -pressum  [premo] . 

ordior,  -iri,  orsus. 

orior    (3d),     -iri,    ortus    (oritiirus)     (so 

comps.),  174,  191. 
os-tendo,  3,  -tend!,  -tentum. 
ovare,  ovatus,  defect.,  206./. 

paciscor,  -!,  pactus. 

paenitet    (impers.),    -ere,    -uit,    208.    b 

(-turus,  -tendus,  id.  n.). 
palleo,  2,  pallul,  — . 
pallesco,  3,  pallui,  — . 
pando,  3j  pandi,  pansum  (passum)  [dis-J. 


pango   [pag],  3,  pepigi  (-pegi),  pactum 

[im-pingo;  op-pango]. 
parco,  3,  peperci  (parsi) ,  (parsurus). 
pareo,  2,  -ui,  paritum  (late), 
pario,    3,    peperi,    partum     (pariturus) 

[com-,  re-perio]. 
partior,  -iri,  -itus,  190. 
parturio,  4,  — ,  --. 
pasco,  3,  pavi,_  pastum, 
pateo,  2,  patui,  — . 
patior,  -i,  passus  [per-petior]-, 
paveo,  2,  pavi,  — . 
pavesco,  3,  -pavi,  —  [ex-]o 
pecto,  3,  pexi,  pexum. 
pel-licio,  3,  -lexi,  -lectum  [-licio], 
pello,  3,  pepuli,  pulsum,  176.  d.  n.  2, 178. 

&.  N.4  [ap-peilo,  com-pello,  etc.], 
pendeo,  2,  pependi,  -pensum. 
pendo,  3,  pependi,  pensum. 
per-ago,  3,  -egi,  -actum, 
per-cello,  3,  -culi,  -culsum. 
per-cio,  see  cio ;  p^p.  -citus. 
per-curro,  3,  -curri  (-cucurri),  -cursum. 
per-do,  3,  -didi,  -ditum,  209.  a.  n. 
per-ficio,  3,  -feci,  -fectum  [facio]. 
per-fringo,   3,  -fregi,  -fractum  [frango]. 
pergo,  3,  perrexi,  perrectum. 
per-lego,  3,  -legi,  -lectum  [lego], 
per-osus,  see  odi, 
per-petior,  -i,  -pessus. 
per-quiro,  3,  -quisiyi,  -quisitum  [quaero]. 
per-spicio,  3,  -spexi,  -spectum. 
per-sto,  1,  -stiti,  — . 
per-tineo,  2,  -ui,  —  [teneo]. 
per-tundo,  3,  -tudi,  -tusum. 
pessum-db,  like  do,  209.  a.  n.,  428.  L 
petesso  (petisso),  3,  — ,  — ,  263.  2.  6. 
peto,  3,  petivi  (-ii),  petitum,  177./. 
piget  (impers.),  -ere,  piguit,  208.  6  (pigi- 

tum  est,  id.  n.). 
ping5  [pig],  3,  pinxi,  pictum. 
pinso,  3,  -si,  pins-  (pinstum,  pistum). 
piso,  3,  pisivi  (-ii)_,  pistum  (see  pinso). 
placeo,    2,   -ui,   -itum    (placet,  impers., 

208.  c). 
plango,  3,  planxi,  planctum. 
plaudo,  3,  plausi,  plausum  [ex-plodo,  etc. ; 

ap-plaudo]. 
plecto,  3,  plexi,  plexum,  174, 176.  b.  1. 
-plector,  -i,  -plexus, 
-pleo,  2,  -plevi,  -i)letum  (only  in  comps., 

ascom-pleo). 
plico,  1,  -plicui  (-plicavi),  -plicitum  (-pli- 

catum) . 
pluit,  3,  pluit  (pluvit),  174,  208.  a  (pluunt. 

id.N.). 
poUeo,  2,  — ,  — . 
polluo,  3,  -ui,  -iitum  [luo]. 
pono,  3,  posui,  positum. 
porr-icio,  3,  — ,  -rectum  [iacio]. 
por-rigo  (porgo),  3,  -rexi,  -rectum. 


442 


IKDEX   OF    VERBS 


posco,  3,  poposci,  —  (so  comps.). 
possideo,  2,  -sedi,  -sessum  [sedeo]. 
possido,  3,  -sedi,  -sessum, 
possum,  posse,  potui,  — ,  198.  b  (potis  sum, 

pote  sum,   possiem,   poterint,  potisit, 

potestur,  possitur,  id.,  footnote). 
potior,  -iri,  potitus. 
poto,  1,  -avi,  -atum  (potum). 
praebeo,  2,  -ui,  -itum  [habeo], 
prae-cello,  3,  — ,  —  [-cello]. 
prae-cino,  3,  -cinui,  —  [cano]. 
prae-curro,  3,  -curri  (-cucurri),  -cursum. 
prae-iatur,  206.  c. 
prae-lego,  3,  -legi,  -lectum  [lego], 
prae-sagio,  4,  -ivi,  — . 
prae-sens,  170.  b  (see  sum), 
prae-sideo,  2,  -sedi,  —  [sedeo]. 
prae-sto,  1,  -stiti,  -stitum  (-statum)  (prae- 

stat,  impers.,  208^  c). 
prae-sum,  -esse,  -fui,  (-futiirus). 
prandeo,  2,  prandi,  pransum. 
prehendo    (prendo),   3,    -di,    preliensum 

(pre  n  sum), 
premo,  3,  pressi,  pressum  [re-primo]. 
prendo,  see  prehendo. 
pro-curro,  3,  -curri  (-cucurri),  -cursum. 
prod-eo,  4,  -ii,  -itum,  203.  e. 
prod-igo,  3,  -egi,  -actum  [ago], 
pro-do,  3,  -didi,  -ditum,  209.  a.  N. 
pro-fatus,  206.  c. 
pro-ficio,  3,  -feci,  -fectum. 
pro-ficiscor,  -i,  pi-ofectus. 
pro-fiteoi%  -eri,  -fessus. 
pro-mineo,  -ere,  -ui,  — . 
promo,  3,  -mpsi,  -raptum,  15.  3. 
pro-silio,  3,  -ui  (-ivi),  —  [salio]. 
pro-sura,  prodesse,  profui  (-futurus),  198. 

a. 
pro-tendo,  3,  -di,  -tentus  (-sus). 
psallo,  3,  -i,  — . 
pubesco,  3,  pubui,  — . 
pudet  (impers.),  pudere,  piiduit  or  pudi- 

tum  est,  208.  b  (pudendus,  id.  n.). 
puerasco,  3,  — ,  — . 

pungo  [pug] ,3,  pupugi,  punctum  [com-], 
putesco,  3,  putui,  — . 

quaero,  3,  quaesivi,  quaesitum  [re-quiro] 

(cf.  quaeso). 
quaeso,  3,  defect.,  206.  e  (cf.  quaero). 
quasso,  1,  reg.,  263.  2. 
quatio,  3,  -cussi,  quassum  [con-cutio]. 
queo,  quire,  quivi,  quitus,  206.  d  (quitur, 

etc.,  id.  N.) ;  cf.  nequeo. 
queror,  -i,  questus. 
quiesco,  3,  quievi,  quietum. 

rabo  (rabio),  3,  — ,  — . 
rado,  3,  rasi,  rasum. 

rapio,  3,  rapui,  raptum  (erepscmus,  181.  b. 
N.2  [ab-ripio  etc.]. 


re-cido,  3,  reccidi,  (recasurus)  [cado]. 
re-cido,  3,  -cidi,  -cisum  [caedo]. 
re-cipio,  3,  -cepi,  -ceptum  [capio]  (recepso 

183.  3). 
re-cludo,  3,  -si,  -sum. 
red-do,  3,  reddidi,  redditum,  209.  a.  n. 
red-igo,  3,  -egi, -actum  [ago]. 
red-imo,  3,  -emi,  -emptum. 
re-fello,  3,  -felli,  —  [fallo]. 
re-fercio,  4,  -fersi,  -fertum  [farcio]. 
re-fero,  -ferre,  rettuli,  relatum  [fero]. 
re-fert,  -ferre, -tulit  (impers.),  208.  c. 
re-ficio,  3,  -feci,  -fectum. 
rego,  3,  rexi,  rectum  [ar-rigo  etc. ;  pergo 

surgo]. 
re-linquo,  3,  -liqui,  -lictum  [linquo]. 
re-miniseor,  -i,  — . 
renideo,  2,  — ,  — . 
reor,  reri,  ratus. 

re-pello,  3,  reppuli  (repuli),  repulsum. 
reperio,  4,  repperi,  repertum. 
repo,  3,  repsi,  — . 

re-i)rimo,  3,  -pressi,  -pressum  [premo]. 
re-quiro,  3,  -sivT,  -situm  [quaero]. 
re-sideo,  2,  -sedi,  — . 
re-silio,  4,  -ui  (-ii),  — . 
re-sipisco,  3,  -sipivi,  —  [sapio]. 
re-sisto,  3,  -stiti,  — . 
re-spergo,  3,  -si, -sum  [spargo]. 
re-spondeo,  2,  -di,  -sponsum  [spondeo]. 
re-stat  (impers.),  208.  c. 
re-sto,  1,  -stiti,  — ,  209.  a.  n. 
re-tendo,  3,  -di,  -turn  (-sum), 
re-tiueo,  2,  -tinui,  -tentum  [teneo]. 
re-tundo,  3,  rettudi,  retunsum  (-tilsum). 
re-vertor,  -i,  re  versus,  191  (reverti,  -eram, 

id.  N.). 
rideo,  2,  risi,  -risum. 
rigeo,  2,  rigui,  — . 
rigesco,  3,  rigui,  — . 
ringor,  3,  rictus, 
rodo,  3,  rosi,  rosum. 
rubeo,  2,  — ,  — . 
rubesco,  3,  rubui,  — . 
rudo,  3,  rudivi,  — . 
rumpo  [rup],  3,  rupi,  ruptum. 
ruo,  3,  rui,  rutum  (ruiturus),  176.  e  [di-, 
cor-]. 

saepio,  4,  saepsi,  saeptum. 

sagio,  4,  see  prae-sagio. 

salio,  4,  sakii  (salii),  [saltum]  [dc-silio]. 

salve,  salvere,  206.  g. 

saucio  [sac],  4,  sanxi,  sanctum,  177.  6.  n, 

sanesco,  3,  -sanui,  —  [con-]. 

sapio,  3,  sapii^  — . 

sarcio,  4,  sar.si,  sartum. 

satis-<io,  -dare,  -dedi,  -datum,  200.  a.  n. 

scabo,  3,  scabi,  — , 

scalpo,  3,  scalpsi,  scalptum. 

scando,3,  -scendi,-scensum  [a-scendo,etc.J. 


INDEX   OF   VERBS 


443 


scateo  (scats),  -ere  or  -6re,  — ,  — . 

scaturio,  4,  — ,  — . 

scin'  (  =  scisue),  13.  n.  (see  scio). 

scindo  [scid],  3,  scidi,  scissum,  177.  c.  n. 

scio,  4,  -ivi,  scitum  (scin',  13.  n.). 

scisco,  3,  scivi,  scitum. 

scribo,  3,  scripsi,  scriptiim,  178.  6.  n.i. 

sculpo,  3,  sculpsi,  sculptum. 

se-cerno,  3,  -crevi,  -cretum. 

seco,  1,  -ui,  sectum  (also  secaturus). 

sedeo,   2,   sedi,   sessuin    [ad-,   pos-sideo, 

etc. ;  super-sedeo] . 
se-ligo,  3,  -legi,  -lectum  [lego] . 
seuesco,  3,  -senui,  — . 
sentio,  4,  sensi,  sensum. 
sepelio,  4,  sepelivi,  sepultum. 
sequor,  -i,  secutus,  190. 
sero  (entioirie),  3,_serui,  sertum. 
sero  (soiv),  3,  sevi,  satum. 
serpo,  3,  serpsi^  — . 
sido,  3,  sidi  (-sedi),  -sessum. 
sileo,  2,  -ui,  — . 
singultio,  4,  -ivi,  — . 

sino,  3,  sivi,  situm  (siris,  etc.,  181.  6.  n.I). 
sisto  [sta],  3,  stiti,  statum. 
sitio,  4,  -ivi,  — . 
sodes  (  =  si  audes),  13.  n. 
soleo,  solere,  solitus,  192. 
solvo,  3,  solvi,  solutum,  177.  e,  261.  n. 
sono,  1,  -ui,  -itum  (-aturus). 
sorbeo,  2,  sorbui  (rarely  sorpsi) ,  — . 
spargo,  3,  sparsi,  sparsum  [ad-spergo]. 
sperno,  3,  sprevi,  spretum,  177.  a.  n. 
-spicio,  3,  -spexi,  -spectum. 
splendeo,  2,  -ui,  — . 
spondeo,  2,  spopondi,  sponsum  [re-], 
spuo,  3,  -spui,  — . 
squaleo,  2,  — ,  — . 

statuo,  3,  -ui,  -iitum,  176.  d  [con-stituo] . 
sterno,  3,  stravi,  stratum,  177.  a.  n. 
sternuo,  3,  sternui,  — . 
sterto,  3,  -stertui,  — . 
-stinguo,  3,  -stmxi,  -stinctum  (in  comp., 

as  ex-) . 
sto,  stare,  steti,  -statum  (-stit-),  209.  a, 

and  N. 
strepo,  3,  strepui,  — . 
strideo,  2,  stridi,  — . 
strido,  3,  stridi,  -— . 
stringo,  3,  strmxi,  strictum. 
struo,  3,  struxi,  striictum. 
studeo,  2,  -ui,  — . 
stupeo,  2,  stupui,  — . 
stupe  SCO,  3,  -stupui,  — . 
suadeo,  2,  suasi,  suasura. 
sub-do,  3,  -didi,  -ditum,  200.  a.  N. 
sub-igo,  3,  -egi^  -actum  [ago] . 
suc-cido,  3,  -cldi,  -—  [cado]. 
suc-cido,  3,  -cidi,  -cisum  [c-aedo]. 
suc-curro,  3,  -curri,  -cursum. 
suesco,  3,  suevi,  suetum. 


suf-fero,  sufferre,  sustuli,  sublatum. 

suf-ficio,  3,  -feci,_ -fectus  [facio]. 

suf-fodio,  3,  -fodi,  -fossum. 

sug-gero,  3,  -gessi,  -gestum. 

sugo,  3,  suxi,  suetum. 

sultis  ( =  SI  vultis),  13.  n. 

sum,  esse,  fui,  (futurus),  170;  fui  (forem, 

fore,  170.  a;  fsons,  -sens,  ens,  id.  b; 

fuvimus,   fuvisset,   siem,   fuam,  fuas, 

escit,  escunt,   id.  b.  n.;   bomost,  etc., 

13.  N.). 
sumo,  3,  sumpsi,  siimptum,  15.  11. 
suo,  3,  sui,  sutum. 

super-do,  -dare,  -dedi,  -datum,  209.  a.  n. 
super-fit,  defect.,  204.  c. 
super-fluo,  3,  — ,  —  [fluo]. 
super-sto,  1,  -steti,  — . 
super-sum,  see  sum  (superest,  impers., 

208.  c). 
surdesco,  3,  surdui,  — . 
surgo  (sur-rigo),  3,  surrexi,  surrectum. 
sur-ripio,  3,  -ui  (surpui),  -rep turn  [rapio]. 

tabeo,  2,  -ui,  — . 

tfibesco,  3,  tabui,  — . 

taedet  (impers.),  -ere,  taeduit,  pertaesum 

est,  208.  b. 
tango  [tag],  3,  tetigi,  tactum,  176.  c.  2 

[con-tingo] . 
tego,  3,  texi,  tectum,  186. 
temno,  3,  -tempsi,  -temptum,  176.  6.  1. 
tendo  [ten],  3,  tetendi,  tentum. 
teneo,  2,  tenui, -tentum  [con-tineo,  etc.]. 
tepesco,  3,  tepui,  — . 
tergeo,  2,  tersi,  tersum. 
tergo,  3,  tersi,  tersum. 
tero,  3,  trivi,_  tritum. 
texo,  3,  texui,  textum. 
timeo,  2,  -ui,  — . 
-timesco,  3,  -timui,  — . 
tingo  (tinguo) ,  3^  tinxi,  tmctum,178. 6.  N.2. 
tollo,  3,  sustuli,    sublatum,  211.  /.    n. 

[at-tollo]. 
tondeo,  2,  -totondi  (-tondi) ,  tonsum,  177.  c. 
tono,  1,  -ui,  -tonitum  (-tonatum). 
torpeo,  2,  — ,  — . 
torqueo,  2,  torsi,  tortum. 
torreo,  2,  torrui,  tostum. 
tra-do,  3,  -didi,  -ditum,  209.  a.  N. 
traho, 3,  traxi,  tractum  (traxe,  181 .  5.  N.  2). 
trans-curro,  3,  -curri  (-cucurri),  -cursum. 
tremo,  3,  tremui,  — . 
tribuo,  3,  tribui,  tributum. 
trudo,  3,  trusi,  trusum. 
tueor,  -eri,  tuitus  (tutus,  adj.). 
tumeo,  2,  — ,  — . 
tumesco,  3,  -tumni,  —  [in-], 
tundo  [tud],  3,  tutudi,  tunsum  (-tiisum) 

[ob-tundo] . 
turgeo,  2,  tursi,  — . 
tussio,  4.  — ,  — . 


444 


INDEX  OF    VERBS 


ulciscor,  -1,  ultus. 

ungo  (-uo),  3^  unxT,  unctum. 

urgeo,  2,  ursi,  — . 

uro,  3,  ussi,  ustum   (so  comps,,  cf.  also 

comburo) . 
utor,  -i,  usus. 

vacat  (impers.),  208.  c. 

vado,  3,  -vasi,  -vasum. 

vagioj  4,  -ii,  — . 

valeo,  2,  -ui,  (-iturus). 

vale  SCO,  3,  -ui,  — . 

vauesco,  3^  -vanui,  —  [e-]. 

veho,  3,  vexl,  vectum. 

vello  (vollo),  3,  vein  (-vulsi),  vulsum. 

vendo,  3,  -didi,  -ditum,  ^428.  i. 

veneo  (be  sold),  4,  -ii,  -itum,  428.  i. 

venio  {come),  4,  veni,  ventum,  19,  174. 

venum-do,-dare,  -dedi,  -datum,  209.  a.  n., 

428.  i. 
vereor,  -eri,  -itus,  190. 
vergo,  3,  — ,  — . 
verro  (vorro),  3,  -verri,  versum. 


verto  (vorto),  3,  verti,  versum,  178.  6.  n.  i 
(vertor,  mid.,  156.  a.  N.). 

vescor,  -i,  — . 

vesperascit  (impers.),  208.  a,  203.  1. 

veterasco,  3,  vetemvi,  — . 

veto,  1,  -ui,  -itum. 

video,  2,  vidi,  visum. 

videor  (seem),  -eri,  visus  (videtur,  im- 
pers., 208.  c). 

vieo,  2,  [vievi],  -etum. 

vigeo,  2,  -ui,  — . 

vin'  (=  visne,  see  volo) . 

vincio,  4,  ^inxi,  vinctura. 

vinco  [vie],  3,  vici,  victum. 

vireo,  2,  -ui,  — . 

viso  [vid],  3,  visi,  — ,  263.  4.  N. 

vivisco,  3^  -vixi,  — ,  [re-]. 

vivo,  3,  vixi,  victum  (vixet,_181.  b.  n.  2). 

volo,  velle,  volui,  199  (sultis,  13.  n., 
199.  N.;  vin',  13.  N.). 

volvo,  3,  volvi,  volutum. 

vomo,  3,  vomui,  — . 

voveo,  2,  vovi,  votum. 


INDEX   OP  WORDS  AND    SUBJECTS 


Note.  —  The  numerical  references  are  to  sections,  with  a  few  exceptions  in  which  the 
page  (p.)  is  referred  to.  The  letters  and  some  numerals  refer  to  subsections.  The 
letter  n.  signifies  Note;  ftn.,  footnote.  Abl.  =  ablative;  ace.  =  accusative;  adj.= 
adjective;  adv.  =  adverb  or  adverbial;  apod.=:apodosis;  app.=appositive  or  appo- 
sition ;  cf.  =  compare ;  comp.  =  compound  or  composition ;  compar.  =  comparative  or 
comparison;  conj.=conjugation  or  conjunction;  constr.=rconstruction ;  dat.r=dative; 
gen.  =  genitive ;  gend.  =  gender;  imv.  =  imperative ;  ind.  disc.  =  indirect  discourse; 
loc.=  locative;  nom.=  nominative;  prep.  =  preposition ;  subj.  =  subject;  subjv.  = 
subjunctive ;  vb.  =  verb ;  w.  =  with.     (Other  abbreviations  present  no  difficulty.) 


A,  quantity  oi  unal,  604.  d. 

a,  ace.  of  Greek  nouns  in,  81.  2;  as  nom. 
ending,  decl.  Ill,  gend.,  84-87. 

a,  in  decl.  I,  37;  stem- vowel  of  conj.  I, 
171,  174,  179.  a,  259;  in  subjunctive, 
179 ;  preps,  in  -a,  adv.  use  of,  433.  4. 

a-,  primary  suffix,  234.  I.  1. 

a  (ab,  abs),  use,  220.  h,  221. 1,  429.  6 ;  com- 
pounded with  vbs.,  267.  a;  w.  abl.  of 
agent,  405 ;  w.  place  from  which,  426. 1 ; 
w. names  of  towns,  428.  a;  expressing 
position,  429.  h ;  as  adv.  expressing  dis- 
tance, w.  abl.  of  degree  of  difterence, 
433.  3;  in  comps.,  w.  dat.,  381;  in 
comps.,  w.  abl.,  402;  w.  abl.  of  ger- 
und, 507. 

a  parte,  398,  429.  6. 

ab  and  au  in  aufero,  200.  a.  n. 

Abbreviations  of  prsenomens,  108.  c. 

Ability,  verbs  of,  constr.,  456;  in  apod., 
517.  c. 

Ablative,  defined,  35.  e;  in  -abus,  43. 
e;  in  -d,  43.  n.i,  49.  e,  80.  ftn.,  92./; 
of  i-steras,  decl.  Ill,  74.  e;  rules  of 
form,  76 ;  nouns  ha^sing  abl.  in  -i,  76.  a, 
b ;  of  decl.  IV,  in  -ubus,  92.  c ;  abl.  used 
as  supine,  94.  b ;  of  adjs.,  decl.  Ill,  121. 
a.  1-4 ;  preps,  followed  by,  220.  b ;  ad- 
verbial forms  of,  214.  e,  cf .  215.  4. 

Ablative,  Syntax,  398-420;  classifica- 
tion and  meaning,  398,  399.  Separation, 
400;  w.vbs.  of  freedom,  401;  w.  comps., 
402;  w.  adjs.  of  freedom  etc.,  402.  a. 
Source  and  material,  403;  w.  partici- 
ples, id.  a;  w.  constare  etc.,  id.  b;  w. 
facere,  id.  c;  w.  nouns,  id.  d.  Cause, 
404;  causa,  gratia,  id.  c.  Agent,  405; 
means  for  agent,  405.  6.  N.  i.  Compari- 
son, 400;  opinione,  spe,  etc.,  id.  a;  w. 


alius,  407.  dj  w.  advs.,  id.  e.  Means, 
409;  w.  dono  etc.,  364;  w.  utor,  fruor, 
etc.,  410;  w.  opus  and  usus,  411.  Man- 
ner, 412.  Accompaniment,  413.  Degree 
of  difference,  414;  quo  .  .  .  eo,  414. 
a.  Quality,  415 ;  price,  416 ;  charge  or 
penalty,  353. 1.  Specification,  418 ;  w. 
dignus  etc.,  id.  6.  Abl.  Absolute,  419; 
adverbial  use,  id.  c;  replacing  subord. 
clauses,  420;  supplying  place  of  perf. 
act.  part.,  493.  2.  Place,  422,  426.  3;  w. 
vbs.  and  fretus,  431  and  a.  Abl.  of 
time,  423;  of  time  w.  quam,  434.  N. ;  of 
place  from  which,  426.  1 ;  names  of 
towns,  domus,  rus,  427. 1 ;  ex  urbe  Roma, 
428.  b.  Locative  abl.,  426.  3;  way  by 
which,  429.  a ;  w.  transitive  compounds, 
395.  N.i;  time  within  which,  424.  c; 
duration  of  time,  id.  6.  Abl,  w.  preps., 
220.  b,  221, 430, 435 ;  w.  ex  for  part,  gen., 
346.  c ;  w.  pro  (in  defence  of) ,  379.  n.  ; 
w.  palam  etc.,  432.  c;  abl.  of  gerund, 
507;  equiv.  to  pres.  part.,  id.  ftn. 

Ablaut,  17 ;  in  decl.  II,  45.  c. 

Abounding,  words  of,  w.  abl.,  409.  a;  w. 
gen.,  356. 

Absence,  vbs.  of,  w.  abl.,  401. 

Absolute  case,  see  Abl.  Absolute. 

Absolute  use  of  vb.,  273.  2.  n.  2,  387.  n. 

absque  me  etc.,  in  PI.  and  Ter.,  517./. 

Abstract  nouns,  gend.,  32;  in  plur.,  100. 
c ;  endings,  238 ;  w.  neut.  adj.,  287. 4.  a, 
289 ;  abstract  quality  denoted  by  neut. 
adj.,  289.  a. 

absum,  constr.,  373.  6. 

-abus,  in  dat.  and  abl.  plur.,  decl.  I,  43.  e. 

ac,  see  atque. 

ac  si,  w.  subjv.,  524. 

Acatalectic  verse,  612.  a. 


445 


446 


INDEX   OF  WORDS  AND  SUBJECTS 


accedit  ut,  569.  2. 

Accent,  rules  of,  12 ;  effect  in  modifying 
vowels,  p.  27.  ftn.  1 ;  in  decl.  II,  49.  b; 
in  comps.  of  facio,  204.  b ;  musical,  611, 

acceptum,  496.  n.^. 

accidit_,  synopsis,  207 ;  constr.,  569.  2, 

accingo,  constr.,  364. 

accommodatus,  w.  dat.  of  gerund  etc., 
505.  a. 

A-ccoinpaniment,  abl.  of,  413. 

Accomplishment,  vbs.  of,  w.  subjv.,  568. 

Accusative,  defined,  35.  d;  in  -m  and 
-s,  38.  c ;  in  -im,  decl.  Ill,  75.  a,  6 ;  in 
-is  (plur.),  77;  in  -a,  81.  2;  ace.  of 
decl.  IV,  used  as  supine,  94.  b ;  nent. 
ace.  used  as  adv.,  214.  d,  of.  215. 1 ;  fern, 
used  as  adv.,  id.  2.  ^v 

Accusative,  Syntax,  386-397  (see  338) ; 
■w.  vbs.  of  remembering,  350  and  a,  c, 
d ;  and  gen.  w.  vbs.  of  reminding,  351 ; 
w.  impersonals,  354.  b,  388.  c,  455. 2 ;  w. 
ad  with  interest  and  refert,  355.  6;  w. 
dat.,  362;  w.  compounds  of  ad,  ante, 
Ob,  370.  6 ;  vbs.  varying  between  ace. 
of  end  of  motion  and  dat.,  363;  w.  ad 
for  dat.,  385.  a ;  after  propioretc,  432.  a ; 
direct  object,  274,  387;  w.  iuvo  etc.,. 
367.  a;  ace.  or  dat.  w.  vbs.,  367»  b,  ci 
ace.  w.  vbs.  oi  feeling  and  taste,  388.  a; 
390.  a;  w.  comps.  of  circum  and  trana, 
388.  6;  cognate  ace,  390;  adverbial  use 
of,  390.  c,  d  and  n.2,  397.  a;  two  accu- 
satives, 391 ;  pred.  ace,  392-3 ;  second- 
ary object,  394-5;  ace.  w.  pass,  of  vbs. 
of  asking  etc.,  396.  6.  n.  ;  synecdochical 
ace.  (of  specification),  397.  b;  in  excla- 
mations, id,  d;  duration  and  extent, 
423,  425 ;  end  of  motion,  426.  2 ;  names/ 
of  towns,  domus,  rus,  427.  2;  Romam 
ad  urbem,  428.  b ;  ace.  w.  ante  diem,  424. 
gr;  w.  preps.,  220.  a,c;  w.  ad  or  in  to 
denote  penalty,  353.  2.  n.;  w.  pridie, 
propius,  etc.,  342.  a;  ace.  of  gerund, 
506;  of  anticipation,  576;  subj.  of  inf., 
397.  e,  452, 455. 2, 459 ;  as  pred.  after  inf., 
455.  a;  subj.  in  ind.  disc,  579,  581. 

Accusing  and  acquitting,  vbs.  of,  constr., 
352. 

acer,  decl.,  115;  compar.,  125. 

-aceus,  adj.  ending,  247. 

acies,  dec!.,  98.  a. 

acquiesce,  w.  abl.,  431. 

Actions,  names  of,  237 ;  nouns  of  action 
w.  gen.,  S48. 

Active  voice,  154.  a,  156 ;  change  to  pass., 
275. 

A"ts,  nouns  denoting,  2.39. 

-acus  (-acus),  adj.  ending,  249. 

acus,  gend.,  90.  Exc. 

ad,  use,  220.  a,  221.2;  incomp.,16,  267.  a; 
w.  acCo  to  denote  penalty,  353.  2.  n.; 


in  comps.,  w.  dat.,  370,  381;  in  comps.. 
w.  ace,  370.  b ;  w.  ace,  with  adjs.,  385. 
a;  end  of  motion,  426.  2,  of.  363;  w. 
names  of  towns,  428.  a;  w.  names  of 
countries,  428.  c ;  meaning  near,  428.  d ; 
in  expressions  of  time,  424.  e ;  following 
its  noun,  435 ;  w.  gerund,  506. 

additur,  constr.,  568. 

adeo  (verb),  constr.,  370.  b. 

adeo  ut,  537.  2.  N.  '^. 

-ades,  patronymic  ending,  244. 

adiuvo,  w.  ace,  367.  a. 

Adjective  pronouns,  see  Pronouns. 

Adjectives.  Definition,  20.  b ;  formed 
like  nouns,  109;  a-  and  o-stems,  110- 
112.    Declension.  110-122 ;  decl,  I  and 

II,  110-113;    decl.  Ill,  114-121;    decl. 

III,  three  terminations,  115 ;  one  termi- 
nation, 117, 118;  variable,  indeclinable, 
defective,  122.  Comparison,  123-131; 
decl.  of  comparative,  120.  Numeral 
adjs.,  132-137;  derivative  adjs.,  242-255. 

Adjectives,  Syntax.  Mase  adjs,,  122. 
d',  adjs.  of  com.  gend.,  id,;  as  advs,, 
214.  d,  e  (cf.  218),  290;  adj.  as  app,, 
282.  6 ;  as  nouns,  288,  289 ;  nouns  used 
as  adjs.,  321.  c;  advs,  used  as  adjs., 
321,  d;  participles  used  as  adjs.,  494, 
Agreement  of  adjs,,  286,  287 ;  attribute 
and  predicate,  287;  use  of  neut.  adjs., 
289.  Adjs,  w.  adverbial  force,  290.  Two 
comparatives  w.  quam,  292.  Adj.  pro- 
nouns, 296-298.  Gen.  of  adjs.  of  decl. 
Ill  instead  of  nom.,  343.  c.  n.  i.  Adjs. 
w.  part,  gen.,  346.  2;  w.  dat.,  383;  w. 
acc.,388.  d,  K.2;  w.  inf.,  461;  w.  supine 
in  -u,  510,  Position  of  adjs.,  598,  a,  6. 
Adjective  phrase,  277. 

admodum,  use,  291.  c.  N.  i. 

admoneo,  constr.,  351. 

Admonishing,  vbs.  of,  constr.,  663. 

Adonic  verse,  625.  3. 

adspergo,  constr.,  364. 

adiilor,  constr.,  367.  6. 

Adverbial  ace,  390.  b,  c,  d,  and  n.  2, 397.  a. 

Adverbial  conjunctions,  20.  g.  n. 

Adverbial  phrases,  216,  277. 

Adverbs,  defined,  20.  e;  formed  from 
*adjs.,  214  and  c,  d,  e,  218 ;  case-forms  or 
phrases,  215 ;  comparison  of  advs.,  218 ; 
numeral  advs.,  138.  Classification  of 
advs.,  217 ;  correlative  forms  of  advs. 
of  place,  217.  n. 

Adverbs,  Syntax,  321.  Advs,  used  as 
adjs,,  321.  d;  adjs.  w.  adverbial  force, 
290;  adverbial  abl.  abs.,  419,  c.  Special 
uses,  322,  326,  Advs.  w.  nouns,  321.  c. 
N. ;  correlative  advs.  used  as  conjs.,  323. 
/,  g ;  part.  gen.  w.  advs.,  346.  a.  4 ;  dat. 
w.  advs.,  384 ;  compar.  of  adv.  followed 
by  quam,  406;  adv.  as  protasis,  521.  a 


INDEX   OF   WORDS  AND   SUBJECTS 


447 


ALdversative  conjunctions,  223.  a.  2,  224. 

L  h. 
adversus,  219;  w.  ace,  220.  a;  as  adv., 
433.  2. 

ae,  diphthong,  2 ;  sound  of,  6.  n.  s,  8. 

aedes,  sing,  and  phir.,  107.  a, 

aeger,  decl.,  112.  a. 

aemulor,  constr.,  367.  6. 

Aeneades,  decl.,  44. 

Aeneas,  decl.,  44. 

aequalis,  decl.,  76,  a.  2;  constr.  w.  gen., 
385.  c  and  1. 

aeque  ac,  384.  n.  2. 

aequo  (abl.),  w.  compar.,  406.  a. 

aequor,  decl.,  64. 

aer,  use  of  plur.,  100.  6. 

aes,  use  of  plur.,  100.  h. 

aetas,  decl.,  72. 

aether,  decl.,  81. 

Affecting,  ace.  of,  386. 

affinis,  decl.,  76.  6. 2 ;  constr.  w.  gen.,  385. 
c  and  1. 

Affirmative,  expressed  by  two  negatives, 
326;  nonne  expecting  affirm,  answer, 
332.  h ;  ways  of  saying  yes,  336  and  a. 

Agency,  nouns  of,  236 ;  rel.  clause  equiv- 
alent to,  308.  c. 

Agent,  dat.  of,  w.  gerundives,  374;  w. 
perf.  parts.,  375;  abl.  of,  405;  agent 
regarded  as  means,  id.  6;  animal  as 
agent,  id.  n.2. 

ager,  decl.,  47. 

aggredior,  constr.,  370.  6. 

Agnomen,  108.  a.  n. 

ago,  forms  of,  omitted,  319.  a. 

Agreeing,  verbs  of,  w.  gerundive,  500.  4. 

Agreement,  280;  of  nouns,  281;  in  app., 
282;  in  predicate,  283;  of^adjs.,  286; 
of  demonstrative  pronoims,'296;  of  pos- 
sessive pronouns,  302;  of  relatives, 
305,  306 ;  of  verbs,  316,  317. 

-ai  for  -ae,  decl.  I,  43.  a;  603.  a.  2.  n. 

-aia,  nouns  in,  decl.,  43.  e.  N.  2. 

aio,  pronounced  ai-io,  6.  c. 

-aius,  names  in,  decl.,  49./;  -aius  in  Pros- 
ody, 603./.  N.  2. 

-al,  ending,  254.  7;  noims  in,  68.  ftn.  1. 

~al  and  -ar,  neuters  in  (decl.  Ill),  65.  6, 
76.  a.  3. 

alacer,  decl.,  115.  a;  compar.,  131.  6. 

albus,  not  compared,  131.  d. 

Alcaic  verse,  625.  9,  10. 

Alcmanian  strophe,  617.  a. 

-ale,  noun  ending,  254.  7 ;  list  of  nouns 
in,  68.  ftn.  2. 

alienus,  for  possessive  gen.  of  alius,  113.  d, 
343.  a. 

aliquis  (-qui),  decl.,  151.  e;  meaning,  310, 
311. 

aliquot,  indeclinable,  122.  6, 

-alls,  -aris,  adj.  endiugS;  248. 


alius,  decl.,  113;  gen.,  id.  c,  cf.  343;  com- 
pounds, 113.  e;  alius  w.  abl.,  ac,  nisi, 
quam,  407.  d. 

alius  .  .  .  alius,  315.  a. 

Alphabet,  1 ;  vowels  and  diphthongs,  1,  2 ; 
consonants,  3,  4 ;  early  forms  of  letters, 
1.  a  and  n.,  6.  a,  h. 

alter,  decl.,  113.  h;  gen  and  comps.,  id. 
c,  e;  use,  315;  reciprocal  use.  145.  c 
315.  a. 

alter  .  .  .  alter,  315.  a. 

altera  est  res  ut,  568.  ftn.  2. 

alteruter,  decl.,  113.  e;  use,  315. 

Although,  how  expressed,  527,  535.  e. 

alvos  (alvus),  gend.,  48.  Exc. 

am-,  see  amb-. 

-am,  adv.  ending,  215.  2. 

amb-  (am-,  an-),  inseparable  prefix,  267.  h. 

ambages,  decl.,  78. 1. 

ambo,  decl.,  p.  59.  ftn. ;  6  in,  p.  427.  ftn.  1. 

amens,  decl.,  121.  a.  3. 

amplius,  without  quam,  407.  c. 

amussim,  ace,  75.  a.  3,  103.  6.  4. 

an-,  see  amb-. 

an,  anne,  annon,  in  double  questions,  335. 

Anacrusis,  608.  g. 

Anapaest,  609.  6.  2;  anapaestic  verse,  613. 
G28.  a. 

Anaphora,  598./. 

anceps,  decl.,  121.  a.  3. 

Ancbises,  decl.,  44. 

Andromache,  decl.,  44. 

-aneus,  adj.  ending,  247. 

animal,  decl.,  69. 

Animals,  gend.  of  names  of,  32,  34  and 
N. ;  regarded  as  means  or  agent,  405.  6. 

N.2. 

animi  (loc),  w.  adjs.,  358;  w.  vbs.,  id. 

annalis,  decl.,  76.  a.  2. 

Annalistic  present,  469.  a. 

Answers,  forms  of,  336,  337. 

ant-,  ent-,  stem-endings,  83,  e. 

ante,  220.  a ;  uses,  221.  3 ;  compounded  w. 
vbs.,  267.  a;  in  compounds,  w.  dat,, 
370,  w.  ace,  id.  b;  adverbial  use  of, 
433.  1 ;  followed  by  quam,  434. 

ante  diem,  424.  g. 

Antecedent,  its  use  w.  relative,  305-307 ; 
undefined,  constr.,  535.  See  Indefinite 
antecedent. 

antecedo,  constr.,  370.  6. 

anteeo,  constr.,  370  6. 

antegredior,  constr.,  370.  h. 

Antepenult,  defined,  12,  ftn, 

antequam,  550,  551 ;  in  ind.  disc,  585.  6.  Nc 

Antibacchlus,  609.  d.  n. 

Anticipation,  ace.  of,  576 ;  becomes  nom., 
id.  N, 

Antithesis,  598./. 

anus,  gend.,  90.  Exc. 

-anus,  adjs.  in,  249, 


448 


INDEX  OF   WORDS  AND   SUBJECTS 


Aorist  (  =  hist.  perf.),  161.  2,  473. 

apage,  206.  g. 

apertus,  compar.  of,  124.  a. 

Apex,  10.  N. 

apis,  decl.,  78.  2. 

Apodosis,  defined,  512;  introduced  by 
correl.,  id.  &;  may  be  subord.,  id.  c; 
forms  of,  514,  515  ff. ;  potential  siibjv,, 
447.3.N. ;  sub jv.  of  modesty, 447.1;  vbs. 
of  necessity  etc.,  522.  a ;  complex  apod., 
523;  apod,  omitted,  524;  apod,  in  ind. 
disc,  589.  2.  See  Conditional  Sen- 
tences. 

Appointing,  vbs.  of,  constr.,  393. 

Apposition,  see  Appositive. 

Appositive,  defined,  282;  agreement  of, 
281,  282.  c;  w.  loc,  id.  d;  gen.  as  app. 
to  possessive,  302.  e ;  gen.  used  for  app., 
343.  d ;  so  dat.,  373.  a ;  rel.  clause  equiv- 
alent to  app.,  308.  c ;  ace.  as  app.  to  a 
clause,  397.  /;  app.  instead  of  voc, 
340.  a;  app.  in  connection  with  inf., 
452  and  N.2. 

aptus  ad,  385.  a;  aptus  w.  dat.  of  gerund 
etc.,  505.  a.  ftn.  2;  aptus  qui,  535./. 

apud,  220.  a;  use,  221.4;  in  quoting,  428. 
d.  N.2. 

aqualis,  decl.,  76.  a.  2. 

-ar,  nom.  ending,  decl.  Ill,  68.  a,  65.  6, 
76.  a.  2;  68.  ftn.  1 ;  gend.,  87« 

arbor  (-6s),  decl.,  62.  n.2. 

arceo,  constr.,  364.  N.  2. 

Arcliilochian  verse,  622., 

arctus,  gend.,  48.  Exc, 

ardeo,  w.  abl.,  404.  a. 

-aria,  suffix,  254.  2. 

-aris,  adj.  ending,  248. 

Aristophanic  verse,  625.  2, 

-arium,  noun  ending,  2.54.  3. 

-arius,  adj.  ending,  250.  a;  noun  ending, 
254. 1. 

Arrangement  of  words,  595-601. 

Arsis  and  thesis,  611  and  ftn. 

Arts,  names  of,  decl.  I,  44^ 

artus,  decl.,  92.  c. 

as,  value  of,  632;  gen.  of,  417.  a. 

-Ss,  in  ace.  plur.  of  Greek  nouns,  81.  5. 

-as,  old  gen.  ending,  43.  6 ;  Greek  nom. 
ending,  83.  e;  patronymic,  244;  gend. 
of  nouns  in,  86  6;  -as, -atis,  see  at-; 
adjs.  in  -as,  249. 

Asclepiadic  verse,  625.  5,  6. 

Asking,  vbs.  of,  w.  two  ace,  306;  w.  abl., 
396.  a;  w.  subjunctive  clause,  5(i3. 

Aspirates,  4  and  ftn.  2. 

Assertions,  direct,  in  indie,  1.57.  a. 

Assimilation  of  consonants,  15.  6, 10 ;  in 
prefixes,  16. 

-asso,  -asLere,  in  fut.  perf.,  183.  5. 

ast,  324.  d. 

-aster,  as  noun  ending.  2.54=  11- 


Asyndeton,  323.  6,  601.  c. 

At,  meaning  near,  428.  d. 

at,  use,  324.  d ;  ai.  enim,  id. ;  at  vero,  324.  k 

at-,  patrial  stem-ending,  71.  5;  decl.,  78- 
3,  121.  a.  4. 

ater,  decl.,  112.  a;  not  compared,  131.  d 
and  N. 

Athematic  verbs,  174.  2. 

Athos,  decl.,  52. 

Atlas,  decl.,  82,  83.  e. 

atque  (ac) ,  use,  324.  6,  c ;  after  adjs.  of  like- 
ness, 384.  N.  2 ;  after  aUus,  407.  d. 

atqui,  use,  324.  d. 

atrox,  decl.,  117.  a. 

Attraction  of  case  of  relative,  306.  a ;  of 
case  of  antecedent,  id.  n.  ;  of  subject  in 
ind.  disc,  581.  N.2. 

Attraction,  subjunctive  of,  591.  2,  593. 

Attributive  adjective  defined,  285.  1 ; 
number,  286.  a;  takes  gend.  of  near- 
est noun,  287.  1. 

-atus,  adj.  ending,  246. 

audacter,  compar.,  218. 

aula,  deck,  44. 

aureus,  not  compared,  131.  d. 

ausus  as  pres.  part.,  491. 

aut,  use,  324.  e,  335.  d.  n. 

autem,  use,  324.  d,j,  599.  6. 

Author  w.  apud,  428.  d.  n.  2. 

Authority  in  Prosody,  602. 

avis,  deck,  76.  h.  1. 

-ax,  verbal  adj.  ending,  251;  adjs.  in, 
w.  gen.,  349.  c. 

baccar,  deck,  76.  a.  3. 

Bacchiac  verse,  628.  6, 

Bacchius,  609.  d. 

Baiae,  deck,  43.  e.  n.  2. 

-bam,  tense-ending,  168.  b. 

Bargaining,  vbs.  of,  constr.,  563;  gerun- 
dive, 500.  4;  clause,  563.  d. 

Base,  27. 

basis,  deck,  82. 

Beginning,  vbs.  of,  constr.,  456. 

Believing,  vbs.  of,  w.  dat.,  367. 

belli,  loc.  use  of,  427.  a. 

bellum,  deck,  46. 

bellus,  compar.,  131.  a. 

Belonging,  adjs.  of,  w.  gen.,  385.  c. 

bene,  comparison,  218;  in  phrase  com- 
pounds, 12.  a.  Exc.  1,  266.  6;  com- 
pounds of,  constr.,  3()8.  2. 

Benefiting,  vbs.  of,  constr.,  367. 

-ber,  names  of  months  in,  deck,  115.  a. 

bicolor,  deck,  122.  a. 

bicorpor,  119.  N. 

-bills,  verbal  adj.  ending,  252. 

Birds,  gend.  of  names  of,  32. 

Birth  or  origin,  nouns  of,  derivation,  244; 
participles  of,  w.  abk,  403.  a. 

-bo,  tense-ending,  168.  c. 


INDEX  OF  WORDS  AND   SUBJECTS 


449 


Bo!,  decl.,  49./. 

bonus,  decl.,  110;  compar. ,  129 ;  w.  dat.  of 

genind  etc,  605.  a.  tin. 
bos,  decl.,  79  and  b. 

bri-,  stems  ending  in,  66;  adjs.  in,  115.  a. 
-brum,  suffix,  240. 
-bulum,  suffix,  240. 
-bundus,  verbals  in,  253.  6 ;  w.  ace,  388.  d. 

_N.  2, 

>>uris,  decl.,  75.  a.  1. 

Buying,  vbs.  of,  constr.  with,  417.  c. 

C  for  g,  in  early  use  and  as  abbreviation, 
1.  a  andN. ;  for  qu,  6.  a,  b;  quantity  of 
final  syllables  ending  in,  604.^*. 

caedes,  decl.,  78.  2. 

caeles,  decl.,  121.  a.  4. 

caelum,  w.  masc.  plur.,  106.  6. 

Caere,  decl.,  70.  6.  n."^- 

caesius,  compar.,  131.  u. 

Caesura,  611.  b ;  masc.  and  fem.,  615.  c.  n.  ; 
bucolic  csesura,  id. 

Calendar,  Romau,  631. 

Calends,  631.  a. 

calx,  decl.,  103.  g.2. 

campester,  decl.,  115.  a. 

Can,  how  expressed  in  Lat.,  157.  b. 

canalis,  decl.,  76.  b.  2. 

canis,  decl.  and  stem,  62.  n.  3,  76.  b.  n.  3, 
78.1. 

CAP,  root,  56.  a. 

Capacity,  measures  of,  638. 

capitis,  genitive,  w.  verbs  of  accusing, 
352.  a. 

caput,  decl.,  59. 

Capys,  decl.,  82. 

carbasus,  gend.,  48.  Exc;  plnr.,  106.  6. 

Cardinal  numbers,  132 ;  inflection  of,  134. 
a-c;  use  of  et  with,  135.  a,  b ;  replaced 
by  distributives,  137.  b,d;  w.  ex  or  par- 
titive genitive,  346.  c. 

care,  compar.,  218. 

caro,  decl.,  79. 

carus,  compar.,  124. 

Case-constructions,  338. 

Case-endings,  27.  a ;  final  vowels  in,  38.  g ; 
table,  39. 

Case-forms,  words  defective  in,  103. 

Cases,  denned,  35 ;  position  of  modifying 
case,  598.  2 ;  agreement  in,  281 ;  origin 
and  meaning  of,  338 ;  case  of  rel.  pron., 
305,  306.  a;  same  case  after  as  before 
certain  conjs.,  323.  a.  Construction  of 
Cases,  338-435;  Genitive,  342-359; 
Dative,  360-380;  Accusative,  386-397; 
Vocative,  340 ;  Ablative,  398-420 ;  time 
and  place,  423-431;  cases  w.  preps., 
220,  426.  ftn. 

cassem,  decl.,  103./-  3. 

castrum,  castra,  107. 

Catalectic  verse,  612.  a. 


causa,  w.  gen.,  359.  b,  404.  c;  w.  gen.  of 
gerund,  504.  b. 

Causal  clauses,  539,  540;  w.  indie,  or 
subjv.,  quod,  quia,  540 ;  w,  indie,  quoni- 
ara,  quando,  540.  a;  w.  qui,  535.  e;  w.  cum, 
540.  d;  non  quia,  non  quod,  etc.,  in  the 
denial  of  a  reason,  540.  n.3;  causal 
clause  replaced  by  part.,  496;  by  abl. 
abs.,  420.  2, 

Causal  conjunctions,  223.  a.  3, 6. 7,  224.  II. 
/;  particles,  539,  540. 

Cause,  abl.  of,  404. 

Cause,  advs.  of,  217.  c. 

Caution  and  effort,  verbs  of,  constr., 
563.  e. 

cave,  in  prohibitions,  450  (2)  and  n.  2; 
ne  omitted  after,  565.  n.  i. 

caveo,  constr.,  563. 

-ce,  enclitic,  146.  n.  i  and  a.  n.  i. 

Ceasing,  verbs  of,  w.  complem.  inf.,  456. 

cedo,  constr.,  366.  N.2. 

celeber,  decl.,  115.  a. 

celer,  forms,  115.  a.  n.  2. 

celo,  w.  ace,  396.  c. 

Celtiber,  decl.,  50.  c. 

censeo,  constr.,  563  and  d. 

certe,  certo,  use,  322.  c ;  in  answers,  336.  a. 

cete,  Greek  plur.,  48.  a.  n. 

cetera,  111.  6;  adverbial  use,  390.  d.  N.^; 
-us,  use,  293;  -i,  use,  315. 

ceu,  use,  524. 

-ceus,  adj.  ending,  247. 

Characteristic,  clauses  of,  634,  635 ;  pro- 
viso, 535.  c?;  cause  or  concession,  id.  e; 
of  result  or  characteristic,  559. 

Characteristic,  expr.  by  participle,  496. 

Characteristic  vowel,  37. 

Charge  and  penalty,  gen.  of,  352. 

Chias7nus,  598. /and  n. 

Choliambic  trimeter,  618.  c. 

Choosing,  vbs.  of,  w.  two  aces.,  393. 

Choriambic  verse,  624.  n. 

Choriambus,  609.  c. 

ci  and  ti,  interchange  of,  6.  n.  i. 

-cinium,  noun  ending,  241.  c. 

-cio,  diminutive  ending,  243.  a. 

cip-,  stems  in,  decl.  Ill,  56,  a. 

circa,  circum,  circiter,  use,  220.  a,  221.  5-7; 
as  advs.,  433.  2. 

circa,  w.  gerund,  606.  N.  1. 

circum,  compounds  w.  vbs.,  267.  a;  dat. 
w.  such  comps.,  370;  ace,  388.  6. 

circumdo,  constr.,  364. 

Circumstances  of  action,  419,  420.  6* 
participle  implying,  496. 

cis,  citerior,  130.  a. 

Cities,  gend.  of  names  of,  32  and  a.  See 
Locative. 

citra,  after  its  noun,  435. 

clades,  decl.,  78.  2. 

clam,  constr.,  432,  d 


450 


INDEX    OF   WOliDS   AND    SUBJECTS 


Classes,  names  of,  gend.  of,  30.  a.  n.S; 
used  in  plur.,  101.  .'5, 

Clauses,  defined,  kinds  of,  278,  279;  re- 
placed by  abl.  abs.,  420;  used  as 
nouns,  343.  c;  dependent,  syntax  of, 
519-593;  conditional  rel.,  279.  c,  519; 
final,  279.  d,  529-533;  consecutive, 
536,  537;  causal,  539,  540;  temporal, 
543-556;  substantive,  562-588;  infini- 
tive clauses,  452,  562.  N. ;  substantive 
clauses  of  purpose,  563;  of  result,  567, 
568;  indie,  w.  quod,  572;  indirect  ques- 
tions, 573-575;  ind.  disc,  578-593. 

clavis,  decl.,  76.  6.  1. 

Close  syllables,  7.  n.  2. 

coepi,  205. 

Cognate  ace,  214.  d.  n.,  390. 

Cogndmen,  108. 

Collective  noun  with  sing,  or  plur.  vb., 
317.  d. 

colus,  gend.,  90;  decl.,  105.  a. 

com-  (con-j,  compounded  w.  vbs.,  16,  267. 
a;  such  may  take  dat.,  370. 

Combinations  of  words,  13. 

cometes,  decl.,  44. 

comitium,  comitia,  107. 

Command,  see  Imperative ;  in  hortatoiy 
subjv.,  439. 

Commanding,  vbs.  of,  w.  dat.,  367;  w. 
inf.,  563.  a;  w.  subjv.,  563  (cf.  580.  a). 

Commands,  expressed  by  imv.,  448;  for 
condition,  521.  b;  in  iud.  disc,  588;  in 
informal  ind.  disc,  592.  1. 

commiseror,  w.  ace,  354.  a.  N. 

cominitto  ut,  568  and  N.  i. 

Common  gender,  34;  adjs.  of,  122.  d. 

Common  syllables,  11.  c,  603./. 

commonefacio,  -flo,  constr.,  351. 

commoneo,  constr.,  351. 

communis,  w.  gen.,  .385.  c. 

commut5,  constr.,  417.  h. 

Comparative  conjunctions,  223.  6.2,  224. 
II.  b ;  in  conditions,  524. 

Comparative  suffix,  124.  ftn. ;  of  advs., 
214.  b.  N. 

Comparatives,  decl.,  120;  stem,  id.  6; 
neut.  sing,  of  compar.  adj.  used  as  adv., 
218 ;  meaning  of,  291 ;  two  compara- 
tives, 292;  compar.  and  positive  w. 
quam,  id.  a.  N. ;  abl.  w.  compar.,  40(5; 
quam  w.  compar.,  407.  a;  compar.  w. 
quam  (ut),  quam  qui,  53.5.  c,  571.  a. 

Comparison,  conjunctions  of,  .323.  a. 

Comparison,  particles  of,  tamquam,  quasi, 
etc.,  constr.,  524. 

Comparison  of  adjs.,  123  ff. ;  irregular, 
129 ;  defective,  130,  1.31 ;  w.  magis  and 
maxime,  128;  of  advs.,  218;  preposi- 
tions implying,  w.  quam,  407.  e.  N.,  434. 

Complementary  infinitive,  45<>;  has  no 
subject,  id.  n.  ;  pred.  noun  or  adj.  after, 


4.58;  inf.  partly  subject,  partly  comple- 
mentary, 454 ;  by  analogy,  457.  a. 

compleo,  constr.,  :356,  409.  n. 

Completed  action,  tenses  of,  160.  b ;  how 
formed,  179./,  g\  use  of,  473  ff. 

Complex  conditional  sentences,  523. 

Complex  sentence,  278.  6. 

complures,  compluria,  120.  c. 

compos,  decl.,  121.  a.  4,  b.  1. 

Composition,  all  word-formation  a  pro- 
cess of,  227  ;  comp.  to  express  relations 
of  words,  .3.38,  386.     See  Comp.  words. 

Compound  sentence,  defined,  278.  2. 

Compound  stems,  imaginary,  255.  a. 

Compound  suffixes,  2^.  2,  2.;5. 

Compound  verbs,  267 ;  coiaps.  of  facio, 
204.  a,  b. 

Compound  words,  assimilation  in,  15.  6, 
16;  defined,  264;  how  formed ,  265-267. 

Compounds  of  preps.,  w.  dat.,  AlO;  of  ab, 
de,  ex,  381;  w.  ace,  388.  6,  395;  quan- 
tity of,  606.  c. 

con-,  see  com-. 

Conative  present,  467;  imperfect,  471.  c. 

concede,  constr.,  563  and  c. 

Concession,  hortatory  subjv.  of,  440  (cf. 
526) ;  particles  of,  527 ;  quamvis,  ut,  527. 
a;  licet,  id.  b ;  etsi  etc.,  id.  c ;  cum,  549; 
quamquam,  527.  d,  e ;  quamvis,  w.  indic- 
ative, 527.  e ;  vbs.  of,  w.  ut,  527.  /; 
abl.  abs.  for  concessive  clause,  420.  3; 
concession  implied  in  part.,  496;  qui 
concessive,  535.  e. 

Concessive  clauses,  see  Concession. 

Concessive  conjunctions,  223.  b.  3,  224, 
II.  c;  particles,  use  of,  527. 

Conclusion,  see  Apodosis. 

Concords,  the  four,  280. 

concors,  decl.,  119,  121.  a.  3. 

Condemning,  vbs.  of,  constr.,  352. 

Conditional  clauses,  defined,  279.  c. 

Conditional  conjunctions,  223.  6.  1,  224. 
II.  a,  525. 

Conditional  Particles,  524,  525. 

Conditional  sentences,  defined,  279.  c; 
development,  511 ;  protasis  and  apodo- 
sis, 512;  classification,  514;  Presentand 
Past,  nothing  implied,  515 ;  Future  con- 
ditions, 516;  fut.  more  vivid,  id.  2.  a; 
f ut.  less  vivid,  id.  2.  b ;  perf .  indie,  in 
fut.  cond.,  id.  e ;  Contrary  to  fact,  517 ; 
indie,  in  contrary  to  fact  condition,  id. 
b,  cf.  c  and  notes;  in  old  Latin,  id. 
e.  N.2;  General  condition,  518;  condi- 
tion disguised,  521 ;  as  part,  etc.,  id. 
a;  as  exhortation  or  command,  id.  b. ; 
protasis  omitted,  522;  Potential  Subjv., 
446;  Subjv.  of  Modesty,  447.  1;  vbs. 
of  necessity  etc.,  522.  a;  complex 
conditions,  523 ;  clauses  of  Comparison 
(conclusion  omitted),  524;  Concessive 


INDEX   OF  WORDS  AND   SUBJECTS 


451 


clauses,  527;  Proviso,  5'28;  use  of  si 
aud  its  comps.,  525 ;  conditional  relative 
clauses,  519 ;  temporal,  542,  551.  c.  n.  - ; 
conditional  sentences  in  ind.  disc,  589. 

confido,  constr.,  431  and  n.  i. 

Conjugation,  detined,  22.  Conjugation 
of  verbs,  171-193;  how  distinguished, 
171 ;  regular  forms  of,  173 ;  mixed 
forms,  id. ;  parallel  forms,  189 ;  stem- 
vowels  of  conjugations,  171-178;  stems 
of  the  four  conjugations,  how  modified, 
179 ;  paradigms  of  the  four  regular  con- 
jugations, 184-212. 

Conjunctions,  defined,  20.  g;  classes  of, 
223 ;  list  of,  224.  Syntax,  323.  a,  324. 
a-k,  539,  540.  notes;  correlative  use, 
323.  g ;  conjs.  repeated,  id.  e ;  omitted, 
id.  b ;  used  together,  324.  k. 

Conjunctive  adverbs,  20.  g.  n. 

Conjunctive  phrases,  224. 

Connectives,  relatives  used  as,  308./. 

Conor,  w.  inf.,  563.  e. ;  conor  si,  id.  n.  i. 

Consecutive  clauses,  defined,  279.  e ;  uses, 
536-538;  clauses  of  result  or  charac- 
teristic, 559. 

Consecutive  conjunctions,  223.  &.  5,  224. 
II.  e. 

consequor  ut,  568. 

consistere,  w.  abl.,  403.  b.  ftn.  2,  431. 

Consonant  stems  of  nouns,  decl.  Ill,  50- 
64;  cons,  stems  of  adjs.,  117;  case- 
forms,  121 ;  of  verbs,  259.  a.  3. 

Consonant  suffixes  (primary),  234.  II. 

Consonants,  classification,  3;  changes, 
14-19 ;  insertion,  15.  11 ;  transposition, 
177.  a.  N. ;  dissimilation,  15. 6 ;  assimila- 
tion, id.  16;  pronunciation,  8  and  n., 
11.  b.  N. 

consors,  decl.,  121.  a.  3. 

c5nstare,  w.  abl.,  403.  b. 

constituS,  constr.,  563.  d. 

Constructio  ad  sensuin,  see  Synesis. 

Constructions  of  cases,  338-435  (see  under 
Abl.  etc.). 

consuevi,  use,  476. 

consul,  decl.,  62. 

cousularis,  decl.,  76.  a.  2. 

consulo,  w.  dat.  or  ace,  367.  c. 

Contention,  words  of,  constr.,  368.  a, 
413.  b. 

contentus,  w.  abl.,  431.  a;  w.  perf.  inf., 
486./. 

contineri,  w.  abl.,  403.  b.  ftn. 

contingit  ut,  568. 

Continued  action,  tenses  of,  160,  161. 

Continuing,  vbs,  of,  w.  complementary 
inf.,  456. 

contra,  use,  220.  a,  221.  8,  321.  d;  as  adv., 
43;3.  4;  position,  435, 

Contracted  forms,  vin',  scin',  13.  n.  ;  gen. 
in  -i,  dat.  and  abl.  in  -is,  49.  a,  6. 


Contracting,  vbs.  of,  w.  gerundive,  500.  4. 

Contraction  of  vowels,  15.  3;  quantity, 
10.  c ;  in  prosody,  603.  c ;  of  syllables, 
608.  d. 

Contrary  to  fact  conditions,  517 ;  in  ind. 
disc,  589.  b. 

convenio,  w.  ace,  370.  b. 

Coordinate  conjunctions,  223.  a,  224. 
a-d;  coord,  clauses,  278.  a;  coord, 
words  without  conj.,  323.  b;  w.  conj., 
id.  c. 

Copula,  272,  283 ;  position  of,  598.  j. 

Copulative  conjunctions,  223.  a.  1,  224.  I. 
a ;  constr.  after,  323 ;  omission  of,  323.  b. 

Copulative  verbs,  272,  283. 

cor,  decl.,  59,  60.  b,  103.  g.  2. 

corpus,  decl.,  64. 

Correlatives,  152,  323.  g;  rendered  by 
the  .  .  .  the,  414.  a;  advs.  of  place,  217. 
a;  conjs.,  323./,  g. 

cos,  decl.,  103.  g.  2. 

Countries,  names  of,  gend.,  32;  as  end  of 
motion,  and  place  from  which,  428.  c. 

Crasls,  603.  c. 

creber,  decl.,  112.  a. 

credibili,  w.  comparative,  406.  a. 

credo,  position  of,  599.  c. 

Cretic  foot,  609.  d ;  verse,  628.  c. 

Crime  or  charge,  gen.  of,  352. 

-crum,  noun  ending,  240. 

crux,  decl.,  103.  g.  2. 

cucumis,  decl.,  75.  a. 

ciiias,  cuius,  145.  6,  151.  h. 

cuicui  modi,  151.  b.  N. 

ciiius  modi,  345.  a. 

-culum,  noun  suffix,  240. 

-cuius,  dim.  ending,  243. 

cum,  quom  (conj.),  form,  544;  meaning, 
544  ff. ;  cum  .  .  .  tum,  323.  g,  549.  b ;  se- 
quence, 485.  e.  N. ;  w.  clause  for  part., 
492,  493.  2 ;  temporal,  545-548 ;  causal 
or  concess.,  549 ;  in  ind.  disc,  585.  6.  n.  ; 
cum  {whenever),  545.  N.2,  548. 

cum  (prep.),  220.  6;  in  comp.,  see  com-; 
joined  as  enclitic  with  pronouns,  143.  f, 
150.  d ;  use  of,  221. 9 ;  w.  plur.  adj.,  286. 
a.  N. ;  w.  plur.  verb,  317.  n.  ;  w.  abl. 
of  manner,  412;  w.  abl.  of  accom- 
paniment, 413;  w.  words  of  conten- 
tion, 413.  6;  w.  words  of  exchange, 
417.  b.  N. 

-cumque,  added  to  relatives,  151.  a  and 
N. ;  temporal  particles  w.,  542. 

-cundus,  verbal  adj.  ending,  253  and  6. 

cupio,  constr.,  563.  6. 

euro,  constr.,  563;  cura  (imv.),  use,  449.  c. 

-cus,  suffix,  232.  N.,  249. 

Customary  action,  470,  618.  c. 

D  changed  to  s,  15. 5 ;  -d,  old  abl.  ending, 
decl.  I.  43.  N.  1 ;  decl.  U,  49.  e ;  decl.  Ill, 


452 


l^DEX   OF    \\\»1U)S  AND    t^lBJEC^^ 


p.  3A.  ftn. :  decl.  IV.  92,/:  med.  ted.  143. 
a.  N. :  s^.  144.  b.  n.  * :  -^  iu  ad\-s.  orisri- 
nally  -ed.  '214.  a.  x.;  -d  as  ueut.  prou. 
oiiviiuir.  113.  b:  loss  of  -d,  oi^. 

Dactyl. \W.  b:  oyclio.  id.  f. 

Daotylio  verse,  olo:  he^sametex.  tUo ;  ele- 
giac stanza.  ol6:  other  fonus,  617. 
-'.:un.  adverbial  ending.  '215.  6. 

.  imnAs.  indecl.  adj..  1±2.  b. 
aps.  defect..  103.  h.  ± 

DariuiT.  vbs.  of.  vr.  coiupl.  inf..  456. 

Dates,  how  expressed.  4'J4.  p.  ivU. 

Dative  detiu^.  ;>3.  c:  in  -ai.  decl.  I.  4o. 
ti :  in  -dbus.  deol.  I.  id.  e :  in  -is  for  -us. 
decl.  n.  49./:  in-abus.  deol.  IV,  iW.  c; 
iu  -i  i,of  uQus  etc.").  113. 

DAirsE.  Suntaj-.  .y6(X^'S5.  Indirect  ob- 
iect.  361;  w.  trausitives.  362:  vr.  vl>s. 
implying  motion.  ;^>;>:  use  of  dono  etc., 
364 ;  m  pviss..  365 :  vr.  iutrau&itives.  366 : 
w.  phrases,  id.  a;  like  iren..  id.  6;  w. 
iutransitives.  verbs  meaning  ratvr  etc., 
;V7 ;  similar  vbs.  vr.  a^v.  id.  a :  vbs. 
having  dat.  or  ace.  id.  b.  c:  w.  verbal 
nouns^  id.  d:  w.  libet  and  licet,  368.  1 ; 
w.  comps.  of  satis,  bene,  male,  id.  2: 
poetic  use.  id.  a:  intrans.  vbs.  w,  ace. 
and  dat.,  36^^:  w.  comps.  of  preps,  ad. 
ante,  etc.,  370:  vr.  passive  used  impe> 
sonally,  372.  Of  Possession,  373:  vr. 
n6men*est.  id.  a;  vr,  desom  and  absum, 
id.  6.  Of  the  Agent.  374.  375.  Of  Ref- 
erence, 376,  3.  (  :  of  the  i>e'*son  jnlring, 
378;    used  idio  "  il 

dat.,  380.    Of>  r- 

pose.  382:^  w.  a  .,  .  ^v. 

adjs.  of  dtness  etc.,  384,  .^vv);  gen.  or 
dat.  w.  similis.  385.  c  2,  With  vrords 
of  contention  ^x)etic^ .  413.  6.  x.  Of  End 
of  Motion.  428.  h :  w.  indn..  455. 1 :  dat. 
of  -^^ru-i.  50o.  a. 

■  nodi  aut  incommodi.  376. 

>.  "221.  10;  incomp.  vr.  vbs., 
-.-...;.  a  comp.  vr.  vl>s.,  w.  djit.,  381: 
ih  comp.  w.  vbs.,  w.  abl..  402:  w.  abl. 
instead  of  p^irt.  gen..  .Ui?.  o:  vr.  vbs.  of 
reminding.  351.  jf. :  w  abl.  to  denote 
the  crime.  .>\v  2:  w.  place  fromvrhich. 
426.  1 :  position  of  d5,  4v>5 :  de  w.  abl. 
of  irerund,  507. 

de,^..  de^'V    4'^  r. 

u  ,"""■■     ■ 

;  vr.  perf.inf.,id.6. 

"  iind  N.*. 

deoet,  w.  ace..  386.  c;   w.  dat.,  id.  N.*; 

in  ,npo«l..  517.  c 
'^  ■  2l>9.   a;  how  ex- 

:>80. 

-  -:   chancteristics 

of,  37;  cener.il  lules  for.  38;  termi- 
nations. •^^.    Of  Nouns,   I.  4(M4;  II, 


45-52;  m,  53-67:  IV.  S6-IU:  V.  96-98; 
deol.  V  compared  witii  I.  98.  c  Of 
Adjs.,  deol.  I-U,  K>9-113;  decl.  III. 
114-122 ;  of  compcirati ves,  120 ;  of  par- 
ticiples. 109.  117.  6. 

Decreeing,  vbs.  of,  5tv>.  d. 

d?di.  quantity  of  penult.  605.  Ere. 

Defective  adjectives.  111.  6,  122.  c 

Defective  comparison.  130. 

•Detective  nouns,  A^KV^;  of  decl.  IV,  v, 
o;  of  decl.  V.  i^.  a. 

Detective  verbs.  205-206. 

defici5.  coustr.,  367.  a. 

Dednite  perfect,  161. 1,  473;  sequence  • 
485.  a. 

defit.  2i>4.  c. 

degener.  119,  x.,  121.  a.  3. 

Degree,  adverbs  of.  217.  c. 

Degree  of  difference,  abl.  of.  414;  dis- 
tance expressed  by.  425.  6. 

Degrees  of  C<»miviri*son,  123. 

demde.  df  nique.  in  euimierationa.  322.  d.  s. 

dclectat.  coustr..  388.  c. 

delecto,  w.  ace.,  3i>7.  a, 

delector,  w.  abl..  431. 

Deliberative  subjunctive.  4-».,  i-r^ .  i^. 
indir.  questions.  575. 6 ;  iuiud.  disc., 587. 

delicium.  -ia.  -iae.  106.  b. 

Delivering,  vbs.  of,  w.  gerimdLve,  500.  4. 

Delos.  dec!..  52. 

delphin,  decl.,  83.  a. 

-dem.  adverbial  ending.  215.  6. 

Demanding,  vbs.  oi.  vr.  g^rv.n-.^'ve.SOO.  ^ 

Demonstrative  advor",  -      -  larives . 

323.  g;  equivalent  ..  prou. 

w.  prep..  321.  a.    l\^ . .  r.  b. 

Demonstrative  pronouns.  146;  decl..  I' 
formation,  id.  x.  i.    Si/niax,  2iX>-2. 
of  1st  person.  297.  a :  of  2d  pers..  id.  c : 
of  3d  pers..  id.  6 :  supply  place  of  j>ers. 
prons.  of  3d  pens.,  2v^^  c:  in  relative 
clause.  308.  d.  x.    Position,  598.  b. 

denaxius,  value  of,  ti32. 

Denominative  verbs,  2r>8-262. 

Dependent  clauses,  subjv.  used  in,  438.  b. 

De^vnent  verbs  defined,  156.  6;  how 
conjug:'»tei.l.  190:  paradigms,  id.:  i>arii- 
ciples^  id.  a;  tut.  inf..  id.  o:  used  re- 
liexiveJy.  id.  e:  in  pjissive  sense,  id./: 
list  of  irregular  deponent  verbs.  191 ; 
defective  dept^>neuts,  id.  i: ;  semi-depo- 
nents. 192. 

Depriving,  constr.  w.  vbs.  of,  401. 

Derivation  of  worvls.  227-267. 

Derivative  forms  of  nouns.  2;V-241;  of 
adjs..  242-25o:  of  vbs,,  258-263. 

Deri>-ative  verl>s.  defined.  257. 

Deri>-atives,  quantity  of,  d06. 

-des.  nouns  in.  244. 

Description,  imperf.  used  in,  471.  a. 

Descxiption  implied  in  paxt.,  496. 


INDEX  OF   WOUDS  AND   SUBJECTS 


453 


Descriptive  abl.,  see  Abl.  of  quality, 
tdeses,  decl.,  121.  a.  4. 
Desiderative  verbs  (in  -urio),  2(j3.  4. 
Desire,  adjs.  of,  w.  goii.,  349.  a. 
despero,  constr.,  o()7.  6. 
deterior,  compar.  of,  i;30.  a. 
Determinative  compounds,  205.  2. 
Determining,  vbs.  of,  constr.,  503.  d. 
.  deus,  decl.,  49.  g. 
dexter,  decl.,  111.  a;  compar.,  129. 
di-,  see  dis-. 
Dian-esis,  Oil.  c. 
Diastole,  012.  6. 
die,  imperotive,  182. 
dicionis,  defect.,  103.  e. 
dico,  forms  of,  omitted,  319.  a. 
diets,  w.  comp.,  400.  a. 
-dicus,  adjs.  in,  comparison  of,  127. 
Dido,  decl.,  82. 

diem  dicere,  w.  dat.  of  gerund  etc.,  505. 
dies,  decl.,  90;  gender,  97.  a;  gen.  form 

dii,  98.  N. 
Difference,  abl.  of  degree  of,  414. 
difficilis,  comparison,  126;  constr.,  510. 

N.2. 

dignor,  w.  abl.,  418.  6.  n.  l. 

dignus,  w.  abl.,  418.  6 ;  w.  relative  clause, 

535./. 
Dimeter,  iambic  verse,  619.  c. , 
Diminutive  endings,  w.  nouns  and  adjec- 
tives, 243 ;  verbs,  203.  3. 
din-,  stem-ending,  01.  2. 
Diphthongs,  2;    sound  of,  8;   quantity, 

10. 6,  003.  h. 
Diptotcs,  103.  c. 
Direct  object,  274,  387. 
Direct  question,  deliued,  330.  1. 
Dli'ect  quotation,  578.  n. 
Direct  reflexive,  300.  6. 
dis-  (dl-),  inseparable  prefix,  267.  6. 
Disjunctive  conjunctions,  224.  I.  a;  case 

of  noun  after,  323. 
Dissimilation,  15.  6. 
dissimilis,  comp.,  120. 
Distance,  ace.  or  a])l.,  425.  h;  of  time, 

424./. 
Distributive  numerals,  136 ;  use,  137. 
Distributive  pronouns,  313 
diu,  compar.,  218.  a. 
dives,  decl.,  119,  121.  6. 
divum  (divora),  for  deorura,  49.  g.  N. 
-do,  adverbial  ending,  215.  6. 
-do,  nouns  in ,  from  st.  din-,  01 . 2 ;  gend. ,  86. 
do,  conj.,  202;  w.  inf.,  460.  a. 
doceo,  constr.,  396  and  c.  n.  2. 
domi,  locative,  427.  3. 
domum,  427.  2;  domo,  id.  1. 
domus,  gend.,  90.  Exc. ;  decl.,  93;  double 

stem  of,  id. :  locative  form,  93.  n.  i. 
donee,  w.  ind.  or  subjv.,  653  n.  i,  ^,  554, 

555. 


dono,  double  constr.  of,  364. 

dos,  decl.,  71.  0. 

Double  consonants,  4,  11.  6. 

Doul)le  questions,  334;  answers  to,  337. 

Doubting,  vbs.  of,  constr.,  658. 

Dital  forms,  p.  59.  ftn. 

Diibitative  subjv.,  see  Deliberative. 

dubito  an,  331.  N. ;  non  dubito  quin,  558.  a; 
non  dubito,  w.  inf.,  id.  N. '■^;  without 
neg.,  id.  n.  i. 

diic,  imperative,  182. 

dum,  derivation,  215.  6;  w.  past,  id.  a; 
w.  clause  for  pres.  and  perf.  part.,  492, 
493.  2;  introducing  a  proviso,  528;  as 
adv.,  652 ;  until,  w.  pres.  or  impf .  subjv. 
denoting  intention  or  expectancy,  653 ; 
w.  pres.  or  fut!  perf.  indie,  to  state 
future  fact,  id.  n.'-^;  w.  perf.  indie, 
554.  N. ;  as  long  as,  w.  indie,  555  (cf. 
556.  a) ;  lohile,  w.  pres.  indie,  556;  w. 
past  indie,  id.  a. 

dummodo,  628. 

duo,  decl.,  134.  6. 

dupli,  w.  vbs.  of  condemning,  352.  a. 

Duration,  ace  of,  423;  abl.  of,  424.  b. 

-dus,  participle  in,  see  Gerundive. 

Duty,  vbs.  of,  in  apod.,  517.  c. 

dux,  decl.,  67. 

E,  variant  of  5  as  stem- vowel  of  decl.  II, 
46.  c  and  n.  ;  in  voc,  id. ;  abl.  of  neuters 
in,  decl.  Ill,  76.  a.  3;  gend.  of  neuters 
in,  decl.  Ill,  87 ;  abl.  in,  of  adjs.  of  two 
and  three  terminations,  116,  n.,  117, 121. 
a ;  stem-vowel,  conj.  Ill,  171, 174. 1, 179. 
c;  final,  quantity  of,  604.  e. 

e,  for  ae  (oe),  6.  n.  8 ;  in  Greek  voc,  81.  3 ; 
in  stem  of  decl.  V,  98 ;  in  gen.  of  decl.  V, 
98.  d.  N. ;  in  dat,,  id. ;  in  stem  of  conj. 
II,  171, 179.  b ;  -e  as  adv.  ending,  214.  a,  c. 

e  (preposition),  see  ex. 

eae,  old  dat.  fem.  of  is,  146.  n.  ». 

Early  forms  of  alphabet,  1.  a  and  N.,  6. 
a,  b;  of  prosody,  629. 

ecce  (cecum  etc.),  146.  a.  n.2. 

ecquis,  decl.,  161./;  use,  310.  a. 

Ecthlipsis,  612./. 

edico,  constr.,  503.  d. 

edo  (eat),  conj.,  201. 

Effecting,  vbs.  of,  w.  perf.  part.,  497- c ;  w 
ut-clause,  580.  d. 

efficio  ut,  568. 

effieri,  204.  c. 

effigies,  decl.,  98.  a. 

Effort,  vbs.  of,  w.  ut-clause,  663.  e. 

egens,  decl.,  118. 

egeo,  constr.,  366  and  n. 

ego,  decl.,  143. 

ei,  diphthong,  2;  sound  of,  8. 

-313  for  -is  in  plur.  of  decl.  I,  43.  e.  n.2, 

-eis,  patronymic,  244. 


454 


INDEX   OF   WORDS  AND   SUBJECTS 


-eius,  adj.  ending,  249;  in  prosody,  11.  d, 

603./.  N.  2. 

-gius,  names  in,  decl.,  49.  /. 

eiusmodi,  14G,  h,  345.  a. 

Electra,  decl.,  44. 

Elegiac  stanza,  616. 

-elis,  adj.  ending,  248. 

Elision,  612.  e. 

Ellipsis,  640. 

ellumetc,  146.  a.  N.2. 

-ellus,  diminutive  ending,  243. 

eluvies,  decl.,  98.  a. 

em,  combined  w.  prons  (ellum  etc.),  J46 
a.N.2. 

Emphas's,  597. 

en-  (on-,  en-,  6n-),primary  suffix,  234.  II.  13. 

Enclitics,  accent,  12.  a ;  quantity,  604.  a. 
1 ;  cum,  143./,  150.  h,d;  -met,  -te,  -pte, 
143.  d  and  n.;  -pse,  146.  n.  5",  8;  -ce,  id. 
a.  N.  1 ;  -que,  see  under  that  word. 

End  of  motion,  ace.  of,  426.  2;  w.  vbs. 
that  also  take  dat.,  363 ;  dat.  of,  428.  h ; 
two  or  more  places  as  end  of  motion, 
428.  i. 

Endings,  signification  of,  235-263;  end- 
ings of  verb,  165.  2,  166.  See  Personal 
endings,  and  Terminations. 

English  method  of  pronunciation,  8.  N. 

English  words  cognate  with  Lat.,  18,  19. 

enim,  use,  324.  h;  position,  324.  j,  599.  6. 

■ensimus  (or  -esimus),  numeral  adj.  end- 
ing, 133.  N.  1. 

-ensis,  gentile  ending,  249. 

Enumeration,  primum . . .  deinde,  322.  d.  n, 

-enus,  adj.  ending,  249. 

Envy,  vbs.  of,  w.  dat.,  367. 

eo,  used  w.  supine  in  -um,  428.  i,  509.  n.  i. 

eo,  used  w.  quo,  414.  a;  w.  compar.,  id. ; 
approaching  abl.  of  cause,  id.  n. 

eo  consilio  ut,  531.  1.  N.  i. 

Epicene  nouns,  34.  n. 

Epistolary,tenses,  479. 

epitome,  decl.,  44. 

epulum,  plur.  -ae,  106.  6. 

equester,  decl.,  115  a. 

equidem,  322.  /.  N. 

er-  for  es-,  primary  suffix,  234.  II.  17. 

er-,  stem-ending,  63.  Exc.  2. 

-er,  nom.  ending,  decl.  II,  45-47;  decl. 
Ill,  61.  4, 65.  a;  gend.,  85;  -er,  adjs.  in, 
111,  112,  115;  compar.  of  these,  125. 

erga,  w.  ace.  after  adjs.,  385.  h. 

ergo,  use,  324  i;  w.  gen.,  359.  6. 

-erim,  -er5,  as  tense-ending,  169.  c,  d. 

-ernus,  adj .  ending,  250. 

ero-,  noun  stems  in,  decl.  II,  60;  ero-,  adj. 
stems  in.  111.  a.  n. 

ES,  root  of  esse,  15.  4;  170.  h.  n. 

es-  (OS-),  primary  suffix,  234.  II.  17. 

-es,  in  nom.  plur.  of  Greek  nouns,  81.  4; 
gend.  of  nouns  in,  85 


-es,  gen.  of  Greek  nouns  in,  decl.  11, 52.  a , 

gen.  ending,  decl.  V,  98.  n. 

-es,  list  of  nouns  in,  p.  30.  ftn.  2;  gend., 
86;  formation,  238.  a. 

esse,  conj.,  170;  foi-ms  of,  in  other  lan- 
guages, id.  6.  N. ;  compounds  of,  198; 
case  after,  284;  dat.  of  poss.  w.,  373; 
future  part.  w.  (first  periph.  conj.), 
498.  a,  6 ;  position  of  forms  of,  598.  c,j. 

est,  united  with  other  words,  13.  n.  ;  est 
qui  etc.,  535.  a ;  est  cum,  535.  a.  N.  3 ;  est 
ut,  569.  3. 

Esteeming,  vbs.  of,  constr.,  393. 

-ester  (-estris),  adj.  ending,  250;  a  noun- 
ending,  254.  11. 

estur,  essetur.  pass,  forms  of  edo,  201.  a. 

et,  use,  324.  a ;  et  .  .  .  et,  323.  e ;  et  re- 
peated  or  omitted,  323.  c. 

et,  -que,  or  atque  translated  6wi,  324.  d.  n. 

etenim,  use,  324.  h,  k. 

Ethical  dative,  380. 

etiam,  u-e,  .322.  a;  in  answers,  336.  a.  1. 

etiam  si,  concessive,  527.  c. 

etsi,  use,  527.  c. 

-etum,  noun  ending,  254.  8. 

-eus,  Greek  names  in,  52.  e ;  -eus,  patro- 
nymic  ending,  244:  adj.  ending,  247, 
249,  254.  10. 

evenit  ut,  568.  ftn.  2. 

ex  (e),  220.  h ;  use,  221. 11 ;  in  compovmds, 
267.  a,  402;  abl.  w.,  instead  of  part, 
gen.,  346.  c:  in  vbs.  w.  dat.,  381;  w. 
prons.  etc.,  403.  a.  N.  ^ ;  to  express  place 
from  which,  426.  1 ;  expressing  posi- 
tion, 429.  6 ;  after  its  noun,  435 ;  w.  abl. 
of  gerund.  5C7. 

excello,  w.  dat.,  368.  3. 

Exchanging,  vbs.  of,  417.  6. 

Exclamation ,  form  of,  333.  n.  ;  nom.  in, 
339.  a;  aw^  in,  397.  d',  w.  infin.,  462. 

Exclamatory  questions,  462.  a. 

Exclamatory  sentences,  269.  c:  nom.  in, 
339.  a;  gen.  in,  a59.  a;  ace.  in,  397.  d. 

Existence  general  expressions  of,  535.  a 

exlex,  deiect  ,  122.  c. 

Expecting,  hoping,  etc.,  vbs.  of,  w.  ind. 
disc.  580.  c;  w.  complem.  inf..  id.  N. 

expensum,  496.  n.  4. 

exsilio,  w.  a  j1.,  404.  a. 

exspes,  defect.,  122.  c. 

exsulto,  w.  abl.,  404.  a. 

exteri,  use,  130.  6. 

exterior,  130.  h 

extremus,  form,  130.  a.  ftn.  2. 

exuo,  constr.,  364. 

F,  original  sound  of,  1.  6.  N. 
faber/decl.,  112.  a. 

fac,  imv.,  182,  204;   fac  (ut),  w.  subjv. 
449.  c ;  fac  ne,  in  prohibition,  450.  n.  2, 
faciSs,  decl.,  98.  a. 


INDEX  OF  WORDS  AND   SUBJECTS 


455 


facilis,  compar.,  126;  w.  supine,  510.  n.2. 

facio,  accent  of  comps.  of,  12.  a.  Exc; 
forms  of,  omitted,  ol9.  a;  w.  abl.,  403. 
c;  w.  names  of  authors,  497.  d.  n.  ; 
facere  ut,  568.  N.  l. 

Factitive  ace,  386;  verbs,  273.  n.^. 

-facto,  in  compounds,  266.  a. 

faenebris,  decl.,  115.  N.  K 

faex,  decl.,  103.  g.  2. 

fallit,  w.  ace,  388.  c. 

falsus,  compar.,  131.  a. 

fames,  abl.  of,  76.  6.  N.l,  98.  cZ. 

familiaris,  decl.,  76.  h.  2. 

familias,  in  pater  familias  etc.,  43,  h. 

fas,  indecl.,  103.  a;  w.  supine  in  -u,  510. 

faux,  decl.,  101.  n.i,  103./.  4, 

Favor,  vbs.  of,  w.  dat.,  367. 

fax,  decl.,  103.  p-.  2.  sCf 

Fearing,  vbs.  of,  w.  inf.,  456;  w.  ne,  ne 
non,  ut,  564. 

febris,  decl.,  75.  6,  76.  h.  1, 

Feeling,  nouns  of,  w.  gen.,  348;  imper- 
sonal vbs.  of,  208.  h,  354.  h ;  animi  w. 
vbs.  and  adjs.  of,  358;  gen.  w.  vbs. 
of,  354;  ace.  w.  vbs.  of,  388.  a;  quod- 
clause  w.  vbs.  of,  572.  6, 

Feet  in  Prosody,  608-610^ 

felix,  compar.,  124. 

Feminine,  rule  for  gend.,  32. 

femur,  decl., 105.  g, 

-fer,  comps.  of,  50;  decl.,  111.  a. 

fer,  imperative,  182. 

fero,  cou]'.,  200;  acceptum  (expensum)  ferre, 
496.  N.  4 ;  comps.  of,  200.  a. 

ferre,  ferrem,  for  fferse  etc.,  p.  110.  ftn.  3. 

Festivals,  plural  names  of,  101. 2 ;  in  -alia, 
254.  7. 

-ficus,  adjs.  in,  comparison  of,  127.  a. 

fides,  decl.,  96. 

fido  (confido) ,  semi-deponent,  192 ;  W.  dat., 
367;  w.  abl.,  431. 

fidus,  compar.,  131.  a. 

fieri,  constr.  w.  abl.,  403.  c. 

Fifth  Declension,  95-97. 

Figura  etymologica,  598.  m, 

filia,  decl.,  43.  e;  filius,  voc,  49.  c. 

Filling,  vs^ords  of,  w.  abl..  409.  a ;  w.  gen., 
•  id.  N. 

Final  Clauses,  defined,  279.  d;  constr.  of, 
530-532;  as  subst.  clauses,  563. 

Final  conjunctions,  223.  6. 6,  224.  II.  e. 

Final  syllables,  rules  of  quantity,  604; 
vowels,  id.  a-h, 

finis,  decl.,  76.  b. 

Finite  verb,  defined,  154.  n.;  subj.  of, 
339. 

fio,  conj.,  204;  in  compounds,  id.  6;  de- 
fective compounds  of,  id.  c;  quantity 
of  i  in,  603.  a.  3. 

First  Conjugation,  prin.  parts,  173;  pres. 
fiteiTi.  ]i()\v  loruied,  176.  a;  formation, 


179.  a,  259;  paradigms,  184;  vbs.  of, 

209;  vbs.  of,  how  formed,  259. 
First  Declension,  40-42. 
fisus,  as  pres.  part.,  491. 
fit  ut,  568.  ftn.  2,  569.  2. 
Fitness,  adjs.  of,  w.  dat.,  384,  385.  a. 
flagito,  constr.,  563. 
flocci,  gen.  of  value,  417.  a. 
For,  when  expressed  by  pro,  379.  n. 
foras,  103.  c.  4,  215.  3. 
fore,  170.  a;  perf.  part,  w.,  164.  c.  n.;  fore 

ut,  569.  a. 
forem,  170.  a. 

fores,  plur.  only,  101.4,  103.  c.  4. 
Forgetting,  vbs.  of,  350 ;  w.  mf .,  456. 
foris  (locative),  103.  c.  4,  215.  4,  427.  a. 
Formation  of  words,  227-267o 
Forms  of  the  verb,  180  ff. 
fors,  forte,  103.  c.  1. 
forsan,  447.  b.  N. 
forsitan  (fors  sit  an),  216.  N.;  w.  subj  v., 

447.  a. 
fortasse,  447.  6. 
Fourth    Conjugation,  prin.    parts,   173; 

pres.  stem,  how  formed,  176.  a,  179.  d; 

paradigm,  187;  list  of  vbs.,  212;  vbs., 

how  formed,  262. 
Fourth  Declension,  88-94. 
Fractional  expressions,  135.  e,  637. 
fraus,  decl.,  71.  6. 
Freedom,  adjs.  of,  w.  abl.,  402.  a;  vbs. 

of,  401. 
French,  derivations  through,  19.  n.  2. 
Frequentative  verbs,  263.  2. 
fretus,  w.  abl.,  431.  a. 
Fricatives,  4.  5. 
frugi,  defect,  noun,  103./.  1;  as  adj.,  122. 

b;  compar.,  129;  constr.,  382.  1.  n.  2. 
fruor,  fungor,  w.  abl.,  410;  w.  ace,  id.  a. 

N.  1 ;  gerundive,  503.  k.  2. 
fugit,  w.  ace,  388.  c. 
fui,  derivation  of,  170.  6.  N. 
Fulness,  adjs.  of,  349.  a. 
funebris,  decl.,  115.  N.i. 
fungor,  see  fruor. 
Future    conditions,  516;    in    ind.  disc, 

589.  a. 
Future  tense,   use,  472;    of  inf.  pass., 

how  formed,  203.  a;  of  imv.,  449;  ind. 

for  imv.,  id.  6;  in  indirect  questions, 

575. 
Future  Infinitive,  how  formed,   164.  3. 

6,  c,  193.  N. ;    expressed  with  fore  or 

futurum  esse,  569.  a;    (rarely)   in  con- 
trary to  fact  conditions  in  ind.  disc, 

589.  b.  N.  3. 
Future  Participle,  use,  158.  b,  489,  498, 

517.  d;  fut.  pass,  part.,  500. 
Future  Perfect  tense,  suffix  of,  169.  c; 

use  of,  478;  represented  in  subjv.,  484.- 

c:  in  conditions,  516.  c 


456 


INDEX  OF  WORDS  AND  SUBJECTS 


futurum  esse  ut,  see  fore  ut ;  futurum  fuisse 

ut,  589.  h.  3  and  N.  2. 
Futurum  in  praeterito,  611.  ftn,  1. 

G  (the  character),  1.  a  and  N. 

Gaines,  plur.  names  of,  101.  2. 

gaudeo,  conj.,  192;  w.  abl.,  431;  w.  quod 
or  ind.  disc,  572.  b. 

Gems,  gend.  of,  32  and  b,  48=  Exc. 

Gender,  kinds  of,  30;  general  rules  for, 
31-34;  common,  epicene,  34;  change 
of  gend.,  p.  18.  ftn. ;  nouns,  decl.  I, 
gend.,  42 ;  decl.  II,  48 ;  nouns,  decl.  Ill, 
gend.  according  to  endings,  84-87;  of 
nouns,  decl.  lY,  90,  91;  decl.  V,  97; 
Syntax:  agreement  in  gend.,  280;  of 
appositives,  282.  c;  of  adjs.,  286;  adjs. 
w.  nouns  of  different  genders,  287  (cf. 
289.  c) ;  of  rel.,  306.  b. 

General  conditions,  defined,  513. 2 ;  constr. 
of,  618 ;  relatives  in,  520. 

General  truths  after  past  tense  (in 
sequence  of  tenses),  485.  d;  in  pres., 
465 ;  in  general  condition,  618.  a. 

Genitive,  defined,  35.  6;  terminations 
of,  37;  plur.  in  -um,  38./;  gen.  in  -ai 
and  -as,  decl.  I,  43.  a,  b;  in  -i  for  -ii, 
decl.  II,  49.  6 ;  in  -i  of  proper  nouns  of 
decl.  Ill,  52.  a;  gen,  plur.  in  -iim  (-om), 
for-orum,  49.  d;  -um  for  -ium,  decl.  Ill, 
78;  -OS  for  -is,  81.  1 ;  gen-  plur.  in  -um, 
92.  6 ;  in  -i  or  -ft  for  -ei,  decL  V,  98.  n.  ; 
gen.  plur.  wanting,  103.  g.2;  of  adjs.  in 
-ius,  113 ;  gen.  plur.  in -ium  or-um,  121.  b. 

Genitive,  Syntax,  342-356 ;  general  use, 
342.  Subjective  gen.,  343.  N:  i.  Posses- 
sive gen.,  343;  in  app.  w.  poss.  pron., 
302.  e;  compared  w.  dat.,  373.  n.  ;  gen. 
in  predicate,  343.  6,  c;  gen.  of  adj. 
for  neut.  nom.,  343.  c.  n.  i ;  gen.  of  sub- 
stance or  material,  344;  for  app.,  343. 
d;  gen.  of  quality,  345.  Partitive,  346. 
Objective,  347  ff.;  w.  adjs.,  349,  385. 
c;  w.  vbs.  of  memory,  350;  charge 
and  penalty,  352;  of  feeling,  354;  w. 
impers.,  miseret  etc.,  354.  &;  w.  refert 
and  interest,  355 ;  of  plenty  and  want, 
356 ;  of  exclamation,  359.  a ;  w.  potior, 
357.  a ;  w.  other  vbs.,  id.  6 ;  w.  egeo  and 
indigeo,  356.  n.  ;  gen.  for  abl.,  id. ;  gen. 
replaced  by  dat.,  366.  b ;  of  value,  417 ; 
gen.  of  gerundive,  604. 

genius,  voc.  of,  49.  c. 

Gens,  or  family,  names,  108. 

Gentile  adjectives,  244. 

gentilis,  76.  a.  2. 

genu,  decl.,  89;  gend.,  91. 

genus,  decl.,  64. 

-ger,  compounds  of,  60;  decl.,  111.  a. 

Gerund,  form,  155.  &;  meaning,  159.  a; 
gerundive  used  instead,  503.    Syntax, 


602-507;  gen.  of,  604;  w.   direct  obj.. 

id.  a ;  pred.  use,  purpose,  id.  a.  n.  i ;  w 

obj.  gen.,  id.  c;  dat.  of,  605;   in  law 

phrases  etc.,  id.  b ;  ace.  of,  506  and  n.i  ; 

abl.  of,  507;   gerund  coordinated  w. 

nominal  constr.  and  in  app.,  503.  a. 

N.2;  w.  direct  obj,,  503.  a.  n.  i. 
Gerundive,  meaning  and  form,  155.  a  and 

ftn.  3,  158.  d ;  in  -endus  or  -undus,  p.  89. 

ftn.  1 ;  of  dep.  vb.,  190.  d ;  use  as  part, 

or  adj.,  500;  of  iitor,  id-  3;  to  denote' 

purposeaftercertainvbs.,id.4;  used  for 

gerund,  603.     Gerundive  constructions 

in  cases,  gen.,  504 ;  dat.,  605 ;  ace,  506 ; 

abl.,  607.    Impersonal  w,  esse,  w.  ace, 

600.  3, 
gibber,  decl..  111.  a. 
gin-,  stem-ending,  61.  2. 
Giving,  vbs.  of,  w.  gerundive,  600.  4. 
glaber,  decl.,  112.  a. 
•glacies,  decl,,  98.  a. 
glis,  decl.,  71.  6. 
glorior,  w.  abl.,  431. 
Glyconic  verse,  623.  1,  624,  625.  1, 12. 
Gnomic  perfect,  476. 
-go,  nouns  in,  from  stem   gin-,  61.  2; 

gend.,  86. 
gracilis,  decl.,  122.  «;  compar.  126. 
Grammar,  how  developed,  268. 
Grammatica,l  gender,  30.  b. 
gratia,  w.  gen.,  369.  6,  404.  c;  w.  gen.  of 

gerund,  533. 
gratificor,  w.  dat.,  368.  3. 
gratulor,  w.  dat.,  id. 

Greek  accusative  {synecdochical) ,  397.  6. 
Greek  forms  compared  w.  Latin,  pp.  13, 

14,  19,  26,  65,  68,  76,  80,  83,  126,  142, 

143,  160, 163. 
Greek  nouns,  decl.  I,  44;  decl.  II,  52; 

decl.  Ill,  81,  82,  83. 
Greek  proper  names,  quantity  of^N603,  4. 
Groups  of  words,  conjunctions  w.,  323.  c. 
grus,  decl,,  79.  «. 
Guilt,  adjs.  of,  w.  gen.,  349.  a. 

H  (breathing),  4;    omitted  in  spelling 
6.  d.  N.  2 ;  in  prosody,  603.  a,  612.  e. 

habeo,  w.  infinitive,  4G0.  a;  w.  perfect^ 
participle,  497.  b;  future  imperative' 
habet5  in  sense  of  consider,  449,  a. 

habilis,  w.  dat.  of  gerund  etc.,  606.  a.  ftn. 

hactenus,  221.  26.  n.  i. 

Hadria,  gen.,  4^2.  Exc. 

haeo  for  hae,  146.  n.  2. 

haere5,  w.  abl.,  368.  3.  n. 

Happening,  vbs.  of,  constr.,  669,  2. 

Have,  pert',  w,,  origin,  497.  b.  ftn. 

have  (ave),  defective  verb,  206.  g. 

Having,  vbs.  of,  w.  gerund.,  500.  4. 

hebes,  decl.,  86.  a;  compar.,  124. 

Help,  vbs.  of,  w.  dat.,  367, 


INDEX  OF  WORDS  AND  SUBJECTS 


457 


Hemiolic  measures,  609.  d. 

Heroic  verse.  616. 

heros,  decl.,  82. 

Hesitation,  clauses  of,  w.  quin,  558,  559; 
vbs.  of,  constr.,  456. 

Heteroclite  nouns,  105 ;  adjs.,  122.  a. 

Heterogeneous  nouns,  106. 

Hexameter  verse,  615. 

Hiatus,  612.  g. 

Hiber,  decL,  50.  c. 

hibus,  146.  N.  2. 

hie,  146,  N.  1;  decL,  146;  use,  297.  a,  e,/; 
quantity,  604.  J,  Exc. 

Hidden  quantity,  11./ and  N. 

hiemps  (for  liiems),  15.  11. 

hilaris  (-us),  122.  a. 

Himself  (ipse,  se),  298.  c.  N.  2. 

Hindering,  vbs.  of,  with  ne  or  quominus, 
or  inf.,  558.  b  and  n. 

Hindrance,  vbs.  of,  w.  quominus,  558.  6 ; 
w.  negatives,  followed  by  quin,  558, 
559. 

Historical  infinitive,  463 ;  takes  secondary 
sequence,  485.  /. 

Historical  perfect,  161.  2,  473. 

Historical  present,  469 ;  foilo^ved  by  pri- 
mary or  secondary  tenses,  485.  e. 

hodie,  loc.  form,  98.  b,  215.  5. 

honor  (-os),  decl.,  62.  N.2. 

Hoping,  verbs  of,  with  ind.  disc,  680.  c; 
w.  complem.  inf.,  id.  n. 

Horace,  metres  of,  626. 

horizon,  decl.,  83.  d. 

Hortatory  subjunctive,  439;  in  conces- 
sion, 440 ;  in  proviso,  528 ;  in  obligation, 
439.  6;  w.  force  of  protasis,  521.  6. 

hortor,  constr.,  563. 

hospes,  decl.,  121.  a.  4. 

hospita  (fern,  of  hospes),  121.  e. 

hiiiusmodi,  146.  b. 

humi,  49.  a ;  locative  use  of,  427.  a. 

humilis,  compar.,  126. 

Hundreds,  how  declined,  134.  c. 

Hypotaxis,  268. 

I,  as  vowel  and  as  cons..  1,  10;  i  as  tran- 
sient sound  between  cons,  i  and  a  pre- 
ceding vowel,  6.  c  (cf.  11.  e). 

i-,  primary  suffix,  234.  I.  2. 

i,  for  e  in  conj.  H,  179.  6. 2 ;  for  -5  in  conj. 
HI,  id.  c.  1;  lost  in  vbs.  in  -io  of  conj. 
HI,  id.  and  e ;  inserted  in  vb.  stem,  176. 
6.2. 

-i  in  Greek  voc,  82. 

-i,  (single)  in  gen.  of  nouns  in  -ius  (-ium), 
49.  b ;  in  gen.  of  nouns  in  -es,  52.  a ;  in 
abl.  of  decl.  HI,  76 ;  in  loc.  of  decl,  HI, 
p.  34.  ftn.  1 ;  in  gen.,  decl.  IV,  92.  a ;  in 
gen.,  dat.,  decl.  V,  98.  d.  n.  ;  in  dat.  of 
unus  etc.,  113 ;  in  pres.  pass,  inf.,  p.  286 
ftn.  1 ;  in  perfect.  163.  ftn.  3 


i-stems,  decl.  HI,  66-78;   confused,  73; 

signs  of,  74;  in  adj.,  117;  cases  retain- 
ing -i,  cf.  74, 76, 114, 116.  n.  ;  i-stems  in 

vbs.,  179.  d. 
-ia,  ending  of  abstract  nouns,  241. 
-la,  nom.  and  ace,  plur.  decl.  Ill,  74.  b ;  of 

adjs.,  116,  117. 
-ia  for  -ies,  decl.  V,  98.  c. 
iacio,  comps.  of,  6.  d,  603./.  N.8. 
iam,  derivation,  215.  6;  use,  322.  b;  w. 

impf.,  471.  c.  N. 
Iambic  verse,  613;  trimeter,  618;  other 

forms,  619. 
Iambus,  609.  a.  2. 

iamdiu,  w.  pres.,  466;  w.  impf.,  471.  6. 
iamdiidum,  w.  pres.,  466;  w.  impf.  471.  6; 

w.  imperative,  466.  n.  2. 
-ibam  for  -iebam,  conj.  IV,  183.  1. 
-ibo  for  -iam,  183.  1. 
ibus,  146.  N.  8. 
-icius,  247. 

Ictus,  608.  N.,  611.  a. 
-icus,  249. 

id-,  stem-ending,  83.  6. 
id  genus,  397.  a. 
id  quod,  307.  d. 
id  temporis,  346.  3,  397.  a. 
idcirco,  as  correl.,  324.  i ;  w.  final  clause, 

531.  1.  N.i. 
idem,  decl.,  146;  derivation,  146.  N.9;  w. 

dat.,  384.  N.  1 ;  w.  atque  or  r^l.,  id.  n.  2 ; 

used  em.phatically,  298.  a;    equiv.  to 

adv.,  id.  b. 
Ides  (13th  or  15th  of  month),  how  reck- 
oned, 631.  6. 
-ides  (-ides),  in  patronymics,  244. 
idoneus,  compar.,  128;  w.  dat.  of  gerund 

etc., '505.  a.  ftn.  2. 
idoneus  qui,  535.  /. 
-idus,  verbal  adj.  ending,  251. 
idus,  decl.  IV,  gender,  90.  Exc.  (See  Ides.) 
-ie,  in  voc.  of  adjs.  in  -ius,  110.  a. 
iecur,  decl.,  forms  from  different  stems, 

79.  c,  105.  g. 
iens  (part,  of  eo),  decl.,  119. 
-ier  in  inf.  pass.,  183.  4. 
-ies,  noun  ending,  241 ;   in  decl.  V  =  -ia, 

decl.  I,  98.  c. 
igitur,  meaning,  324.  i;  position,  id.  J. 
ignis,  decl.,  76.  b.  1. 
-ii  (or  -i),  in  gen.,  decl.  II,  49.  b  and  ftn.- 

of  adjs.,  110.  a. 
ii,  iis,  for  i,is,  from  is,  146. 
-ile,  noun  ending,  254.  6. 
-ills,  -bilis,  verbal  adj.  ending,  252. 
-ills,  nominal  adj,  ending,  248. 
Illative  conjunctions,  223.  a.  4,  224.  I.  d. 
ille,  forms,  146.  n.  *,  6  ;  decl.,  146;  use, 

297.  b,  e ;  combined  w,  -ce,  146.  a.  n.  i. 
illic,  decl.,  146.  a. 
-illo,  vbs.  ending  in,  263.  3. 


458 


INDEX  OF  WORDS  AND   SUBJECTS 


illus,  diminutive  ending,  243. 

illustris,  decl.,  115.  n.  i. 

-Im,  ace.  ending,  decl.  Ill,  7^76. 

-im,  in  pres.  subjv.,  183.  2. 

imber,  decl.,  66,  67,  76.  6. 

immane  quantum,   575.  d. 

immo,  how  used,  329. 

Imperative  mood,  154.  b ;  how  used,  157. 
c;  terminations,  163.6,  179.  e;  die,  due, 
fae,  f er,  182 ;  some  vbs.  used  chiefly  in, 
206.  g;  w.  iam  dudum,  466.  n.  2;  in 
commands, 448 ;  3dpers.,  448.  a;  forms 
in  ind.  disc,  588;  fut.,  449  and  a; 
various  periphrases  for  imv.,  449,  c; 
imperative  as  protasis,  521.  b. 

Imperative  Senterce,  269.  d. 

Imperfect  tense,  defined,  160.  a,  471 ;  use_, 
470 ;  in  descriptions,  id.  a ;  w.  iam  diu 
etc.,  id.  b  ;  inceptive  and  conative,  id.  c ; 
w.  iam,  id.  n.  ;  of  surprise,  id.  d ;  in 
dialogue,  id.  e;  =  could,  etc.,  id./; 
epistolary,  479  and  n.  ;  represented  by 
perf.  subjv.,  485.  6.  3;  imperf.  subjv., 
sequence,  id.  g,  h,  584.  a  and  n. 

impero,  constr.,  563. 

Impersonal  construction  of  pass.  w.  infin. 
clause,  566.  6,  582  and  a. 

Impersonal  verbs,  synopsis  of,  207 ;  classi- 
fied, 208;  passive  of  intransitives,  id. 
d,  372;  impersonals,  miseret  etc.,  w. 
gen.,  354,  b ;  libet,  licet,  w.  dat.,  368.  1 ; 
ace.  w.  deeet  etc. ,  388.  c. 

impertio,  constr.,  364. 

impetro,  constr.,  563,  568.  ftn.  2, 

impetus,  defect.,  103.  d. 

impleo,  constr.,  409.  a.  N. 

implico,  constr.,  364. 

impono,  constr.,  430. 

imus,  130.  a.  n.  2. 

in-,  neg.  prefix,  267.  d.  1. 

in-,  stem-euding,  61.  2;  in-,  83.  a. 

in,  prep.,  use,  220.  c,  221.  12;  comp.  w. 
vbs.,  267.  a;  in,  w.  ace.  or  abl.,  259.  e 
(cf.  430) ;  w.  ace,  penalty,  353.  2.  n.  ; 
vbs.  comp.  with,  w.  dat.,  370 ;  in w.  ace, 
w.  adjs.,  385. 6 ;  in  citations,  428.  d.  n.  2 ; 
place  where,  426.  3;  in  idioms  of  time, 
424.  e;  w.  abl.  of  gerund,  507. 

Inceptive  or  Inchoative  verbs,  263. 1. 

Inclination,  adjs.  of,  constr.,  384,  385.  6. 

inclutus,  compar.,  131.  a. 

Incomplete  action,  tenses  of.  See  Con- 
tinued action. 

Indeclinable  nouns,  gender  of,  33;  list 
of,  103.  a;  adjectives,  122.  6. 

Indefinite  antecedent,  relative  with,  w. 
subjv.,  535,  a  and  n.  ^. 

Indefinite  pronouns,  dec!.,  148-151.  Syn- 
tax, 309-315;  indefinite  relative  may 
introduce  conditional  clause,  512.  n., 
519. 


Indefinite  subject  omitted,  318.  b ;  use  c. 
2d  person  forj^39.  a;  in  general  con 
ditious,  518.  atlicet  ciarum  fieri,  455.  n. 

Indefinite  value,  417  and  a. 

Indicative  mood,  154.  b :  how  used,  157.  a, 
437;  for  Eng.  subjv.,  id.  a;  in  apod,  of 
conditions  contrary  to  fact,  517.  b,  c, 
522.  a ;  in  causal  clauses,  540 ;  in  clause 
with  quod,  572;  in  deliberative  ques- 
tions, 444.  a.  N. 

indigeo,  w.  gen.,  356.  N. 

indignus,w.  abl.,  418.  b;w.  qui  and  subjv., 
535./. 

Indirect  Discourse,  origin  etc.,  577; 
list  of  verbs  that  take  ind.  disc.,^x*i^ 
ftn. ;  dire  t  and  indir.  quotation,  578./ 
Moods  in  ind.  disc,  580;  verb  of  say- 
ing implied,  id.  a.  Subj,  ace,  580. 
Subord.  clause  when  explanatory,  583; 
clauses  w.  rel.  which  is  equivalent  to 
demonstr.,  id.  6.  Tenses  of  inf.  in  ind. 
disc,  584;  tenses  of  subjv.,  585;  subjv. 
depending  on  perf.  inf.,  id.  a;  pres. 
and  perf.  after  secondary  tense  {reprae- 
sentdtio),  id.  b.  Conditional  sentences 
in  ind.  disc,  689 ;  questions,  586 ;  delib- 
erative subjv.,  587;  commands,  588; 
prohibition,  id.  N.  2.  Informal  ind. 
disc,  591. 1,  592. 

Indirect  object,  274,  361,  362,  366,  367. 

Indirect  Questions,  defined,  330, 331 ;  Syn- 
tax, 331.  N.,  332.  6.  N.,  573-575;  fut. 
tense  in,  575.  a;  deliberative  subjv.  in, 
id.  6;  indie  in  (early  Lat.),  id.  c;  num 
in,  332.  b.  N. 

Indirect  quotation,  578. 

Indirect  reflexive,  300.  2  and^^. 

Indo-European,  14,  18,  19.        \ 

indued,  w.  names  of  authors,  497\(Z.  N. 

induo,  double  constr.  of,  364. 

ineo,  constr.,  370.  b. 

ineptus,  constr.,  505.  a.  ftn. 

inermis  or  -us,  122.  a. 

infera,  defect..  111.  6,  cf.  p  56.  ftn.  2; 
compar.,  130.  6. 

inferi,  meaning  in  plur.,  130.  b. 

inferior,  comparison,  130.  6. 

Infinitive  Clauses,  as  subj.  or  obj.,  452; 
w.  pass,  vbs.,  582  and  a.  See  also  In- 
direct Discourse.    Cf .  also  459. 

Infinitive  Mood,  154.  b  and  ftn. ;  tenses 
of,  164. 3.  b,  486 ;  how  used,  157.  d ;  pass. 
in  -ier,  183.  4;  fut.  inf.  of  deponents, 
190.  c;  subject  in  ace,  397.  e. 

Infinitive  Mood,  Syntax,  451-463 ;  used 
as  subject,  452;  complementary  inf., 
456 ;  vbs.  having  subjv.  or  inf.,  457  (cf . 
563);  inf.  for  obj.  clause,  563.  n.  ;  w. 
subject  ace,  459;  case  of  predicate 
noun,  581  and  n.  3 ;  iuL  of  purpose,  460 ; 
w.  adjs.,  in  poetry,  461 ;  of  result,  id.  a; 


INDEX  OF  WORDS  AND   SUBJECTS 


469 


as  pure  noun,  id.  &;  in  exclamations, 

462  (sequence,  482.  n.).    Historical  inf., 

463.    Tenses  of  inf.,  486;  jrerf.  instead 

of  pres.,  id.  d,  e;  fore  ut  etc.,  for  fut, 

inf.,  569.  a.    Inf.  in  ind.  disc,  579; 

tenses,  584. 
Infinitive  used  as  noun,  gender,  33;  w, 

gen.,  343.  c.   (See  also  Infinitive  Mood, 

Syntax.) 
infltias,  defect.,  103.  h.  6;  use,  428.  L 
Inflection,  defined,  21;  terminations  of, 

id.  6;  how  modified,  28;  of  decl.  and 

conj.,  22. 
Influence,  vbs.  of,  w.  ut-clause,  563. 
Informal  Indirect  Discourse,  691,  592. 
infra,  use,  220.  a,  221.  13. 
ingens,  decl.,  121.  a.  3;  compar.,  131.  b. 
iniuria,  as  abl.'of  manner,  412.  be 
Iniussu,  defect.,  94.  c. 
inops,  decl.,  121.  a.  3,  &.  1. 
inquam,  inquit,  206.  b ;  position  of,  599.  c. 
Inseparable  particles,  267.  6. 
Insertion  of  consonants   (p  in  sumpsi), 

15.  11,  639. 
insidiae,  dat.  w.,  867.  d. 
inspergo,  constr.,  364. 
instar,  indecl.,  103.  a;  w.  gen.,  359.  6 
insto,  constr.,  563. 
Instrument,  abl.  of,  409. 
Instrumental  case,  35.  N.  (of.  338,  398); 

as  adv.,  215.  4;  source  of  several  abL 

constructions,  408. 
insulam,  ad,  428.  a. 
integer,  decl.,  112.  a. 
Integral  part,  subjv.  of,  591,  593. 
integrum  est  ut,  568. 
Intensive  pronoun,  146.  n.  7, 8,  298.  c-f. 
Intensive  vbs.,  263.  2  and  b. 
inter,  use,  220.  a,  221. 14 ;  in  comp.,  267.  a ; 

vbs.  comp.  w. ,  370 ;  position,  435 ;  inter  se 

(reciprocal),  145.  c,  301./;  inter  sicarios, 

353.  2;  inter,  w.  gerund,  606  and  N.  K 
intercludo,  constr.,  364  and  n.  2. 
interdico,  constr.,  364.  N.  l. 
interest,  constr.,  365;  w.  ad,  id.  b;  how 

to  express  degree  of  interest,  id.  n.  2. 
interior,  compar.,  130.  a. 
Interjections,  defined,  20;  list,  226;  w. 

dat.,  379.  a. 
Interlocked  order  of  words,  598.  h. 
Intermediate   clauses,   Syntax   of,  691- 

593. 
Interrogative  ad  vs.,  use,  333;  position, 

598.  6. 
Interrogative  particles,  list  of,  217    d; 

use,  331-333. 
Interrogative    pronouns,    148-151;    use, 

333;  position,  598.  b. 
Interros:ative  sentences,  269.  b ;  forms  of, 

330-336. 
intra  (interior),  130.  a;  derivation,  215.  4. 


Intransitive  verbs,  273.  2,  274.  n.  ;  used 
impersonally  in  pass.,  208.  d;  dat.  w., 
366  ff. ;  used  transitively,  w.  ace.  and 
dat.,  369  (cf .  388.  a.  n.)  ;  w.  cognate  ace, 
390 ;  having  passive  sense,  w.  ab,  405.  a. 

-inus,  adj.  ending,  249. 

inutilis,  w.  dat.  of  gerund  etc.,  506.  a. 

invictus,  compar.,  131.  a. 

invitus,  compar.,  131.  a. 

-io,  noim  ending,  238.  6 ;  gend.,  86. 

-io,  vbs.  in,  conj.  Ill,  176.  b.  2;  forms 
of,  179.  c,  e;  paradigm,  188;  conj.  IV, 
179.  d;  derivation,  262. 

locus,  plur.  in  -i  or  -a,  106.  b. 

Ionic  measure,  609.  c ;  verse,  626. 16. 

ip-,  stem-ending,  56.  a. 

ipse,  formation,  146.  n.  7, 8 ;  decl.,  146 ;  use, 
298.  c;  used  instead  of  reflexive,  300.  b. 

in,  in  fut.  inf.  pass.,  203.  a. 

Ironical  statement  not  different  in  form 
from  question,  332.  a.  n. 

Irrational  measures,  609.  e,  623.  k. 

-is-,  -iss-,  -sis-,  dropped  in  perf .,  181.  6.  n.2. 

is,  decl.,  146;  use,  152,  297.  d.  e;  used 
emphatically,  298.  a;  used  instead  of 
reflexive,  300.  b. 

-is,  nom.  ending,  gend.,  86;  -is,  patro- 
nymic, 244. 

-is,  for  -iis  in  decl.  I.  43.  e.  N.2;  nom.  and 
ace.  plur.,  decl.  HI,  77  (cf.  73) ;  of  adjs., 
117,  121.  c ;  Greek  nom.  ending,  83.  b. 

-is,  nouns  in,  see  it-. 

Islands,  names  of,  loc,  use,  427.  3,  428.  e ; 
from  which,  427.  1 ;  to  which,  id.  2. 

-isse,  -issem,  vb.  ending,  see  181.  6. 

-isso,  vbs.  ending  in,  263.  b. 

iste,  shortened  to  ste,  146.  n.  5;  decl.,  146 ; 
use,  297.  c, 

istic,  decl.,  146.  a. 

It,  as  sign  of  Impersonals,  207.  ftn. 
■  it- as  stem-ending,  58. 6;  decl.,  78, 121.  cr.  4. 

ita,  correl.  with  ut,  323.  g;  in  answers, 
336.  a;  ita  ut,  537.  2.  N. 2. 

itaque,  accent,  12.  a;  compared  with 
ergo,  324.  i ;  used  with  ergo,  id.  k ;  posi- 
tion of,  599.  b. 

iter,  stem  of,  79.  c. 

Iterative  subjunctive,  518.  c. 

Iterative  verbs  (-t5,  -ito,  -so),  263.  2. 

-ito,  vbs.  in,  263.  2. 

-itus,  adj.  ending,  246. 

iubar,  decl.,  76.  a.  3. 

iubeo,  w.  ace,  367.  a;  w.  inf.,  663.  a;  in 
pass.,  666.  c. 

iucundus,  constr.,  510.  N.  2. 

iugerum,  defect.  103.  d.  3;  decl.,  105.  6; 
measure,  636. 

-ium,  gen.  plur.,  decl.  Ill,  74.  a;  of  adjs. 
114.  a,  117,  121.  b. 

-ium,  noun  ending,  241.  b. 

iungo,  w.  abl.  or  dat..  368.  3.  n.,  413.  n. 


460 


INDEX  OF  WORDS   AND   SUBJECTS 


luppiter,  stem  and  decl.,  79  and  b ;  plural, 
100.  a ;  deriyation,  266.  c. 

-ius,  adjs.  in,  gen.,  voc.  of,  110.  a;  forma- 
tion of  adjs.  in,  247,  252.  n. 

ius  (broth),  decl.,  103.  g.  1. 

-ius,  gen.  sing,  ending,  113;  quantity,  id. 
c,  603.  a.  Exc.  1. 

iussu,  defect.,  94.  c,  103.  6.  5. 

iusto,  w.  compar.,  406.  a. 

iuvat,  w.  ace,  388.  c. 

iuveuis,  decl.,  62.  N.3,  78.  1;  masc.  adj., 
122.  d\  compar.,  131.  c. 

iuv5,  w.  aec,  367.  a. 

iuxta,  position,  435. 

-iv-,  in  perl,  211.  d. 

-ivus,  verbal  adj.  ending,  251.  N. 

J  (the  character),  5  n.  i;  Eng.  sound,  id. 
Julian  Calendar,  630,  631.  e. 

K,  supplanted  by  C,  1.  a.  N. 

kalendae,  631.  a. 

Kindred  forms,  Latin  and  English,  18, 19. 

Kindred  signification,  ace.  of,  390, 

Knowing,  vbs.  of,  w.  ace.  and  inf.,  459. 

Knowledge,  adjs.  of,  w.  gen.,  349.  a. 

ko-(ka-),  primai-y  tuffix,  234.  II.  12. 

L,  nouns  in  -1,  gend.,  87;  adj.  stems  in 

1-,  117.  a. 
Labials,  4.  2 ;  stems,  decl.  Ill,  56  and  a. 
lab5ro,  w.  abl.,  404.  a. 
lacus,  decl.,  89 ;  dat.  and  abl.  plur.  in-ubus, 

92.  c. 
laedo,  w.  ace,  367.  a. 
laetor,  laetus,  w.  abl.,  431. 
lampas,  decl.,  82. 
lateo,  w.  ace,  396.  c. 
latet,  w.  ace,  388.  e.  N.i. 
latifundium,  285.  2. 
latus,  part.,  derivation,  200.  ftn.  2. 
Learning,  vbs.  of,  w.  inf.,  456. 
Length,  expressed  by  gen.,  345.  6. 
-lens,  -lentus,  adj.  endings,  245. 
leo,  decl.,  62. 

Letters,  classification  of,  1-5. 
levis,  decl.,  116;  compar.,  124. 
leviter,  compar.,  218. 
liber,  adj.,  decl.,  50,  111.  o. 
Liber,  decl.,  50. 
Uberi,  noun,  50, 101.  3. 
libet,  impers.,  208.  c.  N. ;  w.  dat.,  368.  1. 
licet,  impers.,  synopsis,  207 ;  use,  208.  c. 

N. ;  w.  dat.,  368.  1 ;  w.  predicate  dat., 

455.  1;  w.  subjv.,  meaning  although^ 

527.  6 ;  licet  earn,  licet  me  ire,  licet  mihi 

Ire,  5(35  and  n.  2, 
Likeness,  adjs.  of,  w.  dat.,  384;  w.  gen., 

385.  c. 
Limiting  word,  meaning  of,  270.  b. 
Liusuals,  4.  3 ;  stems  in,  decl.  Ill,  68.  a. 


Unter,  decl.,  66. 

Liquids,  3,  4 ;  stems  in,  decl.  Ill,  61-64. 

-lis,  adjs.  in,  compar,,  126. 

Litotes,  326.  c. 

-lium,  noun  ending,  241.  c. 

11-,  as  stem  ending,  62.  n.  i. 

10-  (la-),  primary  sufiix,  234.  II.  10. 

Locative  abl.,  426.  3;  idiomatic  use, 
429.  3;  adverbial  forms,  215.  5. 

Locative,  defined,  35.  h,  p.  34.  ftn.  (cf. 
360) ;  in  abl.,  398, 421 ;  of  decl,  I,  43.  c ; 
decl.  II,  49.  a;  decl.  Ill,  80;  decl.  IV 
(domi),  93.  N.  i ;  decl.  V,  98.  b ;  as  adv., 
215,  5;  w.  abl.  in  apposition,  282,  d; 
relative  adv.  used  to  refer  to,  308.  g\ 
animi,  358 ;  loe  used  to  express  where, 
426.  3;  forms  (domi  etc.),  427.  a. 

loco,  abl.  without  prep,,  429.  1. 

loco,  vb,,  constr.,  430. 

locum  capere,  w.  dat.  of  gerund  etc.,  505. 

locus,  plur.  -i  or  -a,  106.  b. 

Logaoedic  Verse,  623-625. 

Long  and  Short,  see  Quantity. 

longius,  without  quam,  407,  c. 

ludicer,  decl.,  112.  a. 

lues,  defect.,  103.  d.  1. 

lux,  decl.,  103.  g.  2. 

M,  final,  elision  of,  612.  a.  N.,/;  inserted 
in  verb  root,  176,  c.  2. 

-m,  sign  of  ace,  338;  omitted  in  inscrip- 
tions, 46.  N.  1. 

macer,  decl.,  112.  a. 

macte  virtute,  use  and  constr.,  340.  c 
and  N. 

magis,  as  sign  of  comparV^128;  comps. 
of,  w.  quam,  434. 

magni,  gen.  of  value,  417. 

magnus,  comparison,  129. 

maiestatis,  w.  words  of  accusing  etc. 
352.  a. 

Main  clause,  defined,  278.  6. 

maior  natu,  131.  c. 

maiores,  signification  of,  101. 3  (cf.  102. 2), 
291.  c.  N.  3. 

Making,  vbs.  of,  constr.,  393. 

male,  compar.,  218;  compounds  of,  w. 
dat.,  368.  2. 

malo,  conj.,  199. 

malus,  compar.,  129. 

mando,  constr.,  563. 

mane,  defect,  noun,  76.  N.  i,  103.  b.  5. 

maneo,  w.  abl.,  431. 

Manner,  advs.  of,  217.  c ;  abl.  of,  412  and 
b ;  hard  to  distinguish  from  abl.  of  speci- 
fication, 418.  a,  N ;  manner  implied  in 
participle,  496. 

mansuetus,  266.  c. 

manus,  decl.,  89;  gend.,  90.  Exc 

mare,  decl.,  76.  a.  3,  78. 

mari,  loc,  427.  a. 


INDEX  OF  WORDS  AND   SUBJECTS 


461 


«as,  decl.,  71.  6. 

Masculine,  rule  for  gender,  31. 

Masculine  adjs.,  122.  d. 

Masculine  caesura,  615.  c.  n. 

Material,  adjectives  denoting,  247 ;  gen. 

of,  344 ;  abl.  of,  403  and  b,  c,  d. 
maxime,  as  sign  of  superl.,  128. 
May,  how  expressed  in  Latin,  157.  6. 
m6  dius  fidius,  o97.  d.  N.  ^. 
Means,  nouns  denoting,  239 ;  abl.  of,  408, 

409 ;  participle  implying  means,  49G. 
Measure,  gen.  ot,  345.  h  (cf.  425.  a). 
Measures  in  Prosody,  608-610 ;  names  of, 

609 ;  contracted  or  resolved,  610. 
Measures  of  value,  632-035;   of  length, 

636 ;  of  weight,  637 ;  of  capacity,  638. 
medeor,  w.  dat.  or  ace,  367.  6. 
mediocris,  decl.,  115.  a.  n.  i. 
Meditative  verbs,  263.  2.  h. 
medius  {middle  part  of),  293. 
melior,  decl.,  120. 
melius  est,  w.  infin.  486./. 
memini,  conj.,  205;  in  pres.  sense,  id.  0, 

476 ;  imperative  of,  449.  a ;  memini  w. 

ace.  or  gen.,  350.  a,  6;  w.  pres.  inf., 

584.  a  and  n. 
memor,  decl.,  121.  a.  3. 
Memory,  adjs.  of,  constr.,  349.  a;  vbs.  of, 

constr.,  350. 
men-,  primary  suffix,  234.  II.  14. 
-men,  -mentum,  noun  endings,  239. 
mensis,   decl.,  78.  2. 
meridies,  gend.,  97. 
-met  (enclitic),  143.  d. 
Metathesis,  640  (cf.  177.  a.  n.). 
Metre,  see  Prosody^ 
metuo,  w.  dat.  or  ace,  367.  c;  w.  subjv., 

564. 
meus,  voc.  mi,  110.  a.  N. ;    syntax  of, 

302.  a,  343.  a. 
Middle  voice,  397.  c,  410.  N. 
Mile,  636. 
miles,  decl.,  57. 
Military  expressions,  dat.  In,  382.  2 ;  abl. 

of  means  instead  of  agent,  405.  6.  n.  i ; 

abl.  of  accomp.  without  cum,  413.  a. 
militiae  (locative),  427.  a. 
mille  (milia),  decl.  and  constr.,  134.  d. 
-mini,  as  personal  ending,  p.  76.  ftn.  1. 
minlme,  compar.,  218.  a\  use,  291.  c.  N.  2; 

"W.  neg.  force,  392.  a ;  in  answer  {no) ,  336. 

a.  2. 
minlstro,  w.  infin.,  460.  a. 
minor  natii,  131.  c. 
minoris,  gen.  of  value,  417  and  c. 
minorgs,  signification,  291.  c.  N.  '. 
-minus,  -mnus,  verbal  adjective  endings, 

253.  c. 
minus,  compar.,  218.  a;  use,  291.  c.  N.2; 

w.  si  and  quo,  =  not,  329.  a ;  constr. 

without  quam,  407.  c. 


miror  si,  572,  b.  N.    . 

mirum  quam  (quantum),  w.  indicative 
675.  d.   i 

mis,  tis,  143.  a.  n. 

misceo,  w.  abl.  or  dat.,  368.  3.  n.,  413.  a.  n, 

miser,  decl.,  Ill;  compar.,  126. 

misere,  compar.,  218. 

misereor,  w.  gen.,  354.  a. 

miseresc5,  w.  gen.,  354.  a. 

miseret,  208.  6;  w.  gen.  and  ace,  354.  6; 
other  constr,,  id.  n. 

miseror,  w,  ace,  354.  a.  n. 

Mixed  i-stems,  70-72. 

-mnus,  see  -minus. 

mo-  (ma-),  primary  suffix,  234.  II.  7. 

Modesty,  subjunctive  of,  447.  1. 

Modification  of  subj.  or  pred.,  276. 

Modifiers,  position  of,  596-699 ;  of  nega- 
tive, 699.  a. 

modo  (mode  ne)  with  subiv.  of  proviso, 
528. 

modo  .  .  ,  modo,  323.  /. 

modo  as  abl.  of  manner,  412.  6. 

molaris,  decl.,  76.  a.  2. 

moneo,  conj.,  185 ;  constr.,  351,  390.  d.  N.  i. 

-monium,  -monia,  noun  endings,  239. 

Monoptotes,  103,  6. 

Monosyllables,  quantity,  604.  a-c. 

Months,  gend.  of  names  of,  31  and  n.  ; 
decl.  of  names  of  in  -ber,  115.  a ;  names 
of,  630;  divisions  of  in  Roman  Calen- 
dar, 631. 

Moods,  names  and  uses  of,  164,  157 ;  note 
on  origin  and  nature  of,  436;  syntax 
of,  264-275,  437-463. 

Moods  in  temporal  clauses,  how  distin- 
guished, 645,  546  and  notes. 

Mora,  in  Prosody,  608.  a. 

morigerus,  decl.,  111.  a,  n. 

mos  est  ut,  568. 

Mother,  name  of,  w.  prep.,  403,  a.  N.  i. 

Motion,  how  expressed,  363,  331.  a,  402; 
indicated  by  compounds,  388.  6;  im- 
plied, 428.  J.  N. 

Motion,  end  of,  see  End  of  Motion. 

Motive,  how  expressed,  404.  6. 

Mountains,  names  of,  gend.,  31  and  6. 

Mulciber,  decl.,  60.  c. 

muliebris,  decl.,  116.  a.  n.  l, 

multa  nocte,  293.  n. 

Multiplication  by  distributives,  137.  c. 

Multiplicatives,  139. 

multum  (-6),  compar.,  218.  a. 

multus,  compar.,  129. 

munus,  decl.,  105.  g\  munus  est  ut,  668. 

mils,  decl.,  71.  6. 

musica  (-e),  decl.,  44. 

Musical  accent,  611. 

mutate,  constr.,  417.  b. 

Mutes,  4 ;  mute  stems,  decl.  Ill,  56-64. 

mythos,  decl.,  52. 


462 


INDEX   OF  WORDS  AND   SUBJECTS 


N,  4;  as  final  letter  of  stem  (leon-),  61. 1 ; 
preceding  stem  vowel  of  vb.,176.  6.1; 
inserted  in  verb  root  (tango),  17(3.  c.  2, 
177.  6.  N. 

nais,  decl.,  82. 

-nam  (enclitic) ,  in  questions,  333.  a. 

nam,  namque,  use,  324.  h,  k. 

Names  of  men  and  women,    108. 

Naming,  vbs.  of,  w.  two  aces.,  393. 

Nasals,  4, 6 ;  inserted  in  verb  root,  176.  c.  2. 

natalis,  decl.,  76.  h.  2. 

natu  (maior,  minor),  131.  c. 

natus  etc.,  Wo  abl.  of  source,  403.  a. 

navis,  decl.,  76.  6.  1. 

-nd,  -nt,  vowel  short  before,  10.  e. 

-ndus,  verbal  adj.  ending,  253.  a;  gerun- 
dive in,  158.  d. 

-ne  (enclitic),  use  in  questions,  332.  a-c\ 
w.  force  of  n5nne,  332.  c ;  orig.  mean- 
ing, id.  N.  1 ;  in  double  questions,  335 ; 
in  exclamatory  questions,  462.  a ;  quan- 
tity, 604.  a.  1. 

ne,  neg.  of  hortatory  subjv.,  439;  in  pro- 
hibitions, 450. 3 ;  in  concessions,  527.  a ; 
w.  subjv.  of  proviso,  528.  6;  in  final 
clauses,  531;=nedum,  532,  n.  i;  in 
substantive  clauses,  w.  vbs.  of  hinder- 
ing, 558.  6;  of  fearing,  564;  omitted 
after  cave,  565.  n.  i. 

ne  non,  w.  vbs.  of  fearing,  564. 

ne  .  .  .  quidem,  use,  322./;  after  non,  327. 
1 ;  after  non  modo,  217.  e ;  position  of, 
599.  6. 

Nearness,  adjs.  of,  w.  dat.,  384;  w.  gen., 
385.  c. 

nee  enim,  324.  h. 

necesse,  indecl.,  103.  N.  i ;  necesse  est  ut, 
568,  569.  2.  n.  2. 

Necessity,  vbs.  of,  w.  perf.  pass,  inf., 
486.  d\  in  apod.,  517.  c,  522.  a;  w.  ut- 
clause,  569.  2. 

necne  in  double  questions,  335  and  n. 

nedum,  532.  N.  i,  2. 

nefas,  indecl.,  103.  a;  w.  supine  in-ii,  510. 

Negation,  perfect  preferred  in,  475.  a. 

Negative  answers,  332.  b,  336  and  a.  2. 

Negative  particles,  list  of,  217.  e;  use 
of,  325 ;  two  negatives,  326 ;  neg.  form 
different  from  English,  328 ;  neg.  con- 
dition, 525.  a ;  neg.  proviso,  528 ;  neg. 
purpose,  531;  neg.  result,  538,  508; 
position  of,  599.  a. 

nego,  better  than  dico  .  .  .  non,  328,  580.  6. 

negotium  do  ut,  563.  ftn.  2. 

nemo,  use  of,  314 ;  gen.  and  abl.  sing,  re- 
placed by  niillius  and  nuUo,  314.  a ;  nem5 
non,  326.  h ;  nemo  est  qui,  535.  a.  n.  i. 

neque  (nee),  and  not,  328.  a;  neque  enim, 
use,  324.  h ;  neque  after  a  neg.,  327. 2,  3. 

nequam,  indecl.,  122.  6;  compar.  of,  129. 

nequeo.  conj..  206.  d. 


nequis,  decl.,  310.  a. 

nescio  an,  575.  d. 

nescio  quis,  as  indefinite  without  subjv.. 
575.  d. 

-neus,  adj.  ending,  247. 

Neuter  ace.  as  adv.,  214.  d,  cf.  6.  n. 

Neuter  adjs.,  special  uses  of,  289. 

Neuter  gender,  general  rule  for,  33 ;  cases 
alike  In,  38.  6 ;  endings  of  decl.  Ill,  87. 

Neuter  pron.  as  cognate  ace,  390.  c. 

Neuter  verbs,  see  Intransitive  Verbs. 

neve,  connective  in  prohibitions,  450.  n.  6, 

nex,  decl.,  103.  g.  2. 

ni-,  primary  suffix,  234.  II.  5. 

ni,  nisi,  512,  N ;  use  of,  525.  a. 

-uia,  -nium,  noun  endings,  241.  c. 

niger,  decl.,  112;  distinct  f rom  ater,  131. 
d.  N. 

nihil,  indecl,,  103,  a;  contr,  to  nil,  603.  c, 

nihili,  gen.  of  value,  417.  a. 

nihil!  and  nihilo,  103.  a.  n.  2. 

nimirum  quam,as  indefinite  without  subjv, , 
575,  d. 

ningit,  208,  a. 

nisi  and  si  non,  525.  a;  nisi  si,  id.  3; 
nisi  vero   (forte),  id,  6. 

nitor,  w.  abl,,  431, 

nix  (stem  and  decl.),  79.  d\  plur.,  100.  h. 

No,  in  answers,  how  expressed,  336.  a.  2. 

no-  (na-),  primary  suffix,  234.  II.  4. 

no-,  verb  suffix,  i76.  6.1. 

noli,  in  prohibitions,  450.  (1)  and  n  .  i. 

nolo,  conj.,  199;  part.  w.  dat.  of  the  per- 
son judging,^  378.  n.  ;  w.  perf.  act.  inf. 
in  prohibition§^-486.  c. ;  w.  perf.  pass, 
inf,  (or  part.),  id.^-and  n. 

Nomen,  denoting  gens,  108. 

nomen,  decl.,  64. 

nomen  est,  w.  pred.  nom.  or  dat.,  373,  a; 
w.  gen,,  id.  n. 

Nominal  adjs.,  243-254. 

NoMiNATR'E  defined,  35.  a;  nom.  suffix, 
338;  neut.  plur,  nom,  and  ace,  alike, 
38.  6;  in  decl.  II,  45,  a;  in  decl.  Ill, 
56,  58,  61,  66,  79 ;  of  neuters,  i-stems, 
68.  a ;  in  u-stems,  decl.  IV,  88 ;  in  e- 
stems,  decl,  V,  95. 

Nominative,  Syntax  (see  338) :  in  pred- 
icate, 283,  284;  verb-agreement  with, 
316;  as  subject,  339;  in  exclamations, 

339.  a  (cf ,  397.  d) ;  used  for  vocative, 

340.  a ;   w.  opus  in   predicate,  411.  6 ; 
nom,  of  gerund  supplied  by  inf,,  502,  n. 

non,  derivation,  215,  1;  compounds  of, 
326,  a,  6 ;  in  answers,  336,  a.  2, 

non  dubito  quin,  558.  a ;  non  dubito  w.  inf., 
id.  N.  2;  w.  indir.  quest.,  id.  N.  i. 

non  modo,  after  a  negative,  327.  1. 

non  modo  .  .  .  ne  .  .  .  quidem,  217.  e. 

non  nemo,  non  nullus,  etc.,  326.  a. 

non  quia  (quod,  quo,  quin)  etc.,  540.  N.  3. 


INDEX   OF   WORDS  AND   SUBJECTS 


463 


n5n  satis,  291.  c.  n.  2. 

Nones  (nonae),  631.  c. 

nonne,  in  questions,  332.  6. 

nos,  decl.,  143;  for  ego,  143.  a. 

noster,  for  poss.  gen.,  302.  a. 

nostri,  as  objective  gen.,  143.  c,  295.  6. 

nostrum,  as  partitive  gen.,  143,  h,  295.  6; 
as  objective  gen.,  295.  h.  n.  1. 

Noun  and  adj.  forms  of  vb.,  106. 

Noun  stem,  treated  as  root,  176.  d. 

Nouns  defined,  20.  a;  indecl.,  gend.,  33; 
decl.  of,  37-95 ;  derivative  forms  of,  235- 
241;  used  as  adjectives,  321.  c;  rule  of 
agreement,  281 ;  w.  part,  gen.,  346.  a.  1 ; 
w.  obj.  gen.,  348;  governing  ace,  388. 
d.  N.  2 ;  noun  as  protasis,  521.  a. 

Nouns  of  agency,  235 ;  formation,  236. 

novendecim,  133.  N.  2. 

nox,  decl.,  72. 

ns,  nf,  gn,  quantity  of  preceding  vowel, 
10.  d,  603.  d. 

-ns,  as  adjective  ending,  118;  participles 
in,  decl.,  119,  121.  6.2;  w.  gen.,  349.  b\ 
w.  ace,  id.  N.  1,  2. 

nt-  (ont-,  ent-) ,  primary  suifix,  234.  II.  18, 

nt-,  stems  in,  decl.,  121.  a.  4. 

nu-,  primary  suffix,  234.  II.  6. 

nubes,  decl.,  72. 

nubo,  w.  dat.,  368.  3. 

nullus;  decl.,  113;  use,  314.  a;  cf.  nemo, 

num,  force  of,  .332.  6;  in  indirect  ques- 
tions, id.  N. 

Number,  35;  nouns,  defect,  in,  99,  100, 
101,  103./,  g;  variable  in,  107;  pecul- 
iar uses,  101.  N.  1,  317.  d.  n.  2 ;  number 
in  vbs.,  154.  e;  agreement  in,  280;  vr. 
appositives,  282.  a ;  "W.  adjs.,  286  and  h ; 
w.  vbs.,  316,  317.  d. 

Numeral  advs.,  138. 

Numerals,  132-139;  cardinals  and  ordi- 
nals, 132, 133 ;  distributives,  136 ;  advs., 
138;  others,  139.  Position  of  numeral 
adjs.,  .598.  h. 

numquis,  149.  6,  310.  a. 

nunc,  compared  w.  iam,  322.  6. 

nunc  .  .  .  nunc,  323.  /. 

nurus,  gend.,  90. 

-nus,  adj.  ending,  250, 

0  for  u  after  u  or  v,  6,  a,  6 ;  in  decl.  II, 

46.  N.  1. 
0-  (a-),  primary  suffix,  234. 1.  1. 
-0  in  nom.,  61.  1;  gend.,  86;  in  fern.  abl. 

of  Greek  adjs..  111.  6.  n. 
-o,  -onis,  noun  ending,  236.  c,  255. 
6  si,  w.  subjv.  of  wish,  442.  a  and  n.  K 
o-stems,  decl.  II,  45;  in  adjs.,  111-113; 

vbs.  from  o-stems,  259.  2. 
Ob,  use,  220.  a,  221,  15;  in  comp.,  267.  a; 

in  comp.  w.  vbs.,  w.  dat.,  370 ;  to  express 

cause,  404,  h ;  w.  gerund,  606  and  n.  1, 


obeo,  constr.,  370.  b 

Obeying,  vbs.  of,  367 ;  w,  ace.,  id.  a. 

Object  cases,  274.  a. 

Object  clauses,  infin.,  452 ;  subjv.,  561-568. 

Object  defined,  274;  becomes  subj.  ol 
pass.,  275,  387.  &;  ace.  of  direct  w. 
dat.  of  indir.  obj.,  362;  secondary 
obj.,  394;  obj.  of  anticipation,  576. 

Objective  case  expressed  in  Latin  by  gen., 
dat.,  ace,  or  abl.,  274.  a. 

Objective  compounds,  265.  3. 

Objective  genitive,  mei  etc.,  143.  c;  de- 
fined, 348.  N.;  w.  nouns,  348;  w.  adjs., 
349. 

Obligation,  unfulfilled,  hortatory  subjv.. 
439.  h. 

Oblique  cases,  35.  g ;  origin  of  names  of, 
338. 

obliviscor,  w.  ace.  or  gen.,  350.  a,  h. 

obvius  (obviam),  derivation,  216  and  n.; 
obviam  as  apparent  adj.,  321.  d ;  w.  dat., 
370.  c. 

Occasion,  expressed  by  participle,  496. 

ocior,  compar.,  130. 

octodecim,  133.  n.  2, 

odi,  conj.,  205;  w.  meaning  of  present,  476. 

-oe,  for  -i  in  nom.  plur.,  decl.  11,  52.  d. 

offendo,  constr.,  370.  b. 

-oius,  names  in,  49.  /. 

Old  forms  of  pronouns:  mis,  tis,  143.  a. 
N. ;  med,  ted,  id. 

oUus  (ille),  146.  n.  4. 

-olus,  diminutive  ending,  243. 

Omission,  of  possessive,  302.  c;  of  ante- 
cedent, 307.  c. 

omnes;  nos  omnes  (instead  of  omnes  nos- 
trum), 346.  e. 

6n-,  stem-ending,  83.  c. 

-on,  Greek  ending,  decl.  II,  52. 

on-,  stem-ending,  61. 1,  234.  II.  13. 

-on,  gen.  plur.,  decl.  II,  52.  c. 

-on,  nom.  ending,  83.  c,  d. 

ont-,  nom.  -on,  83.  d. 

Open  syllables,  7.  n.  2. 

opera,  w.  gen.,  405.  h. 

operam  do,  w.  dat.  of  gerund  etc.,  505; 
w.  subjv.,  563. 

Operations  of  nature,  208.  a. 

opinione,  w.  compar.,  406.  a. 

opinor,  position  of,  599.  c. 

oportet,  208.  c;  w.  ace,  388.  c;  in  apod., 
517.  c;  imperfect  refers  to  present, 
plupf.  to  past,  522.  a.  n.  ^ ;  w.  subjv.  or 
inf.,  665  and  N.  3. 

oportuit,  w.  pres.  inf,,  486.  a;  w.  perf. 
inf.,  id,  h. 

oppidum,  ad,  428,  h. 

oppagno,  w.  ace,  370.  h, 

ops,  defect.,  10-3./.  1. 

Optative,  derivation,  and  comparisoc 
w.  subjv.,  436. 


464 


INDEX   OF  WORDS  AND   SUBJECTS 


Optative  forms  in  the  vb.,  168.  e.  n.2, 

169.  d. 
Optative  subjv.  (loish),  441;   w.  utinam 

etc.,  442;  velim  etc.  w.  subjv.,  equiv. 

to,  id.  b. 
optimates,  71.  5,  101.  3. 
opus,  indecl.,  103.  a;   opus  and  usus,  w. 

abl.,  411;    as  pred.   nom.,   id.   6;   w. 

participle,  497.  a;  w.  supine  in  -u,  510. 
or-,  stem-ending,  decl.  Ill,  63.  Exc.  2. 
-or,  noun  ending,  238.  a. 
-or  or  -OS,  nom.  ending,  62.  n.  ^ ;  gend.,  85. 
Ordtio  obliqua,  see  Indirect  Discourse. 
Order  of  words,  595-601. 
Ordinal  Numbers,  132-135;  decl.,  134.  e; 

use  of  et  with,  135.  a,  b. 
oro,  constr.,  563. 
Orpheus,  decl.,  52.  e. 
OS-,  stem  of  comparatives,  120.  6. 
-OS  for  -us,  in  nom.  sing.,  decl.  II,  46,  n.  i ; 

as  Greek  ending,  52 ;  as  gen.  ending  in 

Greek  nouns,  decl.  Ill,  81.  1. 
OS,  ossis,  stem,  79. 

-6s,  nom.  ending,  62.  n.  2;  gend.,  85. 
OS,  oris,  decl.,  103.  g.  2. 
-osus,  -lens,  -lentus,  adj.  endings,  245. 
ovat  (defective),  206./. 
ovis,  decl.,  76.  b.  1. 

P,  parasitic  after  m  (sumpsi) ,  15.  11. 

pacts,  as  abl.  of  manner,  412.  6. 

paene,  in  apod.,  517.  6.  n.  2. 

paenitet,  208.  b ;  constr.,  354.  6,  c. 

Paeon,  609.  d. 

palam,  as  apparent  adj.,  321.  d;  w.  abl., 
432.  c. 

Palatals,  4. 

paluster,  decl.,  115.  a. 

Panthus,  vocative  of,  52.  6. 

par,  decl.,  119,  121.  a.  3;  w.  gen.,  385.  c; 
w.  dat.  of  gerund  etc.,  505.  ftn.  2. 

Parallel  verb  forms,  189. 

Parataxis,  268. 

paratus,  w.  infin.,  460.  6. 

Pardoning,  vbs.  of,  w.  dat.,  367. 

Parisyllabic  nouns  of  decl.  Ill,  65.  a. 

pariter,  use,  384.  n.  2. 

parte,  locative  use,  without  prep.,  429.  1. 

partem,  adverbial  use,  397.  a. 

particeps,  decl.,  121.  a.  4,  b. 

Pajrticiples,  defined,  20.  6.  n.  A;  com- 
parison of,  124.  a;  number  of,  1.55.  a; 
how  used,  158. 

Participles,  Syntax,  488-.500;  agree- 
ment, 286  and  n.  ;  clause  equivalent  to 
part.,  308.  c ;  parts,  in  -ns,  used  as  adjs., 
w.  gen.,  349.  6;  parts,  in  flbl.  absolute, 
419;  meaning  and  form,  488;  tenses, 
489-493;  present  in  special  use,  490; 
pres.  pass,  part.,  how  supplied,  492; 
pert  act.,  how  supplied,  493 ;  parts,  of 


deponent  vbs.,  190.  a,  b,  491, 493 ;  adjec- 
tive use,  494 ;  as  nouns,  id .  a ;  predicate 
use,  495,  496 ;  w.  opus,  497.  a ;  perf .  w. 
habeo,  id.  6 ;  present  w.  facio,  id.  c;  fut- 
ure part.,  498;  w.  past  tenses  of  esse, 
498. 6 ;  poetic  and  late  use,  499 ;  gerund- 
ive, use  as  part,  or  adj.,  500;  part,  as 
protasis,  521.  a. 

Particles  defined,  23;  forms  and  classifi- 
cation, 213;  note  on  formation,  21.j. 
216;  interrogative,  217.  d;  negative, 
id.  e,  325;  in  comps.,  267.  Syntax,  321- 
336 ;  use  of  interrogative  particles,  332. 
a-c;  conditional  particles,  512.  a  and 
N.,  525 ;  particles  of  comparison,  524. 

Particular  conditions  defined,  513. 

partior,  conj.,  190. 

Partitive  apposition,  282.  a. 

Partitive  genitive,  346;  nostrum  etc.,  143. 
b ;  neut.  adjs.  with,  346.  3  and  n.  i. 

Partitive  numerals,  139.  c. 

Parts  of  Speech,  20. 

partus,  decl.,  92.  c. 

parum,  compar.,  218.  a ;  meaning,  291.  c. 

N.2. 

parvi,  gen.  of  value,  417. 

parvus,  compar.,  129. 

Passive  voice,  154.  a;  origin,  163.  ftn.  2, 
208.  d.  N. ;  signification,  156 ;  reflexive 
meaning,  id.  a ;  deponents,  156.  b  ?  com- 
pleted tenses,  how  formed,  179.  g; 
passivkused  impersonally,  203.  a,  208. 
e?,  372  (ct.  566,  582.  a). 

pater  families,  decl.,  43.  b. 

patiens,  compar.,  124.  a. 

patior,  constr.,  563.  c. 

Patrials  in  -as,  decl.,  71.  5,  121.  a.  4. 

Patronymics  (-ades,  -ides,  -eus,  etc.),  244. 

pauper,  decl.,  121.  a.  4. 

pax,  decl.,  103.  g.  2. 

pecu,  gend.,  91;  decl.,  105./. 

pecuniae,  gen.,  w.  vbs.  of  accusing,  352. 
a  and  n. 

pedester,  decl.,  115.  a. 

pelagus  (plur.  pelage) ,  gend.  of,  48.  a. 

pelvis,  decl.,  76.  b.  1. 

Penalty,  gen.  of,  352  and  n.  ;  abl.  of, 
353.  2. 

Penates,  decl.,  71.  5  (cf.  101.  3). 

penes,  following  noun,  435. 

Pentameter  verse,  616. 

Penult,  defined,  12. 

penus,  gend.,  90.  Exc. ;  decl.,  105.  c. 

per,  prep.,  220.  a;  use,  221.  16;  w.  ace. 
of  agent,  405.  b.  Adverbial  prefix,  w. 
adis.,  267.  d.  1  (cf.  291.  c.  n.  i) ;  w.  vbs., 
26t.  d.  N. 

Perceiving,  vbs.  of,  constr.,  459. 

perendie  (loc),  98.  6,  215.  5. 

Perfect  participle,  two  uses,  158.  c.  1,  2; 
of  deponents,  190.  b\  used  as  nonii, 


INDEX  OF   WORDS  AND   SUBJECTS 


465 


retains  adv.,  321.  6;  dat.  of  agent  w., 
375 ;  abl.  w.  opus  and  usus,  411.  a,  497.  a. 

Perfect  Tense  distinguished  from  im- 
perf.,  161,  471 ;  perf.  def.  and  perf .  hist., 
161,  473 ;  personal  endings,  163.  a,  169. 
a ;  origin  of  i  and  s  in,  163.  ftn,  3 ;  stem, 
how  formed,  177, 179 ;  perf.  subjv.,  suf- 
fixes of,  169.  d;  of  conj.  I,  179.  a.  2; 
contracted  perf .,  181.  a,  6;  perf.  subjv. 
in  -Sim,  183.  3;  irreg.  forms  of  conj.  I, 
209.  a;  of  conj.  II,  210.  c;  various,  of 
conj.  Ill,  211;  of  conj.  IV,  212. 

Perfect  Tense,  Syntax.  Perf.  Ind., 
use,  473;  in  general  conditions,  id.  a, 
518.  6 ;  gnomic  perf.,  475 ;  in  fut.  condi- 
tions, 516.  e.  Perf.  Subjv.,  hortatory, 
439  and  n.  i ;  optative,  441.  a ;  potential, 
j44Sj  in  prohibitions,  450  (3) ;  in  fut.  con- 
ditions, 616.  c.  Perf.  Inf.,  in  exclama- 
tions, 462  and  n.  2 ;  w.  debeo  etc.,  486.  b ; 
w.  nolo  or  vol5  in  prohibition,  id.  c ;  pass, 
w.  volo  etc.,  id.  d;  instead  of  the  pres. 
inf.,  id.  e ;  w.  vbs.  of  feeling  etc.,  id./; 
in  ind.  disc,  584.  a  and  n.  Sequence  of 
Tenses,  perf.  ind.,  485.  a;  peri,  subjv., 
id.  b,  c,  585.  a. 

Pericles,  decl.,  82. 

Period,  600,  601. 

Periphrastic  conjugations,  158.  6.  n.,  d. 
N. ;  paradigms,  195,  196;  periphrastic 
forms  in  conjugation,  193;  use  in  con- 
trary to  fact  apodosis,  617.  d;  in  ind. 
questions,  575.  a. 

Perniission,  vbs.  of,  constr.,  663.  c. 

permuto,  w.  abl.,  417.  6. 

pernox,  decl.,  122.  c. 

perpes,  decl.,  121.  a.  3. 

Person,  154.  d;  agreement,  280;  of  vbs., 
316  and  a ;  w.  different  persons,  317.  a ; 
order  of  the  three  persons,  id. 

Personal  constr.  of  passive  w.  infinitive, 
582. 

Personal  endings,  163  and  ftn.  1. 

Personal  pronouns,  142,  143,  2^,  295;  re- 
duplicated forms,  143.  e;  Syntax,  295; 
omitted,  id.  a,  318,  a ;  gen.  plur.,  295.  6 ; 
3d  pers.,  id.  c ;  position  of  personal  and 
demonstrative,  599./. 

persuadeo,  constr.,  563. 

Persuading,  vbs.  of,  w.  dat.,  367. 

pertaesum  est,  354.  6. 

pes,  comps.  of,  decl.,  121.6. 1. 

Pet  names,  gend.,  30.  a.  n.^. 

peto  w.  ab,  396.  a ;  w.  subjv.,  563. 

ph  only  in  Greek  words,  4.  1.  ftn.  2; 
sound  of,  8. 

Phalsecian  verse,  625. 11. 

Pherecratic  verse,  623. 2,  624,  625. 2, 4, 12. 

Phonetic  variations,  14-19;  phonetic 
decay,  id. ;  vowels,  15,  17 ;  consonants, 
15.  4-17. 


Phrase,  defined,  277. 

Phrases,  neut.,  33;  phrases  and  clauses 
grown  into  advs.,  216;  adverbial 
phrases,  277 ;  phrases  limited  by  gen., 
343.  c;  phi-ase  or  clause  in  abl.  abs., 
419.  b. 

Physical  qualities,  abl.,  415.  a. 

piger,  decl.,  112.  a. 

piget,  constr.,  354.  6. 

Pity,  vbs.  of,  constr.,  354.  a. 

plus,  compar.,  128.  n.,  131.  a. 

pix,  decl.,  103.  g.  2. 

Place,  advs.  of,  217.  a;  relations  of,  re- 
quire prep.,  381.  a,  426;  place  of  birth, 
abl.,  403.  a.  N.2;  place  where,  426.  3, 
427.  3 ;  place  to  or  from  which,  426. 1,2; 
prep.,  when  omitted,  426.  ftn.,  427. 1,  2. 
a,  429.  a ;  locative  case,  427. 3.  a,  428.  k. 

Placing,  vbs.  of,  constr.,  430. 

Plants,  gend.  of  names  of,  32  and  6; 
decl.  of  plant  names  in  -us,  105.  a. 

plaudo,  w.  dat.,  368.  3. 

Plautus,  absque  me  etc. ,  517./;  use  of  quom 
w.  indie,  546.  n.*,  549.  n.3;  prosodial 
forms,  620.  a,  628.  b,  629. 

Pleasing,  vbs.  of,  constr.,  367. 

plebes,  decl.,  98.  d. 

Plenty,  vbs.  of,  constr.,  356,  409.  a. 

plenus,  constr.,  409.  n. 

-plex,  numeral  adjs.  in,  139. 

pluit  (impers.),  208.  a;  used  personally, 
id.  N. 

Pluperfect  Indicative,  suffixes  of,  169.  6 ; 
use  of,  477 ;  epistolary,  479 ;  pluperf . 
indie,  in  conditions  cont.  to  fact,  517.  b ; 
in  general  conditions,  518.  6.  Pluperf. 
Subjv.,  suffixes  of,  169.  e;  hortatory, 
439.  b ;  optative,  441 ;  potential,  446 ;  in 
conditions,  517  (sequence,  485.  g). 

Plural,  wanting  in  decl.  V,  98.  a;  used 
in  sense  different  from  sing.,  100.  a-c, 
107 ;  plur.  alone  used,  101.  n.i  ;  plur.  ace. 
used  as  advs.,  215. 3 ;  neut.  plur.  of  adjs., 
289.  b. 

Plur  cilia  tantum,  101. 

pluris,  gen.  of  value,  417  and  c. 

plus,  decl.,  120  and  c;  compar.,  129;  with- 
out quam,  407.  c. 

poema,  dec!.,  60.  a. 

poenitet,  see  paenitet. 

pond5,  defect.,  103.  b.  5. 

pono,  w.  abl.,  430. 

por-,  prefix,  267.  b. 

porticus,  gend.,  90.  Exc. 

portus,  decl.,  92,  c. 

Position,  expressed  by  ab,  ex,  429.  &. 

Position  in  Prosody,  11.  b,  603./;  does  not 
affect  final  vowel,  603./.  n.  i. 

posse,  as  fut.  inf.,  584.  6. 

Possession,  how  expressed,  302,  a;  dat. 
of,  373;  compared  w.  gen.,  id.  n. 


466 


INDEX   OF   WORDS  AND   SUBJECTS 


Possessive  compounds,  265.  a. 

Possessive  genitive,  oio  and  a-c;  dat.  of 
reference  used  instead,  377. 

Possessive  pronouns,  145;  agreement, 
302 ;  iusteadof  gen.,  id.  a ;  special  mean- 
ings, id.  6;  omission,  id.  c;  used  sub- 
stantively, id.  d\  w.  gen.  in  app.,  id.  e; 
used  for  gen.,  343.  a;  for  obj.  gen., 
.'M8.  a. 

Possibility,  vbs.  of,  in  apodosis,  517.  c. 

possum,  in  apodosis,  517.  c. 

post,  adverbial  use  of,  433.  1 ;  with  quam, 
434. 

post,  vbs.  comp.  w.,  with  dat.,  370. 

postera,  defect.,  111.  &;  compar.,  130.  6; 
posteri,  id. 

posterior,  130.  6. 

Postpositive  conjunctions,  324.  J. 

postquam  (posteaquam) ,  in  temporal 
clauses,  543. 

postremo,  in  enumerations,  322.  d.  n. 

postridie,  w.  gen.,  359.  6;  w.  ace,  432.  a; 
w.  quam,  434. 

postulo  ab,  396.  a ;  postulo  ut,  563. 

Potential  mood,  how  expressed  in  Latin, 
1.57.  6. 

Potential  subjunctive,  445-447. 

potior  (adj.),  compar.,  130. 

potior  (verb),  w.  gen.,  357.  a,  410.  a;  w. 
abl.,  410;  w.  ace,  id.  n.  i;  gerundive, 
503.  N.  2. 

potis,  pote,  122.  6. 

potius,  compar.,  218.  a. 

potui,  w.  pres.  infin.,  486.  a. 

Practice,  vbs.  of,  263.  h. 

prae,  220.  6 ;  use,  221. 17 ;  in  comp.,"291.  c. 
N.  1 ;  in  comps. ,  w.  dat. ,  370 ;  in  compar. , 
w.  quam,  434;  quantity  of,  in  comps., 
603.  h.  Exc. 

praecedo,  constr.,  370. 

praeceps,  decl.,  119,  121.  a.  3. 

praecipio,  constr.,  563. 

Praenomen,  108 ;  abbreviations,  id.  c. 

praepes,  decl.,  121.  b.  1. 

praestolor,  constr.,  367.  6. 

praesum,  w.  dat.  of  gerund  etc.,  605. 

praeter,  use,  21?0.  a,  221.  18. 

praeterit,  w.  acfe,,  388.  c. 

preci,  defect.,  m/.  2. 

precor,  constr.,  563. 

Predicate,  defined,  270;  modified,  276; 
pred.  noun  or  adj.,  272,  283;  case,  284; 
pred.  noun  referring  to  two  or  more 
sing,  nouns,  id.  a;    adjective,  285.  2, 

286.  a;  agreement  in,  287.  1-3;  in  rel. 
clause,  306;  pred.  adj.  in  neut.  plur., 

287.  4.  a;  pred.  adj.  in  relative  clause, 
307./;  pred.  gen.,  343.  6,  c;  pred.  ace, 
392, 393;  adj.  as  pred.  ace,  id.  n.  ;  pred. 
ace  becomes  pred,  nom.  in  the  pass., 
Id.  a ;  predicate  use  of  participles,  496. 


Predicate  noun  or  adj.  after  inf.,  452.  n.  2 
455.  a  and  N.,  458.  581.  N.  3.    ■ 

Prepositions,  assimilation  of,  16 ;  defined, 
20./;  derivation  of,  219;  list  of  preps, 
w.  ace,  220.  a;  w.  abl.,  id.  h ;  w.  either, 
id.  c ;  idiomatic  uses,  221 ;  comp.  w.  vbs. 
and  adjs.,  267.  a,  c;  noun  w.  prep.,  in- 
stead of  obj.  gen.,  348.  c;  in  comp.  w. 
vbs.,  w.  dat.,  370,  381;  ace  in  comp., 
395;  w.  abl.  of  separation,  401;  prep, 
omitted  in  relations  of  place.  427.  1,  2, 
429  and  a;  use  of,  220,  221,  429.  h,  430, 
432-435 ;  preps,  following  the  noun,  435; 
usual  position  of,  599.  d.     (See  338.) 

Present  participle,  decl.,  119;  use,  158.  a. 

Present  stem,  how  formed,  168, 174 ;  from 
root,  176. 

Present  subjunctive  in  -im,  183.  2. 

Present  tense,  w.  iam  diu  etc.,  466;  cona- 
tive,  467 ;  for  fut.,  468 ;  historical,  469 ; 
annalistic,  id.  a ;  w.  dum,  556 ;  in  quo- 
tations, 465.  a ;  sequence,  483,  485.  e,  i ; 
pres.  inf.  w.  potui  etc.,  486.  a ;  participle, 
489,  490,  492,  494,  496.  Pres.  inf.  in  ind. 
disc,  referring  to  past  time,  584.  a  and  n. 

Preteririve  verbs,  205.  n.  2,  476. 

Preventing,  vbs.  of,  constr.,  364.  N.2. 

Price,  abl.  or  gen.,  416. 

pridie,  form,  98.  6 ;  w.  gen.,  359.  6 ;  w.  ace, 
432.  a\  w.  quam,  434. 

Primary  suffixes,  defined,  233. 

Primary  tenses,  482.  1,  483. 

primipilaris,  decl.,  76.  a.  2.  "^ 

Primitive  verbs,  256. 

primo,  primum,  meanings,  322.  d  and  N. 

primoris,  defect.,  122.  c. 

primus,  form,  130.  ftn.  2. 

princeps,  decl.,  121.  a.  4. 

Principal  parts  of  verb,  172, 173. 

prior,  compar.,  130.  a. 

prius,  w.  quam,  434;  priusquam  in  tem- 
poral clause,  650,  551;  in  ind.  disc, 
585.  h.  N. 

Privation  expressed  by  abl.,  400. 

pro,  220.  6;  use,  221.  19;  in  comps.,  w. 
dat.-,  370;  to  express /o?*,  379.  n. 

probo,  w.  dat.,  368,  375.  6.  n. 

Proceleusmatic,  609.  n. 

procerus,  decl..  111.  a.  n. 

procul,  w.  abl.,  432.  c. 

prohibeS,  constr.  of,  364.  n.  2. 

Prohibitions,  450;  in  ind.  disc,  588.  N.  2. 

Promising  etc.,  vbs.  of,  580.  c. 

Pronominal  roots,  228,  232;  as  primary 
suffixes,  id. 

Pronouns  defined,  20.  c;  decl.  of,  140- 
151;  personal,  142,143;  reflexive,  144; 
gen.,  how  used,  143.  c,  302.  a;  demon- 
strative, 146;  relative,  147;  interrog 
and  indef  ,  148-151 ,  pron.  contained  in 
verb  ending-  J.63.,  ftn.  1:  271.  a. 


INDEX   OF   WORDS  AND   SUBJECTS 


467 


Pronouns,  Syntax,  294-315;  Personal, 
295;  Demoustrative,  296-298;  idem, 
298.  a,  b;  ipse,  id.  o-/;  Reflexive,  299; 
Possessive,  302 ;  Relative,  303-308 ;  In- 
definite, 309-314.  Prons.  w.  part,  gen., 
346.  a.  1.  Relative  in  protasis,  519. 
Position  of  prons.,  598.  e,  l. 

Pronunciation,  Roman  method,  8;  Eng- 
lish method,  8.  n. 

pronuntio,  constr.,  563. 

prope,  comr)ar.,130;  use,  220.  a;  in  apod., 
517.  b.  N.  2. 

prope  est  ut,  568. 

Proper  names,  108;  plur.,  99.  1,  101.  1. 

Proper  nouns,  20.  a. 

properus,  decl.,  111.  a.  n. 

propinquus,  w.  gen.,  385,  c. 

propior  (propius),  compar.,  130.  a;  constr., 
432.  a  and  n. 

Proportional  numerals,  139.  a. 

Propriety,  vbs.  of,  in  apod.,  517.  c,  522.  a. 

proprius,  w.  gen.,  385.  c. 

propter,  use,  220.  a,  221.  20;  position,  435; 
denoting  motive,  404.  6. 

Prosody,  602;  rules  and  definitions, 
603-606 ;  early  peculiarities,  629. 

prosper(-us),  decl..  111.  a. 

prospicio,  w.  dat.  or  ace,  367.  c. 

Protasis  (see  Conditional  Sentences),  512 
ff. ;  loose  use  of  tenses  in  Eng.,  614.  C. 
N. ;  relative  in  prot.,  519;  temporal  par- 
ticles in,  542;  antequam,  priusquam,  in, 
551.  c.  N.2;  prot.  in  ind.  disc,  589.  1. 

Protecting,  vbs.  of,  constr.,  364.  n.2. 

Protraction  of  long  syllables,  608.  c. 

provideo,  w.  dat.  or  ace,  367.  c. 

Proviso,  subjv.  used  in,  528.  a  and  b ;  in- 
troduced by  modo  etc.,  528;  hortatory 
subjv.  expressing,  id.  a;  subjv,  w.  ut 
(or  ne),  id.  b;  characteristic  clause  ex- 
pressing, 535.  d. 

proxime,  constr.,  432.  a. 

proximus,  constr.,  432.  a. 

-pse,  -pte  (enclitic),  143.  d.  n.,  145.  a,  146. 

N.  7,  8, 

pubes,  decl.,  105.  e,  121.  d. 

pudet,  208.  6 ;  constr.,  354.  b,  c,  and  n. 

puer,  decl.  47  (cf.  50.  a). 

pulcher,  decl.,  112.  a. 

Punishment,  abl.  of,  353. 1. 

puppis,  decl.,  75.  b,  76.  6.  1. 

Purpose,  dat.  .of,  382;  infin.  of,  460; 
expressed  by  gerundive  after  certain 
vbs.,  500.  4;  by  gerund  or  gerundive 
as  predicate  gen,,  .504.  a.  n.  i ;  ways 
of  expressing,  533.  Clauses  of,  279.  d ; 
defined  and  classified,  529  ff. ;  use  of 
quo  in,  531.  a  ;  main  clause  omitted,  532 ; 
nedum,  id.>  n.  i,  2.  Substantive  clauses 
of,  used  after  certain  vbs.,  563;  of 
wishing,  id.  b  i  of  permitting,  id.  c ;  of 


determining,  id.  d;  of  caution  etc.,  id, 

e ;  of  fearing,  564. 
Purpose  or  end,  dat.  of,  382. 
puter,  decl.,  115.  a. 

qua  .  .  .  qua,  323./. 

quadrupes,  decl.,  121.  &.  1. 

quae  res  (or  id  quod),  307.  d. 

quaere,  constr.  (ex  or  de),  396.  a ;  w.  subjv., 

563. 
quaeso,  conj.,  206.  e. 
qualis,  151.  "i. 

Qualities  (abstract),  gend.,  32. 
Qualities  of  an  object  compared,  292. 
Quality,  adjs.  of,  251 ;  gen.  of,  345,  415.  a ; 
to  denote  indef .  value,  417  and  a ;  abl. 
of,  415  (cf.  345.  N.). 
quam,  derivation  of,  215.  2;  with  super- 
lative, 291.  c;  w.  compar.  and  positive 
or  w.  two  positives,  292.  a.  n.  ;    cor- 
relative w.  tarn,  323.  g;  w.  compar., 
407.  a,  e ;  after  alius,  id.  a ;  w.  compar. 
of  advs.,  434;   w.  ante,   post,  id.;   w. 
subjv.  after  compar.,  535.  c;  followed 
by  result  clause,   571.  a;   in  indirect 
questions,  575.   d;  in  ind.  disc,  581. 
N.,2,  583.  c. 
quam  diu,  555.  N.  2. 
quam  ob  causam,  398. 
quam  qui,  quam  ut,  w.  subjv.,  535.  c. 
quam  si,  524. 

quamquam,   use,  527.  d;    introducing  a 
proposition  =  and    yet,    id.    n.  ;     w. 
subjv  ,  id.  e. 
quamvis,  use,  527.  a;  subjv.  or.  ind.  w., 

440.  N.,  527.  a,  e. 
quando  (interrog.),  derivation  and  mean- 
ing, 215. 6,  539 ;  causal  (since) ,  540.  a  and 
N. ;  indef.,  id. ;  temporal,  542. 
quanti,  gen.  of  price,  417. 
Quantity,  gen.  of  adjs.  of,  denoting  price, 

417. 
Quantity  in  Prosody,  marks  of,  10.  e; 
nature  of,  602;  general  rules  of,  9-11, 
603;    final    syllables,  604;    perf.   and 
perf.  parts.,  605;  derivatives,  606. 
quanto,  w.  tanto,  414.  a. 
quantum  (with  minun),  in  indirect  ques- 
tions, 575.  d. 
quantus,  151.  i. 

quasi,  with  primary  tenses,  524.  n.  2, 
quasso  (intensive),  263.  2. 
-que  (enclitic),  added  to  indefinites,  151. 
g;  as  conj.,  use,  323.  c.  3,  324.  a;  quan- 
tity, 604.  a.  1, 
queo  (defective),  206,  d. 
ques,  old  nom.  plur.,  150.  c. 
Questions,  direct,  in  indie,  157.  a,  330- 
335 ;   indirect,  330.  2,  331.  N. ;  double 
questions,  334;  question  and  answer, 
336 ;  result  clause  in  exclam.  questions, 


468 


INDEX  OF  WORDS  AND  SUBJECTS 


462.  a;  mood  in  indir.  question,  674; 

in  ind.  disc,  586 ;  in  informal  ind.  disc, 

592. 1. 
qui  (adverbial);  150.  b. 
qui  (relative),  decL,  147;  (interrog.  and 

indef.),  148  and  6;  in  compounds,  151; 

qui  =  ut  is,  w.  subjv.,  631.  2.  N.,537.  2; 

qui  causal  and  concessive,  535.  e. 
quia,  derivation  etc.,  539;  use,  540,  N.i; 

causal,  id. ;  w.  vbs.  of  feeling,  £72.  b ; 

in  intermediate  clauses,  592.  3. 
quicum,  150.  6. 
quicumque,  decl.,  151.  a, 
quid,  in  exclamations,  397.  d.  n.  i. 
quidam,  decl.,  151.  c;   meaning  of,  310; 

w.  ex,  346.  c. 
quidem,  use,  322.  e ;  w.  is  or  idem,  298.  a ; 

position  of,  599.  6. 
quilibet,  decl.,  151.  c;  use,  312. 
quin,  w.  indie  equiv.  to  command,  449.  b ; 

in  result  clause  (—qui  non),  558,  559; 

w.  vbs.  of  hindering,  558;   non  dubito 

quin,  558.  a. 
Quinary  or  bemiolic  measures,  609r  d. 
quinquatrus,    gender,    90;    plural    only, 

101.  2. 
quippe,  w.  relative  clause,  635.  e,  N  ^ ;  w^ 

cum,  549.  N.  1. 
Quirites,  101.  3. 
quia,  decl.,  148,  149;  distinguished  from 

qui  in  use,  id.  b  and  n.  ;  compounds  of 

(aliquis  etc.),  151.  d-f,  310  and  b;  quis 

w.  si,  num,  ne,  310.  a ;  indef.  use  of,  310, 
quis  est  qui,  535.  a. 
quis,  dat.  or  abl.  plur.,  150.  c. 
quisnam,  148.  e. 

quispiam,  151.  c^;  use  of,  310  and  b. 
qv^equam,  decl.,  151.  d;  use,  311,  312. 
quisque,  form  and  decl.,  151.  g;  use  in 

general  assertions,  313;   in  dependent 

clause,  id.  a ;  w.  superlative,  id.  b ;  w. 

plur.  vb.,  317.  e. 
quisquis,  decl.,  151.  b. 
quivis,  decl.,  151.  c;  use,  312. 
quo-,  stems  in,  46.  n.  2. 
quo,  approaching  abl.  of  cause,  414.  a.  n. 
quo  in  final  clauses  (— ut  eo)  w.  subjv., 

531.  a;  non  quo,  540.  n.  s. 
quo  .  .  .  eo,    414.  a;  to  denote  deg.  of 

difference,  id. 
quoad  (intention  etc.),  553;    (fact),  554; 

{a)84ong  as),  555. 
quod  for  id  quod,  307.  d.  N. 
quod  (conj.),   540.  N.  i;  mood  with,  540; 

in  ind.  disc,  id.  6;  subst.  clause  with, 

572;  as  ace  of  specification,  id.  a;  w. 

vbs.  of  feeling,  id.  b ;  quod  in  interme- 
diate clauses,  592.  3  and  n. 
quod  sciam  (proviso),  535.  d. 
quod  si,  use,  324.  d,  397.  a. 
quom  (see  cum),  6  b,  539-  No 


quominus  (  — ut  eo  minus),  w.  vbs.  of  hin- 
dering, 558.  6. 

quoniam,  origin,  539;  meaning  and  use 
540. 1.  N.  1  and  a. 

quoque,  use,  322.  a ;  position,  599.  6 

quot,  indeclinable,  122.  6;  correl.,  152. 

Quotation,  forms  of,  w.  apud  and  in, 
428.  d.  N.  2;  direct  and  indir.,  678. 

quotus  quisque,  313.  b.  N,2. 

quu-  (cu-),  6.  6< 

quum  (conj.),  6.  6  (see  cum). 

R  substituted  for  s  between  two  vowels, 
15.  4  and  n.  ;  r-  in  adj.  stems,  117.  a; 
rr-  in  noun  stems,  62.  n.  i. 

radix,  decl.,  57. 

rastrum,  plur.  in  -a  and  -i,  106.  b. 

ratione,  as  abl.  of  manner,  412.  &. 

ratus,  as  pres.  part.,  491. 

ravis,  decl.,  75.  a.  2. 

re-  or  red-  (prefix),  267.  6. 

reapse,  146.  n.  ^, 

Receiving,  vbs.  of,  w.  gerundive,  500.  4. 

Reciprocal  {each  other)  ^  how  expressed, 
145.  «,  301./. 

recordor},  w.  ace,  350.  d;  w.  gen.,  id.  n.*, 
w.  de,  id,  N. 

rectum/est  ut,  568, 

red-,  s^e  re-. 

Reduplication,  177.  c,  231.  c;  list  of  vbs., 
211.  b :  lost  in  fidi  etc.,  id./,  ftn.  3 ;  rule 
for  quantity,  605.  a. 

Reference,  object  of,  349. 

Reference,  pronouns  of,  297./;  commonly 
omitted,  id.  n  ;  dative  of,  376 ;  gen.  of 
specification,  349.  d. 

refert,  w.  gen.  or  possessive  adj.,  355  and 
a;  other  constr.,  id.  b. 

Reflexive  pronouns,  144 ;  Syntax  of,  298. 
c.  N.  2,  299-301 ;  of  :^t  and  2d  persons, 
299.  a. 

Reflexive  verbs  (deponent  or  passive), 
190.  e,  208.  d,  n.  ;  use  of  passive,  156.  a; 
w.  object  ace,  39ir.  c. 

Refusing,  vbs.  of,  w.  quominus,  558.  b. 

Regular  verbs,  171-189. 

Relationship,  nomis  of,  244. 

Relative  adverbs,  used  correlatively,  152 ; 
demon,  for  rel.,  308.  b ;  used  to  connect 
independent  sentences,  id./;  referring 
to  loc,  id.  g;  =  pronoun  w.  prep.,  321. 
a ;  used  in  relative  clauses  of  purpose, 
531.2;  result,  537. ;?. 

Relative  clauses,  defined,  279.  a ;  w.  rel. 
advs.5  308.  z;  conditional,  519;  final, 
531,  533;  characteristic,  535;  consecu- 
tive, 537;  causal,  540.  c;  temporal, 
541,  542;  rel.  clauses  in  ind.  disc,  591; 
position  of  rel.  clause,  599.  e. 

Relative  pronouns,  decl.,  147;  forms,  how 
distinguished  from  interrogative  and 


INDEX  OF  WORDS  AND   SUBJECTS 


469 


indef.,  148.  b  and  n.  ;  comps.  of,  151, 
310  and  a,  b.  Syntax,  303-308;  rules 
of  agreement,  30o,  306 ;  w.  two  antece- 
dents, 305.  a;  rel.  in  agreement  w.  app. 
etc.,  306;  use  of  the  antecedent,  307; 
special  uses  of  rel.,  308;  never  omitted 
in  Lat.,  id.  a;  relatives  as  connectives, 
id./;  pers.  of  vb.  agreeing  w.,  316.  a; 
abl.  of  rel.  after  compar.,  407.  a.  n.  S; 
position,  599.  e. 

relinquitur  ut,  568. 

reliquum  est  ut,  568. 

reliquus,  use,  293 ;  reliqui,  use,  315. 

-rem,  verb  ending,  168.  /. 

Remembering,  vbs.  of,  w.  ace.  or  gen., 
350;  w.  inf.,  456. 

Reminding,  vbs.  of,  constr.,  351. 

reminiscor,  w.  ace.  or  gen.,  350.  c. 

Removing,  vbs.  of,  w.  abl.,  401. 

Repeated  action  as  general  condition, 
518.  c. 

repetundarum,  352.  a. 

Repraesentdtio,  469.  n.  :  in  ind.  disc, 
585.  b  and  n. 

requies,  decl.,  98.  d,  105.  e. 

res,  decl.,  96. 

Resisting,  vbs.  of,  constr.,  367,  558. 

Resolution  of  syllables  in  Prosody,  610. 

Resolving,  vbs.  of,  constr.  (subjv.  or  inf.), 
563.  d. 

restat,  w.  ut,  569.  2. 

restis,  decl.,  75.  6. 

Restriction  in  subjunctive  clause,  535.  d. 

Result,  clauses  of,  279.  e,  534 ;  sequence  of 
tenses  in,  485.  c;  inf.  of,  461.  a.  Sub- 
junctive w.  relatives  or  ut,  537;  nega- 
tive result  w.  ut  non  etc.,  id.  a,  538; 
result  clause  equivalent  to  proviso,  537. 
6;  w.  quin,  558;  w.  quominus,  id.  6. 
Subst.  clauses  of  result  after  facio  etc., 
568;  as  subject,  569;  in  app.  w.  noun, 
670;  as  pred.  nom.,  571;  after  quam, 
id.  a;  tantum  abest  ut,  id.  6;  thought 
as  result,  id.  c. 

Result,  nouns  denoting,  239. 

rete,  decl.,  76.  a.  3.  — -^ 

rex,  decl.,  57- 

Rhetorical  questions  in  ind.  disc,  586. 

Rhotacism,  16.  4. 

Rhythm,  development  of,  607 ;  nature  of, 
608. 

Rhythmical  reading,  612.  d~  N, 

ri-,  adj.  stems  in,  115.  a. 

ritu,  abl.  of  manner,  412.  b. 

rivalis,  decl.,  76.  6.  2. 

Rivers,  gender  of  names  of,  31. 1  and  a. 

ro-  (ra-),  primary  suffix,  234.  II.  9. 

ro-stems,  decl.  II,  45.  6 ;  adj.  stems,  111, 
112. 

rogo,  constr.  of,  .396  and  6.  n.,  c  N.  2;  w. 
subjv.,  563. 


Roman  method  of  pronunciation,  8. 
Root,  defined,  25,  228;  consciousness  of 

roots  lost  in  Lat.,  25.  n.;  of  vbs.,  117. 

1 ;  noun  stem  treated  as  root,  176.  d ; 

roots  ending  in  vowel,  id.  e ;  root  used 

as  stem,  id.  d.  n.  i  and  e,  231, 
ros,  decl.,  103.  g.  2. 
rr-,  as  stem  ending,  62.  n.  h 
it-,  stems  in,  decl.,  121.  a.  4. 
ruber,  decL,  112.  a. 
ruri,  locative,  80,  427.  3. 
rus,  decl.,  103.  g.  1;  constr.,  427.  1,  2,  3. 

S  changed  to  r,  15.  4  and  n.,  62.  n. 2 ;  sub- 
stituted for  d  or  t,  15.  5 ;  s-  as  stem  end- 
ing, 79.  e ;  of  adjs.,  119.  isr. ;  of  compars., 
120.  b ;  of  perf.  stem,  177.  b ;  list  of  vbs. 
of  conj.  Ill,  w.  perf.  in  s,  211.  a;  s  sup- 
pressed in  verb  forms,  181.  6.  n.  2 ;  in 
early  Lat.,  629.  a. 

-s  as  sign  of  noml,  45,  46,  56,  95,  117.  a, 
338 ;  -s  omitted  in  inscriptions,  46.  n.  i ; 
-s,  noun  ending,  decl.  Ill,  gend.,  86. 

sacer,  decl.,  112.  a;  comp.,  131.  a. 

saepe,  compar.,  218.  a. 

sal,  decl.,  103.  g.  2. 

Salamis,  decl.,  83.  a. 

saluber,  decl.,  115.  a. 

salutem,  397.  d.  n.  2. 

salve,  defect.,  206.  g. 

sane  quam,  675.  d. 

Sanskrit  forms,  see  25.  ftn.  2, 170.  6.  n. 

sapiens,  decl.,  76.  b.  2. 

Sapphic  verse,  625.  7,  8. 

satias,  decl.,  98.  d. 

satis,  compar.,  218.  a;  compounds  of,  w, 
dat.,  368.  2;  non  satis,  291.  c.  N.2; 
satis  est  (satis  habeo),  w.  perf.  infin., 
486./. 

satur,  genitive  of,  50.  6;  decl.,  111.  a; 
compar.,  131.  6. 

Saturnian  verse,  628.  d. 

Saying,  vbs.  of,  constr.,  459 ;  in  passive, 
582. 

so  preceding  stem- vowel  of  verb,  176.  6. 1, 

scaber,  decl.,  112.  a. 

Scanning,  612.  d,  609.  e,  N. 

scilicet,  derivation,  216.  n. 

scin,  contracted  form  for  scisne,  13.  N. 

scio,  imperative  of,  449.  a. 

Scipiades,  44.  6.  n. 

scisco,  constr.,  563. 

scito,  scitote,  imv.  forms,  182.  a,  449.  a. 

-SCO  (inceptive),  vbs.  ending  in,  263.  1. 

se-  or  sed-,  inseparable  prefix,  267.  6. 

se,  reflexive,  decl.,  144.  &;  use,  299-301; 
inter  se,  145.  c. 

Second  Conjugation,  prin.  parts,  173: 
I>res.  stem,  how  formed,  176.  a  \  forma 
tion  of,  179.  6;  paradigm,  185;  vbs.  ot 
210;  from  noun  stems,  260. 


470 


INDEX   OF   WORDS  AND   SUBJECTS 


Second  Declension,  nouns,  45-47 ;  accent 
of  gen.  and  voc.  of  nouns  in  -ius,  12. 
Exc.  2. 

Secondary  object,  394. 

Secondary  suffixes,  defined,  232. 

Secondary  tenses,  482.  2 ;  rule  for  use  of, 
483;  perf.  def.  more  commonly  sec- 
ondary, 485.  a;  perf.  subjv.  in  clauses 
of  result  used  after,  id.  c;  hist,  pres., 
id.  e;  imperf.  and  pluperf.  subjv.,  id. 
g,  h ;  present  used  as  if  secondary,  by 
synesis,  id.  i. 

secundum,  prep.,  220.  a;  use,  221.  21. 

secundus,  derivation,  132.  ftn. 

securis,  decl.,  75.  6,  76.  a.  1. 

secus  (adv.),  compar.,  218.  a. 

secus,  iudecl.  noun,  103.  a ;  use,  397.  a. 

secutus  (as  pres.  part.),  491. 

sed-,  see  se-. 

sed  compared  with  verum  etc.,  324.  d. 

sedes,  decl.,  78.  1. 

sedile,  decl.,  69. 

Selling,  vbs.  of,  417.  c. 

sementis,  decl.,  75.  b,  76.  b.  1. 

Semi-deponents,  192. 

semineci,  defect.,  122.  c. 

Semi- vowels,  1  and  v  (u),  5. 

senati,  senatuos,  forms  of  gen.  in  decl. 
IV,  92.  a,  e. 

senex,  decl.,  79  and  c;  adj.  masc,  122.  d; 
comparison,  131.  c. 

Sentence,  development,  268 ;  defined,  269 ; 
simple  or  compound,  278 ;  incomplete, 
318,  319. 

Separation,  dat.  of,  after  comps.  of  ab, 
de,  ex,  and  a  few  of  ad,  381 ;  abl.  of,  400 ; 
gen.  for  abl.,  356.  n.,  357.  b.  3. 

Sequence  of  tenses,  482-485 ;  in  ind.  disc, 
585;  in  conditional  sentences  in  ind. 
disc,  589.  b. 

sequester,  decl.,  105.  b. 

sequitur,  w.  ut,  569.  2. 

sequor,  conj.,  190. 

sera  nocte,  293.  N. 

series,  decl.,  98.  a. 

Service,  adjs.  of,  w.  dat.,  384. 

Service,  dat.  of,  .382.  n.  i. 

Serving,  vbs.  of,  w.  dat.,  367. 

servus  (servos),  decl.,  46. 

sestertium,  sestertius,  632-634;  how  writ- 
ten in  cipher,  fi.'^o. 

seu  (sive),  324./,  525.  c. 

Sharing,  adjs.  of,  w.  gen.,  349.  a. 

Should  (auxiliary),  how  expressed  in  Lat., 
157.  6.  ftn.  2. 

Showing,  vbs.  of,  w.  two  aces.,  393. 

si,  511 ;  w.  subjv.  of  wish,  442.  a  and  N.  ^ ; 
si  and  its  compounds,  use,  512.  a.  n., 
525;  si  non  distinguished  from  nisi,  id. 
a.  1 ;  miror  si,  572.  b.  N. ;  si  =  whether, 
576.  a. 


Sibilants,  4. 

sic,  correl,,  w.  ut,  323.  g,  .537.  2.  n^:  w 

si,  512.  6. 
siem  (sim),  170.  6.  n. 
Significant  endings,  23.5-253. 
Signs  of  mood  and  tense,  169.  ftn. 
silentio,  without  preposition,  412.  b. 
-silis,  adj.  ending,  252. 
Silvester,  decl.,  115.  a. 
-Sim,  old  form  of  perf.  subjv.,  183.  3. 
similis,   comparison,   126;    w.    gen.   and 

dat.,  385.  c.  2. 
similiter,  use,  384.  n.  2. 
Simois,  decl.,  82. 
Simple  sentences,  278.  1. 
simul,  simul  atque  (ac),  543. 
simul  .  .  .  simul,  323./. 
simul  w.  abl.,  432.  c. 
sin,  512.  a.  n. 

Singular,  nouns  defect,  in,  103,/. 
Singuldria  tantum,  99. 
sinister,  decl.,  112.  a. 
sino,  constr.,  563.  c. 
-sio,  novtn  ending,  238.  b. 
-sis-,  dropped  in  perf.,  181.  6.  N.  2. 
sitis,  decl.,  67  (cf.  75.  a.  2). 
sive  (seu)  .  .  .  sive,  use,  324./,  525.  c. 
Smell,  vbs.  of,  w.  ace,  390.  a. 
-so,  old  form  of  fut.  perfect,  183.  3. 
-so,  vbs.  in,  263.  2. 
socrus,  gend.,  90.  Exc. 
sodes  (si  audes),  13.  N.,  192.  a. 
sol,  decl.,  103.  g.  2. 
soleo,  semi-dep.,  192. 
soli  to,  w.  compars.,  406.  a. 
solitus,  as  pres.  part.,  491. 
solus,  decl.,  113;    w.  relative  clause  of 

characteristic,  535. 6. 
Sonants,  3. 

sons,  as  participle  of  esse,  170.  6. 
-sor,  see -tor. 
Soracte,  decl.,  76.  6.  n.  2. 
sordem,  defect.,  103./  3. 
-soria,  noun  ending,  254. 4 ;  -sorium,  noun 

ending,  254.  5;    -sorius,   adj.  ending, 

250.  a. 
Sdspita,  fem.  adj.  form,  121.  e. 
Sounds,  see  Pronunciation. 
Source,  expressed  by  abl.,  403. 
Space,  extent  of,  expressed  by  ace,  425. 
Sparing,  vbs.  of,  with  dat.,  367. 
spe,  w.  compars.,  406.  a. 
Special  verb  forms,  181,  182. 
species,  decl.,  98.  a. 
Specification,  gen.  of,  w.  adjs.,  349.  d' 

ace  of,  397.  6  and  n.  ;  abl.  of,  418. 
specus,  gend.,  90.  Exc. 
Spelling,  variations  of,  6. 
spes,  98.  a  and  ftn. 
Spirants,  4. 
Spondaic  verse,  615.  b. 


INDEX  OF  WORDS  AND   SUBJECTS 


471 


Spondee,  609.  6.  3. 

spontis,  -e.  defect.,  103.  c.  2. 

Stanza  or  Strophe,  814. 

status,  w.  vbs.  of  placing,  430 ;  w.  inf.  or 
subjv.,  563.  d. 

Statutes,  fut.  imv.  in,  449.  2. 

ste  for  iste  etc.,  146.  N.^ 

Stella,  deel.,  41. 

Stem  building,  25.  n. 

Stems,  defined,  24;  classified,  229;  how 
formed  from  root,  26,  230-232;  how 
found  in  nouns,  37.  a;  a-stems,  decl. 
I,  40;  adjs.,  110;  o-stems,  decl.  II,  45; 
adjs.  110 ;  in  decl.  Ill,  mute  stems,  56- 
60;  liquid  and  nasal  stems,  61-64; 
i-stems,  65-69;  mixed  i-stems,  70-72; 
u-stems,  decl.  IV,  88,  89;  in  tu-,  94; 
of  vb.,  165.  1 ;  present,  perfect,  and 
supine,  164.  Pres.  stem,  how  formed, 
175,  176 ;  perf .  stem,  177 ;  supine  stem, 
178.  Tenses  arranged  by  stems,  synop- 
sis, 180. 

sto,  w.  abl.,  431. 

strigilis,  decl.,  76.  b.  1. 

strix,  decl.,  71.  6. 

Structure  of  Latin  sentences,  600,  601  „ 

strues,  decl.,  78.  2. 

studeo,  w.  dat,,  368.  3. 

suadeo,  w.  dat.,  367. 

sub-,  in  comp.,  w.  adjs.,  267.  d.  1,  291.  c. 
N.2;  w.  vbs.,  267.  a  and  d.  n. 

sub.  use,  220.  c,  221.  22;  in  comps.,  w^ 
dat.,  370;  of  time,  424.  e. 

subeo,  w.  ace,  370.  6. 

Subject,  268 ;  defined,  270 ;  how  expressed, 
271  and  a;  modified,  276;  vb.  agrees 
w.,  316 ;  two  or  more  subjs.,  317 ;  subj. 
omitted,  318;  accusative,  459;  in  ind 
disc,  .580;  position  of  subject,  596. 

Subject  clauses  (inf.),  452.  1;  (subjv.), 
566,,  567,  569,  571.  b. 

Subjective  gen.,  defined,  343.  N.  i;  use, 
343. 

Subjunctive  mood,  154.  6 ;  how  used  and 
translated,  157.  6.  ftn.  2;  tenses  how 
used,  162;  vowel  of  pres.  subjv.,  179.  a. 
1,  b.  1,  c.  1,  d.  Classification  of  uses, 
438;  hortatory  subjv.,  439, 440;  optative 
subjv.,  441 ,  442 ;  deliberative,  443,  444 ; 
potential  subj  v.,  445, 446 ;  subjv ,  of  mod- 
esty, 447.  1;  tenses  of  subjv.,  480-485; 
dependent  clauses,  481 ;  subjv.  in  ind. 
disc,  680;  in  informal  ind.  disc,  592; 
of  integral  part,  693^ 

suboles,  decl.,  78.  2. 

Subordinate  clauses,  defined,  278,  b ;  use, 
519-593;  in  ind.  disc,  579-593. 

Subordinate  conjs.,  223.  b,  224.  II.  a-f. 

Substance,  gen.  of,  344;  abl.  of,  403. 

Substantive  clauses,  560-572 ;  nature  and 
classes  of.  560  (of.  561,  662) ;  daases  of 


purpose,  563-566;  of  result,  567-571; 
mdic.  w.  quod,  572;  indirect  questions, 
573-576;  adj.  w.  subst.  clauses,  289.  d; 
inf.  clauses,  452. 

Substantive  use  of  adjs.,  288 ;  of  posses- 
sive prons.,  302.  d. 

Substantive  verb  (esse),  272,  284.  6. 

subter,  use,  220.  c,  221.  23. 

suetus,  w.  inf.,  460.  b. 

Suffixes,  232;  primary,  list  of,  233,  234; 
significant,  235-255. 

sui,  decl.,  144.  6;  use,  299,  300;  w.  gen. 
of  gerund,  504.  c. 

sum,  conj.,  170;  as  copula,  284;  as  sub- 
stantive verb,  id.  6;  omitted,  319.  6; 
w.  dat.  of  possession,  373 ;  position,  598. 
cj. 

summus,  form,  130.  a.  ftn.  2;  (top  of), 
293. 

sunt  qui,  535.  a. 

suovetaurilia,  265.  1. 

supellex,  decl.,  79.  c. 

super,  use,  220.  c,  221.  24;  in  comps.,  267. 
a;  in  comps.,  w.  dat.,  370. 

supera,  defect..  111.  b  (cf.  130.  a.  N.2); 
comp.,  130.  6;  superi,  id. 

superior,  compar.,  130.  b. 

Superlative,  suffix,  124.  ftn. ;  in  -rimus, 
125;  of  adjs.  in  -lis,  126;  w.  maxime, 
128;  takes  gend.  of  partitive,  286.  6. 
N. ;  of  eminence,  291.  b ;  w.  quam,  vel, 
or  iinus,  id.  c;  denoting  order,  succes- 
sion, 293;  w.  quisque,  313.  6. 

superstes,  decl.,  121.  a.  4. 

Supine,  noun  of  decl.  IV,  94.  b,  159.  6 ; 
stem,  164.  3 ;  formation,  178,  179.  a-d 
(cf.  164.  ftn.) ;  irregular  forms  of,  conj. 
I,  209;  conj.  II,  210;  allied  with  forms 
in  -tor,  236.  a.  n.  i ;  Supine  in  -urn,  use 
of,  509;  in  -u,  510;  as  abl.  of  specifica- 
tion, 610.  N.  1. 

supplex,  decl.,  121.  b.  1, 

supplies,  w.  dat.,  368.  3. 

supra,  use,  220.  a,  221.  25. 

-sura,  noun  ending,  238,  b. 

Surds,  3. 

-surio,  vbs.  in,  263.  4. 

-sus,  phonetic  form  of  -tus,  94  ;  noun 
ending,  238.  b. 

siis,  decl.,  79  and  a. 

suus,  use,  299. 

Swearing,  vbs.  of,  constr.,  388.  d,  580.  c. 

Syllables,  rules  for  division  of,  7;  open 
etc.,  id.  N.2;  long  and  short,  603.  e,  / 
and  notes. 

Synaeresis,  603.  c.  n.,/.  n.  •*,  642. 

Synaloepha,  612.  e.  n.,  642. 

Synchysis,  598.  h,  641. 

Syncope,  640. 

Synecdoche,  defined,  641. 

Synecdochical  ace,  397.  b. 


472 


INDEX   OF   WORDS  AND   SUBJECTS 


Synesis,  280,  a>  in  gend.  and  number, 
286.  b ;  in  sequence  of  tenses,  485.  i. 

Synizesis,  603.  c.  n.,  642. 

Synopsis  of  tenses  (amo),  180;  of  imper- 
sonal vbs.,  207. 

Syntactic  compounds,  267. 

Syntax,  268-601 ;  historical  development 
of,  268.    Important  rules  of  Syntax,  694. 

T  changed  to  s,  15.  5,  178:  t  preceding 
stem-vowel  of  vb.,  176.  6.  1;  t-  (s-), 
supine  stem-ending,  178, 179.  a.  2,  h.  2, 
c.  2,  d. 

taedet,  impersonal,  208.  6;  constr.,  354. 
h,  c  and  n. 

taeter,  decl.,  112.  a. 

Taking  away,  vbs.,  of,  381o 

Talent,  value  of,  637. 

talis,  151.  i,  152. 

tahs  ut  etc.,  537.  n.  2. 

tam,  correl.  w.  quam,  323.  gr;  correl.  w. 
ut,  537.  N.  2. 

tamen,  as  correl.,  527.  c ;  position  of, 
324.  i. 

tametsi,  concessive  use,  527.  c  and  n.  i. 

tamquam,  in  conditional  clauses,  524 ;  w. 
primary  tenses,  id.  n.  i. 

tandem,  in  questions,  333.  a  and  N. 

tanti,  gen.  of  value,  417  and  c;  tanti  est 
ut,  568. 

tanto  following  quanto,  414.  a. 

tantum,  w.  subj.  of  proviso,  528. 

tantum  abest  ut,  571.  h. 

tantus,  151.  i,  152;  taatus  ut,  537,  N.  2. 

-tas,  -tia,  noun  endings,  241, 

Taste,  vbs.  of,  w.  ace.,  3$K).  a. 

-te  (enclitic),  143.  d  and  n. 

Teaching,  vbs.  of  (two  aces.),  396. 

tego,  conj.,  186. 

Telling,  vbs.  of,  constr.,  459. 

Temporal  clauses,  defined,  279.  6,  541-^ 
556;  as  protasis,  542 ;  w.  postquam  etc., 
543 ;  w.  cum,  514-549 ;  w.  antequam  and 
priusquam,  550,  551;  w.  dum,  donee, 
quoad,  552-556;  replaced  by  abl.  abs., 
420. 

Temporal  numerals,  139.  6 ;  conjunctions, 
224.  II.  d. 

tempus  est  abire,  504.  n.  2. 

Tendency,  adjs.  denoting,  251. 

tener,  decl.,  ill.  a. 

Tenses,  154.  c;  of  passive  voice,  156;  of 
participles,  158;  classification,  mean- 
ing, and  use,  160-162;  of  the  ind.,  160, 
161;  of  the  subj  v.,  162;  endings,  166; 
of  completed  action,  formation  of,  179. 
/,  g;  synopsis  of,  180. 

Tenses,  Syntax,  464-486;  classified,  464; 
of  ind.,  465-479;  Present  tense,  465-459 ; 
Imperfect,  470,  471;  Future,  472;  of 
Completed  action,  473-478;  Epistolary 


tenses,  479 ;  of  subj  v.,  480, 481 ;  sequence 
of,  482-485;  tenses  of  the  inf.,  486;  tense 
emphatic,  598.  d.  (3) ;  tenses  of  inf.  in 
ind.  disc,  584;  tenses  of  subjv.  in  ind. 
disc,  585;  affected  by  repraesentatio, 
id.  b  and  n.  ;  in  condition  in  ind.  disc, 
589.   Notes  on  origin  of  syntax,  436, 464. 

tonus,  constr.,  w.  gen.,  359.  t>;  w.  abl,, 
221.  26;  position,  435,  599.  d. 

ter-  (tor-,  ter-,  t5r-,  tr-),  primary  sufiix, 
2.34.  II.  15. 

-ter,  adv.  ending,  214.  6,  c. 

Terence,  absque  me  etc.,  517.  f ;  prosodial 
forms,  628.  b,  629. 

teres,  decl.,  121.  a.  3;  compar.,  131.  6. 

-terior,  ending,  p.  56.  ftn.  2. 

Terminations  of  inflection,  meaning  of, 
21.  6;  terminations  of  nouns,  39;  of 
verbs,  166.     (See  Endings.) 

-terniis,  as  adj.  ending,  250. 

terra  marique,  427.  a. 

terreater,  decl.,  115.  a. 

-teru^,  ending,  p.  56.  ftn.  2. 

Teti/ameter,  Iambic,  619.  a. 

Thsin,  how  expressed,  406. 

That  of,  not  expressed  in  Lat.,  297./.  N. 

The'T'as  correlative,  414.  a  and  ftn. 

Thematic  verbs,  174.  1. 

Thematic  vowel  %»  174.  2.  1. 

Thesis  and  Arsis,  611. 

Thinking,  vbs.  of,  constr.  w.  ace  and 
inf.,  459. 

Third  conj.,  of  vbs.,  prin.  parts,  173 ;  pres. 
stem,  how  formed,  176;  formation,  id., 
179.  c ;  paradigm,  186 ;  in  -io,  paradigm, 
188 ;  list  of  vbs.,  w.  principal  parts,  211 ; 
derivation  of  vbs.  in  -uo,  261. 

Third  declension,  of  nouns,  53-87 ;  mute 
stems,  56-60;  liquid  stems,  61-64;  i- 
stems,  65-78;  pure  i-stems,  66--69; 
mixed  i-stems,  70-78;  peculiar  forms, 
79;  loc,  80;  Greek  nouns,  81-«3;  rules 
of  gend.,  84-87. 

Though,  see  Although. 

Thought,  considered  as  result,  571.  c. 

Threatening,  vbs.  of,  367,  580.  c. 

ti-,  primary  sufiix,  234.  II.  2. 

-tia  (-ties),  noun  ending,  241. 

-ticus,  adj.  ending,  247. 

tlgris,  decl.,  82. 

-tills,  adj.  ending,  252. 

-tim,  advs.  in,  75.  a.  3,  215.  2. 

Time  (see  Temporal  Clauses),  465 fif.,  481, 
rA5,  546. 

Time,  abl.  abs.  to  denote,  419, 420. 1 ;  time 
when,^23;  duration  of  time,  424. 6;  time 
during  or  within  which,  w.  ordinal,  id. 
c;  distance  of  time,  id./;  corresponding 
to  Eng.  place,  id.  d. 

Time,  advs.  of,  217.  b. 

Time,  mode  oi  reckoning,  630. 


INDEX  OF  WORDS  AND   SUBJECTS 


473 


timeo,  w.  dat.  or  ace,  367.  c;  w.  subjv., 

564. 
-timus,  adj.  ending,  130.  a.  ftn.  2,  250. 
-tio,  noun  ending,  233.  2,  238.  b. 
-ti5  (-sio),  -tura,  -tus  (-tutis)^  noun  end- 
ings, 238.  6. 
"tlum,  noun  ending,  241.  b.  n. 
-tivus,  verbal  adj.  ending^  251. 
to-  (ta-),  primary  suffix,  234. 11. 1. 
-to,  -ito,  intensive  or  iterative  vbs.  in, 

263.  2. 
Too  ...  to,  535.  c.  N. 
-tor  (-sor),  -trix,  nouns  of  agency  in,  236» 

a;  used  as  adjs.,  321.  c. 
-toria,  noun  ending,  254.  4. 
-torium,  noun  ending,  233.  2,  254.  5. 
-torius,  adj.  ending,  233.  2;  as  noun  end- 
ing, 250.  a. 
tot,  indeclinable,  122.  6;  correl.,  152. 
totidem,  indeclinable,  122.  6. 
totus,  decl.,  113 ;  nouns  w.,  in  abl.  witbout 

prep,  (place  where),  429. 2. 
Towns,  names  of,  gend.,  32  and  a,  48. 

Exc. ;  names  of  towns  in  -e,  decl.,  76. 

N.  2 ;  locative  of,  427.  3 ;  as  place  from 

wbicb,  id.  1 ;  as  place  to  whicb,  id.  2. 
tr-,  stems  in  (pater  etc.),  61.  4. 
traicio,  constr.,  395.  N,  1,3;  traiectus  lora, 

id.  N.3. 
trans,  220.  a;  use,  221.  27;  comps.  of,  w. 

ace,  388.  6;  w.  two  aces.,  395. 
Transitive  verbs,  273. 1, 274 ;  absolute  use, 

273.  N.2;  how  translated,  274.  6;   w. 

dat.,  362. 
Transposition  of  vowels,  177.  a.  n. 
Trees,  names  of,  gend.,  32. 
ties,  decl.,  134.  b. 
trl-,  stem-ending  of  nouns,  66;  of  adjs., 

115.  a. 
Tribe,  abl.  of,  403.  a.  n.  3. 
Tribrach,  609.  a.  3. 
tribulis,  decl.,  76.  a.  2. 
tribus,  gend.,  90.  Exc;  decl.,  92.  c. 
tridens,  decl.,  76.  6.  2. 
Trimeter,  Iambic,  618. 
Triptotes,  103.  d. 
triremis,  decl.,  76.  6.  2. 
-tris,  adj.  ending,  250. 
triumphs,  w.  abl.,  404.  a. 
-trix,  see  -tor. 

tro-,  primary  suffix,  234. 16. 
-tro,  advs.  in,  215.  4. 
Trochaic  verse,  613,  620.    . 
Trochee,  609.  a.  1 ;  irrational,  id.  e,  623 

and  N. 
-trum,  noun  ending,  240. 
Trusting,  vbs.  of,  constr.,  367. 
tu-,  primary  suffix,  234.  II.  3. 
-tu,  -su,  supine  endings,  159.  6. 
"i,  decl.,  143  (see  tute,  tutimet). 

udo,  -tus,  noun  endings,  241. 


tuli  (tetuli),  200;  derivation,  id.  ftn.  2; 

quantity,  605.  Exc. 
-turn,  -sum,  supine  endings,  159.  6. 
turn,  tunc,  meaning,  217.  6;  correl.  w. 

cum,  323.  g. 
turn  .  .  .  tum,  323./. 
-tura,  -tus,  noun  ending,  238.  6. 
-turio,  desiderative  vbs.  in,  263.  4. 
-turnus,  adj.  ending,  250. 
-turris,  decl.,  67  (cf.  75,  b). 
-tus,  adj.  ending,  246 ;  noun  ending,  94, 241, 
-tus,  adv.  ending,  215.  6. 
tussis,  decL,  75,  a.  2. 
tute,  143.  d\  tutimet,  id. 
Two  accusatives,  391. 
Two  datives,  382.  1. 

U  (v) ,  as  consonant,  5 ;  after  g,  q,  8,  id.  n.  2 ; 

not  to  follow  u  or  v,  6.  a,  6 ;  u  for  e  in 

conj.  Ill,  179.  c.  1. 
U-,  primary  suffix,  234. 1.  3. 
u-stems,  of  nouns,  decl.   Ill,  79  and  a; 

decl.  IV,  88 ;  of  vbs.,  174,  176.  d,  259.  3. 
uber,  decl.,  119. 
ubi,    derivation,    215.    5 ;    in    temporal 

clauses,  542,  643. 
-ubus,  in  dat.  and  abl.  plur.,  decl.  R 

92.  c. 
-uis  (-uos),  in  gen.,  decl.  IV,  92.  e. 
-iilis,  adj.  ending,  248. 
iillus,  decl.,  113;  use,  311,  812. 
ulterior,  compar.,  130.  a. 
ultra,    220=   a;    use,  221.  28;    following 

noun,  435. 
-ulus,  diminutive  ending,  243;  verbal  adj. 

ending,  251. 
-um  for  -arum,  43.  d;  for  -orum,  49.  d; 

-um  in  gen.  plur.  of  personal  prons.,  295. 

6;  -um  for  -ium,  decl.  Ill,  78;  in  gen. 

plur.  of  adjs.,  121.  6 ;  for  -uum,  decl.  IV, 

92.6. 
Undertaking,  vbs.  of,  w.  gerundive,  500. 4. 
unt-,  stem-ending,  83.  e. 
unus,  decl.,   113;    meaning,   134.  a:   w. 

super!.,  291.  c. 
iinus  qui,  w.  subjv.,  535.  6. 
unus  quisque,  decl.,  151.  g\  use,  313. 
U0-,  suffix,  see  vo-. 
-u6,  vbs.  in,  261. 
-uos,  see  -uis. 
-ur,  nouns  in,  87. 
urbs,  decl.,  72;  use  in  relations  of  place, 

428.  6. 
Urging,  vbs.  of,  with  ut,  563. 
-urlo,  desiderative  vbs.  in,  263.  4. 
-umus,  adj .  ending,  250. 
-urus,  fut.  part,  in,   158.  b,  498;  w.  fui, 

498.  b,  517.  d]  in  ind.  questions,  675.  a; 

-urus  fuisse,  in  ind.  disc,  589.  b.  3. 
-us,  nom.  ending,  in  decl.  II,  46 ;  -us  for  -er 

in  Greek  nouns,  decl.  II,  52.  b ;  -us,  nom. 


474 


INDEX   OF  WORDS  AND   SUBJECTS 


ending  in  decl.  Ill,  63.  Exc.  2;  gend., 
87;  decl.  IV,  88;  gend.,  90;  neut. 
ending,  23S.  a. 

-us,  Greek  nom.  ending,  83.  e. 

Use,  adjs.  of,  constr.,  385.  a. 

usque,  w.  ace.,  432.  h. 

iisus  {need),  w.  abl.,  411. 

ut  (uti),  correlative  w.  ita,  sic,  .323.  g;  to 
denote  concession,  440,  527.  a;  ut  {as) 
w.  ind.  equiv.  to  concession,  527./;  w. 
optative  subjv.,  442.  a;  used  ellipti- 
cally  in  exclamations,  4G2.  a ;  in  clauses 
of  purpose,  531;  ut  ne,  id.,  563.  e.  N.2; 
ut  non,  531.  1.  n.2;  of  result,  537;  ut 
non  etc., 538 ;  ut  temporal,  542, 543 ;  vbs. 
foil,  by  clauses  w.  ut,  563,  568 ;  omis- 
sion after  certain  vbs.,  565  and  notes, 
569. 2.  N.  2 ;  w.  vbs.  of  fearing, 564  and  n. 

ut,  utpote,  quippe,  w.  relative  clause,  535. 
e.  N.  1 ;  w.  cum,  549.  n.  i. 

■xt  primum,  543. 

ut  semel,  543. 

ut  si,  constr.,  524. 

uter,  decl.,  66. 

uterque,  form  and  decl.,  151,  gr,  use,  313; 
constr.  in  agreement  and  as  partitive, 
346.  d. 

utilis,  w.  dat.  of  gerund  etc.,  505.  a 

utinam,  w.  subjv.  of  wish,  442. 

utor  etc.,  w.  abl.,  410;  w.  ace,  id.  a.  n.  i; 
gerundive  u^e  of,  500.  3,  503.  n.  2. 

utpote  qui,  535.  e.  N.  i. 

utrum  ...  an,  335  and  d. 

-utus,  adj.  ending,  246. 

-uus,  verbal  adj.  ending,  251. 

V  (u),  1.  &,  5  and  n.I;  suffix  of  perf., 
177.  a,  179.  a, 2,  6.  2,  d\  suppressed  in 
perf.,  181 ;  list  of  vbs.  in  conj.  Ill  w.  v 
in  perf.,  211.  c;  v  often  om.  in  perf.  of 
eo  and  its  comps.,  203.  b. 

vafer,  decl.,  112.  a;  compar.,  131.  a. 

valde,  use,  291.  c.  n.  i ;  valde  quam,  575.  d. 

Value,  gen.  of  indefinite,  417. 

Value,  measures  of,  632-^38. 

vannus,  gend.,  48.  Exc. 

vapulo,  neutral  passive,  192.  6. 

Variable  nouns,  104-106  (cf.  98.  c,  d); 
adjs.,  122.  a. 

Variations,  see  Phonetic  Variations. 

Variations  of  spelling,  6. 

vas,  decl.,  103.  g.  2. 

vas,  decl.,  79.  e,  105.  6. 

vates,  decl.,  78.  1. 

-ve,  vel,  use,  324.  e,  335.  d.  n. 

vel  (see  -ve),  w.  superl.,  291.  c. 

Velars,  p.  2.  ftn.  3. 

vellm,  vellera,  subjv.  of  modesty,  447. 1.  n. 

velim,  vellem,  w.  subjv.  (=:opt.).  442.  6, 
(=imY.),  449.  c. 

velut.  velut  si,  624 


veneo  (venum  eo),  192.  6,  428.  i. 

venerat  =  aderat,  476. 

Verba  sentiendl  et  deddrandl,  397.  e; 
459,  579 ;  passive  use  of,  582 ;  in  poeta 
and  later  writers,  id.  n. 

Verbal  adjs.,  251-253;  in  -ax,  w,  gen., 
349.  c. 

Verbal  nouns  w.  ^at.,  367.  d. 

Verbal  nouns  and  adjs.  w.  reflexive, 
301.  d. 

Verbal  roots,  228.  1. 

Verbs,  defined,  20.  d;  inflection,  153, 
154;  noun  and  adj.  forms  of,  155; 
signification  of  forms,  156-162;  per- 
sonal endings,  163;  the  three  stems, 
164;  forms  of  the  vb.,  164-166  (notes 
on  origin  and  hist,  of  vb.  forms,  ICA. 
ftn.,  168,  169) ;  table  of  endings,  166; 
influence  of  imitation,  169.  ftn. ;  reg- 
ular vbs.,  171-189;  the  four  conjuga- 
tions, 171-173;  prin.  parts -of,  172; 
jbixed  vbs.,  173.  a;  deponents,  190, 
/191;  semi-deponents,  192;  periphrastic 
forms,  193-196 ;  irregular  vbs.,  197-204 ; 
defective,  205,  206;  impersonal,  207, 
208.  Classified  lists  of  yJjs.,.-209-212. 
Derivation  of  vbs.,  256-263;  comp. 
vbs.,  267;  vowels  in  comp.  vbs.,  id.  a. 
N.  2.    Index  of  vbs.,  pp.  437  if. 

Verbs,  Syntax.  Subject  implied  in  end- 
ing, 271.  a;  rules  of  agreement,  316- 
319;  vb.  omitted,  319;  rules  of  syn- 
tax, 437-593.  Cases  w.  vbs.,  see  under 
Accusative  etc.  Position  of  vb.,  596, ' 
598.  d,  j.  (See  under  the  names  of  the 
Moods  etc.) 

vereor,  w.  gen.,  357.  b.  1;  w.  subjv.,  564^ 

veritus,  as  pres.  part.,  491. 

vero,  324.  d,j;  in  answers,  336.  a.  1;  pO' 
sition  of,  699.  b. 

Verse,  612. 

Versification,  612-629;  forms  of  verse, 
613. 

versus,  position  of,  599.  d. 

verto,  constr.,  417.  6. 

veru,  gend.,  91. 

verum  or  vero,  use,  324.  d,j. 

vescor,  w.  abl.,  410;  w.  ace,  id.  a.  N.I; 
gerundive,  500.  3,  503.  n.  2. 

vesper,  decl.,  50.  6. 

vesper!  (loc),  50.  6,  427.  a. 

vester,  decl.,  112.  a,  145. 

vestrl  as  obj.  gen.,  J43.  e,  295.  6. 

vestrum  as  part,  gen.,  143.  6,  295.  b  (fit 

N.2). 

veto,  w.  ace.  and  inf.,  563.  a. 

vetus,  decl.,  119,  121.  d;  compar.,  125. 

via,  abl.  of  manner,  412.  b. 

vicem,  adverbial  use  of,  397.  a. 

vicinus,  w.  gen.,  385.  c 

vicis,  decl.,  103.  h.  1, 


INDEX  OF  WORDS  AND   SUBJECTS 


475 


ndelicet,  derivation,  216. 

video  ut,  563. 

videor,  w.  dat.,  375.  6. 

vin'  (visne),  13.  n. 

vir,  decl.,  47,  50.  6. 

Virgo,  decl.,  62. 

virus,  gender  of,  48.  a. 

vis,  stem,  71.  6;  decl.,  79. 

viscera,  101.  K  i. 

viso,  263.  4.  N. 

vo-  (va-),  primary  suffix,  234.  II.  8. 

vocalis,  decl.,  76.  6.  2. 

Vocative,  defined,  35./;  form,  38.  a;  in 
-i  of  nouns  in  -ius,  decl.  II,  49.  c;  of 
Greek  nouns,  id.  c.  n.  ;  of  adjs.  in  -ius, 

110.  a.    Syntax,  340. 

Voices,  154.  a,   156;  middle  voice,  id.  a. 

N.,  163.  ftn.  2,  190.  e. 
voio  and  comps.,  conj.,  199;  part,  of,  w. 

dat.  of  the  person  judging,  378.  n.  ;  w., 

inf.,  456  and  n,  ;  w.  perf.  act.  inf.  in 

prohibitions,  486.  c;  w.  perf.  part.,  486. 

d  and  n.,  497.  c.  n.  ;  w.  subjv.  or  inf., 

563.  6. 
volucer,  decl.,  115.  a. 
volucris,  decl.,  78. 
,-volus,  adj.  in,  comp.,  127. 
vos,  143  and  a. 
voster  etc.,  see  vester. 
voti  damnatus,  352.  a. 
Vowel  changes,  15. 1-3 ;  vowel  variations, 

17. 
Vowel  roots  of  verbs,  179.  a-c. 
Vowel  stems  of  verbs,  259-262. 
Vowel  suffixes  (primary),  234. 1. 
Vowels,  1;   pronunciation,  8;   long  and 

short,  10;  contraction,  15.  3;  quantity 

of  final  vowels  in  case-endings,  38.  g ; 

vowel  modified  in  noun  stems,   decl. 

111,  56,  a;  lengthened  in  root,  177.  d. 


231.  6 ;  list  of  vbs.  w.  vowel  lengthen- 
ing in  perf.,  conj.  Ill,  211.  e. 

vulgus  (volgus),  gend.,  48.  a. 

-vus,  verbal  adj.  ending,  251. 

W,  not  in  Latin  alphabet,  1 ;  sound  of,  1. 

b.  N. 

Want,  words  of,  w.  abl.,  401 ;  w.  gen.,  356. 

Way  by  which  (abl.) ,  429.  a. 

Weight,  measures  of,  637. 

Whole,  gen.  of,  346 ;  numbers  expressing 
the  whole,  id.  e. 

Wills,  fut.  imv.  in,  449.  2. 

Winds,  gender  of  names  of,  31. 

Wish,  expressed  by  subjv.,  441 ;  as  a  con- 
dition, 521.  6;  wish  in  informal  ind. 
disc,  592.  1. 

Wishing,  vbs.  of,  w.  inf.,  486.  d  (cf.  457)  ; 
w.  subst.  clause  of  purpose,  563.  b ;  w. 
ace.  and  inf.,  id.  '    . 

Without,  w.  verbal  noun,  496.  n.  3. 

Women,  names  of,  108.  b  and  ftn. 

Words  and  Forms,  1-267. 

Words,  formation  of,  227-267;  arrange- 
ment of,  595-601. 

Would  (Eng.  auxiliary),  how  expressed 
in  Lat.,  157.  6. 

X,  nom.  ending,  56;  gend.,  86;  x  from  s, 
in  vbs.,  211.  a. 

Y,  of  Greek  origin,  1.  n.  i. 

Year,  630;    months  of,  630,  631;   date, 

424.  g. 
-y%-,  suffix,  174. 
Yes,  in  Latin,  336. 
yo-  (ya-),  primary  suffix,  234.  II.  11. 
-ys,  nom.  ending,  82 ;  quantity,  604.  i. 

Z,  of  Greek  origin.  1.  a.  k. 


LATIN  AUTHOES   AN"D   THEIE   WORKS 
CITED   Ij^   this   book 

Note.  — In  the  citations  the  names  Caesar,  Cicero,  Sallust  (with  lugvrtha),  and 
Virgil  are  not  generally  given.  Thus,  "  B.  G^.^^'^efers^to  Caesar's  Bellura  GaUicum; 
"  Fam."  to  Cicero's  letters  ad  Familiares;  "  lug."  to  Sallust's  lugurtha;  "  Aen."  to 
Virgil's  ^7ieid,  etc. 


Ap.,  Apuleius  (a.d.  125-?) : 
Met.,  Metamorphoses. 

,  B.  Afr.,  Bellum  Afri- 

cum. 
Cfesar  (b.c.  100-44): 

B.  C,  Bellum  Civile. 
B.  G.,  Bellum  GaUi- 
cum. 
Cato  (B.C.  234-149): 
de  M.,  de  Moribus. 
R.  R.,  de  Re  Rustica. 
CatulL,  Catullus  (b.c.  87- 

54h 
Cic,  Cicero  (b.c.  106-43): 
Acad.,  Academica. 
Ad  Her.,   [ad   Heren- 

nium\. 
Arch.,  pro  ArcJiia. 
Att.,  ad  Atticum. 
Balb.,  pro  Balbo. 
Bint.,  Brutus  de  Claris 

Oratorihus. 
Caec,  pro  Caecina. 
Caecil.,    Divinatio   in 

Caedlium. 
Cael.,  pro  M.  Caelio. 
Cat.,  in  Catilinam. 
Cat.  M.,  Cato  Maior  {de 

Senectute). 
Clu.,  pro  Cluentio. 
Deiot.,  pro  Deiotaro. 
De  Or.,  de  Oratore. 
Div.,  de  Divinatione. 
Dora.,  pro  Domo  Sua. 
Fam.,  ad  Familiares. 
Fat.,  de  Fato. 
Fin.,  de  Finihus. 
Flacc,  pro  Flacco. 
Font.,  pro  M.  Fonteio. 
Har.  Resp. ,  de  Haruspi- 

cum  Responsis. 
Inv.,     de     Inventione 
Rhetorica. 


Cic.  Lael.,  Laelius  {de  Ami- 

citia) . 
Leg.    Agr.,    de    Lege 

Agraria. 
Legg.,  de  Legibus. 
Lig.,  pro  Ligario. 
Manil.,  pro  Lege  Ma- 

nilia. 
Mare.,  pro  Marcello. 
Mil.,  pro  Milone. 
Mur.,  pro  Murena. 
N.  D.,  de  Natura  De- 

orum. 
Off.,  de  Offlciis. 
Or.,  Orator. 
Par.,  Paradoxa. 
Fart.  Or.,  de  Partitione 

Oratoria. 
Phil.,  Philippicae. 
Plane,  pro  Plancio. 
Pison.,  in  Pisonem. 
Prov.  Cons.,  de  Provin- 

ciis  Consularibus. 
Q,  Fr.,  ad  Q.  Fratrem. 
Quinct.,  pro  Quinctio. 
Rabir.,  pro  Rablrio. 
Rab.  Post., pro  Rabirio 

Postumo. 
Rep.,  de  Re  Publica. 
Rose.  Am.,  pro  Roscio 

Amerino. 
Rose.  Com., pro  Roscio 

Comoedo. 
Scaur.,  pro  Scauro. 
Sest.,  pro  Sestio. 
Sull.,  pro  Sidla. 
Tim.,  Timaeus  {de  Uni- 

verso) . 
Top.,  Topica. 
Tull.,  pro  Tidlio. 
Tusc,  Tusculanae  Dis- 

putationes. 
Vat.,  in  Vatinium, 
476 


Cic.  Verr.,  in  Verrem. 
Claud.,    Claudianus    (abt. 
A.D.  400) : 
iv   C.   H.,  de  Quarto 
Consulatu  Honorii. 
Enn.,    Ennius    (b.c.    23if- 

169). 
Cell.,  A.  Gellius  (d.  a.d. 

175). 
Hirtius  (d.  b.c.  43) : 

?  B.  Al.,  Bellum  Alex- 
andrinum. 
Hor.,  Horace  (b.c.  65-8): 
A.  P.,  de  Arte  Poetica. 
C.  S.,  Carmen  Saccu- 
lar e. 
Ep.,  Epistles. 
Epod.  Epodes. 
Od.  Odes. 
S.  Satires. 
lust.,   Justinus  (abt.  a.d. 

150). 
luv.,  Juvenal  (abt.  a.d.  60- 

140). 
Liv.,Livy(B.c.59-A.D.17). 
Lucr.,  Lucretius  (b.c.  96- 

55). 
Mart.,   Martial    (a.d.  43- 
?  104) : 
Ep.,  Epigrams. 
Nep.,  Nepos  (b.c.  99-24): 
Ages.,  Agesilaus. 
Ale,  Aldbiades. 
Att.,  Atticus. 
Dat.,  Datames. 
Dion,  Dion. 
Epam.,  Epaminondas 
Eum.,  Eumenes. 
Hann.,  Hannibal. 
Milt.,  Miltiades. 
Pans.,  Pausanias. 
Them.,  Themistodes. 
Timoth.,  Timotheus. 


LIST   OF  AUTHORS   CITED 


477 


Ov  ,Ovid  (B.C.43-A.D.17): 

A.  A.,  Ars  Amatoria. 

F.,  Fasti. 

H.,  Ueroides. 

M.,  Metamorphoses. 

Pont.,    Epistulae     ex 
Ponto. 

Trist.,  Tristia. 
Pers.,  Persius  (a.d.  34-62)  : 

Sat.,  Satires. 
Phaed.,     Phaedrus     (abt. 

A.D.  40). 
PI.,  Plautus  (B.C.  254-184) : 

Am.,  Amphitruo. 

Asin.,  Asinaria. 

Aul.,  Aulularia. 

Bac,  Baechides. 

Capt.,  Captivi. 

Cist.,  Cistellaria. 

Cure,  Curculio. 

Epid.,  Epidicus. 

Men.,  Menaechmi. 

Merc,  Mercator. 

Mil.,  Miles  Gloriosus. 

Most.,  Mostellaria. 

Pers.,  Persa. 

Poen.,  Poenulus. 

Ps.,  Pseudolus. 

Rud.,  Rudens. 

Stieh.,  Stichus. 

Trin.,  Trinmnmus. 

True,  Truculentus. 


Plin.,  Pliny,   senior  (a.d. 
23-79) : 
H.  N.,  Historia  Natu- 
ralis. 
Plin.,  Pliny,  junior  (a.d. 
62-113)  : 
Ep.,  Epistles. 
Prop.,  Propertius  (b.c.  49- 

15). 
Pub.  Syr.,  Publilius  Syrus  * 

(abt.  B.C.  44). 
Q.  C,  Q.  Curtius  (abt.  a.d. 

50). 
Quint.,     Quiutilian     (abt. 

A.D.  35-95). 
Sail.,  Sallust  (b.c.  86-34) : 
Cat.,  Catilina. 
Ep.    Mith.,     Epistula 

Mithridatis. 
lug.,  lugurtha. 

,  S.  C.  de  Bac,  Senatus 

Consulturn   de  Baccha- 
nalihus  (b.c.  186). 
Sen.,  Seneca   (b.c.  4-a.d. 
65): 
Dial.,  Dialogues. 
Ep.,  Epistles. 
Here    Fur.,   Hercules 

Furens. 
Here.    Get.,    Hercules 

Oetaeus. 
Med.,  Medea. 


Sen.Q.N.,  Quaestiones  Na- 

turales. 
Sil.,    Silius    Italicus   (abt. 

A.D.  25-101). 
Suet.,  Suetonius  (abt.  a.d. 
75-160) : 
Aug.,  Augustus. 
Dom.,  JDomitianus. 
Galb.,  Galba. 
Tac,    Tacitus    (abt.    a.d. 
55-120) : 
Agr.,  Agricola. 
Ann.,  Annales. 
H.,  Historiae. 
Ter.,  Terence  (d.  b.c.  159)  : 
Ad.,  Adelphi. 
And.,  Andria. 
Eun.,  Eunuchus. 
Haut.,  Hautojitimorvr 

menos. 
Hec,  Hecyra. 
Ph.,  Phormio. 
Val.,    Valerius    Maximus 

(abt.  A.D.  26). 
Varr.,  Varro  (b.c.  116-27) : 

R.  R.,  de  Re  Rustica. 
Veil.,  Velleius  Paterculus 

(abt.  B.C.  19-A.D.  31). 
V^erg.,  Virgil  (b.c.  70-19). 
Aen.,  JEneid. 
Eel.,  Eclogues. 
Georg.,  Georgics. 


ALLEN  AND  GREENOUGH'S  LATIN  GRAMMAR 


PARALLEL  REFERENCES 


Old 


New 


1 

1 

1.  a 

2 

2-4 

3-5 

6  (p.  4) 

10 

0 

1,  a  and  n. 

7 

6.a,b 

8-11 

14-19 

10.  6 

15.  2 

11.  a.  1 

15.  4 

11.  a.  2 

15.  5 

11.  c 

15.  11 

11.  e 

15.  6 

11.  e.  3  and  n. 

16 

12 

6 

12.  Or-C 

6.  N.  1-3 

13 

13 

13.  6,  c 

13.  N. 

14 

7 

14.  b 

7.  N.l 

14.  c 

7.  6 

14.  (« 

14.  e 

7.  N.  2 

15 

18 

15  (p.  10) 

19  and  n.  i 

16 

8 

16.  N.  4 

11.  b.  N. 

17.  a-c 

17.  N. 

8.  N. 

18 

9-11 

18.  a-c 

10.  a-c 

18.  d 

11.6 

18.  e 

11.  c 

18./ 

10.  e 

19.  a,  6 

12 

19.  c 

12.  a 

19.  d  1-3 

12.  a.  Exc. 

20 

21 

21 

24 

Old 

22 
23 
24 

25 

25.  e 
25.  f-i 
26 
27 
28 
28.  a 

28.  6.  N. 

29.  1 
29.2 
29.  a 
29.  6 

29.  c 
30 

30.  a 

30.  b 
31 

31.  /l.  N. 

32.  ftn.  1 
32 

33 

34 

35 

36 

36./ 

37 

37.  a,  b 

38 

39 

39.  a 

39.  b 
40 

40.  d 
40.  e-g 
41 


6,  N. 
b 


New 

25 
26 

28 

20 

20.  b.  N.  1 

20.  e~k 

22 

23 

29 

30 

30.  a  and  n.  3 
31 

32 

31.  a, 

32.  a, 
33 

34 

34.  N. 

35 

27.  a. 

36 

37 

38 

39 

40-42 

43 

43.  N.  i 
44 

44.  6,  a 
45-47 
48 

48.  Exc. 
48  a. 

49 

49.  c  and  n. 
49.  d,  g,  e 
50 


470 


480 


ALLEN  AND   GKEENOUGH'S   LATIN   GRAMMAR 


Old 

41.  d,  e 

42 

43 

3d  dec!. 

44-50 

44 

45 

46 

47 

47.  a 

47.  b 

47.  c 
48 

48.  a 
48.  6 
48.  c 
48.  tZ 

48.  e 

49,  50 
51-54 
51.  b 
51.  c 
52 

53.  a,  6 

53.  c 
54 

54.  1,  2 
54.  3 

54.  ftn.  2 

55 

56 

57 

57.  c-e 

58 

59 

60,61 

62 

62.  a 

62.  N. 
63,64 

63.  a-e 
63./ 

.63.  g-i 
64 
65 

66,67 
68 

68.  N. 
69 

69.  b 
70 

70.  a 


New 


50.  c 

70. 

b 

51 

70. 

c 

52 

70. 

d 

53-55 

70. 

e 

56-64 

70./ 

56,  58 

70. 

g 

56.  a 

70. 

h 

57,59 

71 

67.  a 

71. 

a 

70 

71. 

b 

60.  a 

72 

62.  N.  3 

73 

61,  62.  N.  1,  2,  63 

74. 

a 

61.  1 

74. 

b 

61.  2,  3,  63.  1 

74. 

c 

61.  4 

74. 

d 

62.  N.  2,  63.  2 

74. 

ftn. 

62.  N.  2 

75 

62-64 

76 

65-73 

76. 

1 

66 

76. 

2,3 

68 

76. 

a~c 

67,69 

77 

65.  1.  a 

77. 

1-4 

65.  1.  b 

77. 

2.  a-f 

70-72 

77. 

3.  a-e 

71.  1-4,  6 

77. 

4.  a-c 

7L  5 

77. 

5.  a-d 

73 

77. 

6.  a-c 

74 

77. 

7.  a-c 

76 

78 

76 

78. 

1 

76.  N.  1-3 

78. 

1.  e 

77 

78. 

!•/ 

78 

78. 

2 

79 

79 

80 

79. 

b 

p.  34.  ftn. 

79. 

c 

80.  ftn. 

79. 

d 

81-83 

80  and  a 

83.  a-e 

80. 

b-d 

81 

P. 

47,  top 

82 

81 

82 

82 

84-87 

82. 

a 

82. 

b 

88,  89 

82. 

c 

82. 

d 

90 

83 

91 

83. 

ftn.  2 

92 

83. 

a 

92.  a,  c 

83. 

b 

New 


92.  b 
92.  c 

92.  d 
93 

93.  N.  1 
92./ 
94 

94.  b 

94.  c 

95,  96 
97  and  a 
98.  X. 
98.  c 
98.  b 
98.  a 

98.  d 

99,  100 
101,  102 
101.  1,  2 

101.  3,  4 

102.  1-3 
103 

103.  a-d 
103.  b.  1-6 
103.  c 
103.  d.  1-3 
103.  /  1-4 
103.  g.  1-3 
103.  h.1,2 
104 

105 

105.  e,  / 

105.  flr 

106 

107 

317.  d.  X.  2 

101.  N.  1 

101.  N.2 

108 

108.  a-c 
109 
110 

111,  112 
111.  a.  N. 

111.  a 

112.  a 
111.  b 
113 
113.6 

113.  a 
113.  c-e 


PARALLEL  REFERENCES  481 

Old  New  Old  New 

84  114-116 
84.  a  115.  a 
84.  a.  N.  115.  a.  n.  i 
84.  6  116.  N. 

84.  c  115.  N.  2 

85  117-119 

85.  h  119 

85.  c  121.  e 

86  120 

86.  a  120.  h 

86.  6  120.  c 

87  121 

87.  h  121.  a.  4 
87.  c,  d  •  121.  6,  c 
87.  e  121.  d 

87.  /  122.  a-c 

88  122 
as.  a  288,  289 

88.  6  122.-  d 
88.  c  321.  c 

88.  d  214.  d,  e 

89  123,  124 

89.  a  125  and  a 
89.  6  126 
89.  c  127 
89.  d  128 
89.  e  124.  a 
89.  /  243 

90  129 

91  130,  131 
91.  c  131.  c 
91.  d  1  130.  a 
91.  d.  2  131.  a 
91.  d  3  131.  h 
91.  (Z.  N.  131.  d 

92  218  and  a 
93.  a,  6             ,       291.  a-c 
•93.  c  313.  6 

93.  d^g  291.  c.  n.  1-3 

94  132-134 

94.  N.  133.  N.  1 
94.  a  134.  a 
94.  6,  c  134.  6  and  n. 
94.  c.  2d  par.  133.  n.  2 

94.  d-/  134.  c-e 

95  136,  137 

95.  a-d  137.  a-d 

96  138 

96.  N.  138.  a 

97  139 

97.  d  135.  e 
97.  e  139.  d 


98 

140-145 

98.  a 

142 

98.  6 

143.  a 

98.  c 

143.  a.  N. 

98.  2 

144 

98.3 

145 

99.  a 

302.  a 

99.  &,  c 

143.  6,  c 

99.  d 

145.  c 

99.  e 

143.  / 

99./ 

143.  d  and  n. 

100,  101 

146 

100.  ftn. 

146.  N.  1 

100.  a 

146.  N.  4,  6 

100.  h 

146.  N.  5 

100.  c 

146.  N.  7-9 

P.  67,  top 

146.  a 

101.  a 

146.  N.  2 

101.  h 

146.  N.  6 

101.  c 

146.  N.  3 

101.  d 

146.  a.  N.  2 

P.  67.  ftn. 

146.  a.  >.  1 

102 

297,  298 

102.  e 

298.  c 

102.  e.  N. 

298.  c.  K.  2 

102.  / 

297.  e 

103 

147 

104 

148-150 

104.  N. 

150 

104.  h-e 

150.  a-d 

104./ 

544 

105 

151 

105.  d 

149, 151.  e,  /,  310.  a 

105.  d.  N. 

310.6 

105.  e 

151.^ 

105.  e,  quotus 

quisque 

313.  b.  N.  2 

105.  /  f7 

151.  A,  i 

105.  h 

311 

105.  i 

148.  c,  151./ 

106 

152 

106.  b 

308.  h 

106.  c 

414.  a 

107 

323.  ^ 

108 

154 

109 

155 

110 

154.  c 

110.  a 

480,  484.  c,  575.  fl 

110.  b 

164.  3.  a 

110.  c 

154.  c 

110.  d 

164.  3.  6,  c  and  n. 

111 

156 

482 


ALLEN   AND    GREENOUGH'S   LATIN    GRAMilAJl 


Old 


New 


Old 


New 


112 

157 

130 

209 

112.  b.  X. 

157.  b.  ftn. 

2d  conj. 

185 

113 

158 

131 

210 

113.  h.  2 

499.  2 

3d  conj. 

186 

113.  e-g 

494,  495 

Verbs  in  -id 

188 

114 

159 

132 

211 

115 

160-162 

132./.  N. 

211.  ftn.  3 

115.  a.  1 

472.  b 

4th  conj. 

187 

llo.  a.  2 

466,  467.  b 

133 

212 

115.  h 

471 

134 

189 

115.  c 

161 

135 

190 

115.  d 

162 

135.  A 

191 

116 

163 

135.  i 

191.  a 

117 

165 

136 

192           • 

117.  y.  2 

p.  81.  ftiL 

137 

197 

118 

166 

137.  a 

198 

118.  y. 

p.  76.  ftn. 

137.  y. 

p.  109.  ftn. 

119,  120 

170 

138 

199 

119.  a 

170.  b 

139 

200 

119.  h 

170.  b.  y. 

139.  ftn. 

200.  ftn.  2 

119.  h.  N. 

170.  a 

140 

201 

120.  N-. 

170.  y. 

141 

203 

121 

164 

141.  c 

203.  d 

121.    Or^ 

164.  1-3 

141.  d 

203.  e 

122 

171-173 

142 

204 

122.  a 

171 

143 

205 

122.  b 

172 

143.  y. 

205.  6,  y.  V 

122.  c 

173 

144 

206 

122.  d 

173.  a 

144.  d-f 

206.  e-g 

122.  N. 

174 

144.^ 

206.  d 

123 

175,  176 

145 

207 

123.  a 

176.  a 

146 

208 

123.  6 

174.  1 

146.  d.  ftn. 

208.  d.  N. 

123.  c 

176.  c 

147 

193 

123.  d 

176.  d 

147.  c.  1 

203.  a 

123.  e 

176.  d.  y.  I 

147.  c.  2 

170.  a 

123./ 

176.  e 

147.  c.  3 

509.  a. 

124 

177 

P.  119.  Note.  1.  h 

168.  b 

125 

178 

P.  119.  Note.  1.  c 

168.  c,  d 

125.  y.  1 

178.  y.  3 

P.  120.  Note.  1.  d 

168.  e 

125.  y.  Q 

178.  y.  3 

P.  120.  Note.  1.  € 

168.  / 

126 

179 

P.  120.  Note.  1./ 

p.  286.  ftn.  1 

127 

180 

P.  120.  Note.  2 

169 

128 

181 

P.  121.  Note.  3 

p.  77.  ftn.  1 

128.  a.  1 

181.  a 

P.  122,  top 

213 

128.  a.  2 

181.  b 

148 

214 

128.  h 

181.  b.  y.2 

148.  y. 

215,  216 

128.  c 

182 

148.  N.  a-ij 

215.  1-6 

128.  d 

182.  a 

148.  N.  e 

216.  a  and  y 

128.  e 

183 

149 

217 

Ist  ooni: 

184 

150 

386 

129 

1^-196 

161 

tts 

PARALLEL   REFERENCES  483 

Old  New  Old  New 


151.  d 

322.  d  and  n. 

164.  h 

250.  a 

151.  e 

322.  e,  / 

164.  i 

254 

P.  127.  ftn. 

219 

164.  k 

245 

152 

220 

164.  ^ 

251 

153 

221.  1-28 

164.  771 

252 

154 

223 

164.  n 

253.  c 

154.  N.  1 

222 

164.  0 

253.  a 

154.  N.  2 

224 

164.  p 

253.  6 

155 

224 

164.*g,  r 

255  and  a 

156 

324.  h 

165 

266 

156.  a 

324.  a,  b 

165.  2 

257 

156.  a.  3d  par. 

328.  a 

166 

258 

156.  a.  4th  par. 

324.  c 

166.  a.  1 

259.  1 

156.  h 

324.  d 

166.  b 

260 

156.  c 

324.  e-gr 

166.  ; 

261 

156.  d,  e 

324.  h,  i 

166.  d 

262.  a,  6 

156./ 

540.  N.  1-3 

167 

263 

156.  gr 

539.  540.  a.  n. 

167.  a 

263.  1 

156.  h.  1 

323.  fir 

167.  b  and  n. 

263.  2  and  a 

156.  A.  2 

323.  e 

167.  c 

263.  2.  6 

156.  i 

527.  c,  d 

167.  d,  e 

263.  3,  4 

156.  A: 

324.  j 

168 

264 

Interjections 

225,  226 

168.  a-c 

265.  1-3 

P.  140.  Note 

227 

168.  d 

265.  a 

157 

228 

169 

266 

157.  N. 

229.  N. 

170 

267 

158 

230,  231 

170.  a.  N. 

267.  N.  2 

158.  1.  a,  b 

231.  a,  b 

170.  c 

267.  d.   1,  2 

158.  1.  c 

231.  c 

170.  d 

267.  c 

159 

232 

P.  163 

268 

160 

233 

171 

269 

160.  a,  6 

233.  1,  2 

172 

270 

160.  c 

234 

172.  N. 

272 

160.  c.  2.  a-€ 

234.  IL  1-18 

172,  N.  2d  par. 

284.  6 

161 

235 

173.  1 

839 

162 

236 

173.  2 

897.  e 

163 

237 

174 

271 

163.  1.  a 

238.  a 

174.  2 

271.  a 

163.  c 

239 

175 

273 

163.  d 

240  and  a 

175.  a 

273.  2 

163.  d.  N. 

240.  N. 

176.6 

273.  1 

163.  2 

241.  1,  2  and  a 

176 

283 

163. /,sr 

241.  6,  c 

176.  b 

284 

164 

242 

177 

274 

164.  a 

248 

177.  a 

275 

164.  a.  B. 

243.  a 

177.6 

274.  a 

164.6 

244 

177.  c 

274.  6 

164.  c 

249 

178 

276 

164.  d 

248 

179 

277 

164.  € 

260 

180 

278.  1,  2 

164./ 

246 

180.  c~e 

279.  a-€ 

164.  g 

247 

180./ 

808./ 

484 


ALLEN  AND  GREENOUGH'S  LATIN   GRAMMAR 


Old 


New 


181,  182 

280 

183 

281 

184 

282 

184.  b 

282.  c 

184.  c 

282.  d 

184.  d,  e 

302.  e 

185 

283.  284 

186.  a,  b 

285.  1,  2 

186.  6.  2,  3 

285.  N. 

186.  c 

282.  b,  c 

186.  d 

286.  a 

187 

287 

187.  a 

287.  1,  2 

187.  b 

287.  3 

187.  6.  N. 

287.  4 

187.  c 

287.  4.  a 

187.  (Z,  e 

286.  6,  N. 

188.  a-c 

288.  a~c 

188.  R. 

288.  N. 

188.  d,  e 

321.  c,  d 

189 

289 

190 

343.  a 

190.  a 

302.  d 

191 

290 

192 

292 

192.6 

292.  a.  N. 

193 

293 

P.  178.  Note 

294 

194 

295 

194.  b.  N. 

295.  b.  N. 

195 

296  and  2 

195.  2 

296.  1 

195.  a 

297./ 

195.  b 

297.  b.  N. 

195.  c 

298.  a 

195.  d 

296.  a 

195.  e,  / 

298.  6,  c 

195.  /.  R. 

298.  c.  N. 

195.  g 

298.  d  1 

195.  h,  i 

298.  d.  2, 

195.  A; 

298.  e 

195.  I 

298./ 

196 

299 

196.  a 

300 

196.  a.  2.  N. 

300.  b 

196.  6 

301.  a 

196.  c 

301.  6 

196.  d-/ 

301.  dr-f 

196.  gr 

301.  c 

196.  h 

299.  a 

196.  i 

300.  b 

197 

302 

Old 

197.  / 

P.  186.  Note 

P.  186,  bottom 

198 

199 

200 

200.  d 

200.  e 

201.  a,  6,  c 
201.  c? 

201.  e-h 
202 

202.  a 
202.  b 
202.  c 
202.  d 
202.  e 

202.  / 
nullus 
203 

203.  a 
203.  c.  N. 
204 

205 

205.  c  and  1 

205.  c.  2 

205.  d 
206 

206.  c 
206.  c.  1 

206.  c.  2 
207 

207.  N.  2,  3 
207.  6 
207.  c 

207.  cZ 
208 

208.  b.  1-3 
208.  c 
208.  d 

208.  e 
209 

209.  a 
209.  6 
209.  c 
209.  d 

209.  e 
210 

210.  a 
210.  6-(? 
210.  d.  R. 
210.  e 


New 


N. 


PARALLEL   REFERENCES  485 

Old  New  Old  New 


210.  e. 

R. 

333.  N. 

225.  e 

365 

210./ 

333.  a 

226 

366 

210.  /. 

R. 

331.  N.,  332.  6.  N. 

227 

367 

211 

334,  335 

227.  N.  2 

367.  a.  N.  2 

21L  R. 

335.  N. 

227.  c.  N. 

367.  a.  N.  1 

212 

336 

227.6 

368 

212.  6 

337 

227./ 

369 

212.  6. 

R. 

335.  d.  N. 

228 

870 

F.  205. 

Note 

338 

228.  N.  1 

370.  a 

P.  206. 

Note 

341 

228.  a,  h 

370.  6,  c 

213 

342 

228.  c 

371 

213.  1, 

2  and  n. 

343.  N.  1,  348.  N. 

229 

881 

214  and  a.  1 

343 

229.  c 

368.  a 

214.  a. 

2 

343.  a 

230 

372 

214.  h 

343.  N.  2 

231 

373 

214.  c 

343.  6 

231.  R. 

373.  N. 

214.  c. 

R. 

343.  6.  N. 

231.  a 

373.  b 

214.  d 

343.  c 

231.  6,  c 

873.  a 

214.  d. 

R. 

343.  c.  N.  1 

232 

874 

214.  d. 

N. 

343.  c.  N.  2 

232.  N. 

374.  a  and  n.  i 

214.  e 

344 

232.  a 

875 

214./ 

343.  (« 

232.  6,  c 

875.  a,  6 

214.  g 

359.6 

233 

882 

215 

345 

233.  a 

882.  1  and  n.  i 

216 

346 

233.  6 

382.  2 

216.  R. 

346.  N.  2 

234 

883 

P.  211, 

top 

347 

234.  a 

884 

217 

348 

234.  h-d 

885.  a-c 

218 

349 

234.  e 

432.  a 

218.  h 

349.  c 

235 

376 

218.  c 

349.  d 

235.  a 

377 

218.  c. 

R. 

358 

235.  6 

878.  1,  2 

219 

350 

235.  c 

878.  2.  N. 

219.  h 

350.  d 

235.  d 

879 

219.  c 

351 

235.  e 

379.  a 

220 

352 

236 

380 

220.  h 

353 

236.  R. 

879.  N. 

220.  &. 

3 

353.  2.  N. 

P.  235.  Note 

386 

220.  h. 

N. 

352.  N. 

237 

387 

221 

354 

237.  a 

387.6 

221.  d 

354.  c.  N. 

237.  6,  d~f 

388.  a-d  and  n. 

222 

355 

237.  c 

390.  a 

223 

356 

237.  r/ 

500.  3 

223.  a 

357 

237.  'h 

389 

223.  c 

358 

238 

390 

223.  d 

359 

238.  a,  h 

390.  b-d 

223.  e 

359.  b 

238.  c 

388.  d 

P.  218. 

Note 

360 

238.  c.  N. 

890.  d  N. 1 

224 

361 

239 

891 

225 

362 

239.  1 

392 

225.  6, 

c 

363,  369 

239.  1.  a,  N.  1 

393,  N. 

225.  d 

364 

239.  a.  N.  2 

393.  Q 

486 


ALLEN  AND   GREENOUGH'S  LATIN   GRAMMAR 


Old 


Nei 


Old 


239.  R. 

395.  N.  3 

249. 

b 

410.  a.  N.  1 

239.  2 

394 

249. 

b.  N. 

410.  a.  N.  2 

239.  2.  b 

395  and  r. 

250 

414 

239.  c 

396 

250. 

r.  and  N. 

414.  a  and  n. 

239.  c.  N.  1,  2 

396.  a,  b 

250. 

a 

414.  b 

239.  c.  R. 

396.  b.  N. 

251 

415 

239.  d 

396.  c 

262 

416 

240.  a 

390.  c,  d  and  n.  2 

252. 

a 

417 

240.  6 

397.  a 

252. 

b-d 

417.  a-c 

240.  c,  d 

397.  6,  d 

253 

418 

240.  c.  N. 

397.  c 

253. 

N. 

418.  a  and  n. 

240.  e 

423,  425 

253. 

a 

510.  N.  I 

240.  /,  g 

397.  e,/ 

P.  260.  Note 

421 

241 

340 

254 

426.3 

241.  c 

339.  a 

254. 

a 

429.  3 

241.  d 

340.  c 

254. 

6.  1 

431 

242 

399 

254. 

6.2 

431.  a 

242.  N. 

398 

254. 

&.  2. 

R. 

431.  a.  N.  1 

243 

400 

255 

419 

243.  a 

401 

255. 

d 

420 

243.  6 

402 

256 

423 

243.  d 

402.  a 

256. 

a,  b 

424.  a,  b 

243.  e 

411 

257 

425 

243.  c.  N. 

411.  a 

258 

426.  1,  2 

243.  e.  R. 

411.  b 

258. 

2.   N. 

1 

428.  h 

243./ 

356 

258. 

2.   N. 

2 

428.  c 

243.  /.  R. 

356.  N. 

258. 

a 

427.  1 

244 

403 

258. 

a.  N. 

1 

428.  a 

244.  a.  R. 

403.  a.  N.  1 

258. 

a.  N. 

2 

428./ 

244.  6 

403.  a.  N.  2,  3 

258. 

a.  N. 

3 

428.  g 

244.  c-e 

403.  6-(f 

258. 

b 

427.  2 

245 

404 

258. 

b.   N. 

1 

428.  A; 

245.  a.  1  and  n. 

2    418.  6 

258. 

b.  N. 

2 

428.  a 

245.  a.  2 

404.  a 

258. 

6.   N. 

3 

428.  6 

246 

405 

258. 

b.  N. 

5 

428.  gr 

246.  R. 

405.  N.  :^ 

258. 

6.   R. 

428.  i 

246.  b.  N. 

405.  b.y.  ! 

258. 

c.  1 

426.3 

247 

406 

258. 

c.  2 

427.  3 

247.  a,  c-e 

407  and  a,  c-e 

258. 

c.  2. 

R. 

428.  e 

247.  a.  R. 

407.  a.  N.  3 

258. 

C.  N. 

1 

428.  d  and  n. 

247.  6 

406.  a 

258. 

d 

427.  a 

P.  253.  Note 

408 

258. 

e 

428.  A; 

248 

412 

258. 

/.  1-3 

429.  1-4 

248.  N. 

412.  a 

258. 

g 

429.  a 

248.  R. 

412.  6  and  n. 

259 

424 

248.  a 

413 

259. 

a 

424.  d 

248.  a.  N. 

413.  a 

259. 

b 

424.  e 

248.  a.  R. 

413.  N. 

259. 

c 

424.  c 

248.  c.  1 

409 

259. 

d 

424./ 

248.  c.  2 

409.  a 

259. 

e 

424.gr 

248.  c.  2.  R. 

409.  a.  N. 

259. 

0 

428.  j.  N. 

249 

410 

259. 

h 

428.  j 

PARALLEL  REFERENCES  487 

Old  New  Old  New 

27L  c  458 

27L  c.  N.  455.  2.  a 

272  '   459 
272.  R.  561.  a 
272.  a.  1  455 
272.  a.  2  456.  a 

272.  6  581.  N.  3 

273  460 

273.  c  457.  a 
273.  d  461 
273.  e  460.  c 
273.  g  461.  a 
273.  h  461.  6 

274  462 

275  463 
P.  291.  Note  464 

276  465 
276.  a  466 
276.  b  467 
276.  c  468 
276.  d  469 
276.  e  556 
276.  e.  N.  556.  a 

276.  /  465.  a 

277  470 

277.  R.  471 
277.  a-g  471.  a-/ 

278  472 

279  473 
279.  a  474 
279.  6  473.  a 
279.  c  475 
279.  d  475.  a 
279.  e  476 
279.  R.  476.  N. 

280  477 

281  478 
281.  R.  478. 

282  479 

283  480 

284  481 

285  482 

286  483 
286.  N.  483.  ftn. 

286.  R.,  (a),  (6)   484,  a-c 

287  485 

287.  c.  R.  485.  c.  n.  i 

287.  f-i  485.  g-j 

288.  c  and  a  486  and  a 
288.  d,  R.  486.  6,  d,  e 
288.  e  486.  / 
288.  /  569.  a 


260 

220 

260.  a 

430 

260.  6 

429.  6 

260.  c 

221.  24 

260.  d 

221.  23 

260.  e 

221.  26 

?,61 

432 

261.  a.  N. 

432.  b 

261.  6 

432.  c 

261.  c 

432.  d 

261.  d 

433 

262  and  n.  i 

434 

263.  N. 

435 

P.  274.  Note 

436 

264 

437 

264.  a 

465  ff. 

264.  h 

437.  a 

265 

438 

266  and  r. 

439 

266.  h 

450.  (3)  and  n,  3 

266.  c 

440 

266.  d 

528.  a 

266.  e 

439.  b 

266.  e.  R. 

439.  6.  N.  2 

266.  e.  K. 

439.  6.  N.  1 

267 

441 

267.  h 

442 

267.  h.  N.  1 

442.  a  and  n.  i 

267.  c 

442.  b 

268 

444 

268.  R. 

444.  N. 

269 

448 

269.  N. 

450.  a,  b 

269.  a 

450 

269.  a.  2.  N. 

450.  N,  1 

269.  a.  3.  N. 

450.  N.  4 

269.  6.  N. 

450.  N.  3 

269.  c 

448.  a 

269.  d.  1,  3 

449.  1,  2 

269.  e-cy 

449.  a-c 

269.  h 

588 

269.  i 

521.  N. 

P.  283.  Note 

451 

270 

452 

270.  a.  1,  2 

452.  a 

270.6 

454 

270.  6.  N.  1 

454.  N. 

270.  c 

463 

271 

466 

271.  a 

457 

271.  a.  N.  1 

563.  b.  1 

271.  6 

563.  a 

488  ALLEN  AND   GREENOUGH'S  LATIN-GRAJ^JMAR 


Old 


New- 


Old 


New 


P.  306,  mid. 

487 

308. 

b  and  r. 

517.  b 

289 

488 

309 

518 

290 

489 

309. 

b 

518.  c 

290.  a 

490 

309. 

c 

518.  b 

290.  b 

491 

310 

521 

290.  c 

492 

311 

522 

290.  d 

493 

311. 

a 

445,  446 

291 

494 

311. 

a.  N.  I 

447.  2 

291.  b 

495 

311. 

a.  N.  2 

446 

291.  b.  R. 

495.  N. 

311. 

a.  N.  3 

447.  a 

292 

496 

811. 

a.  R. 

447.  3.  N. 

292.  R. 

496.  N.  1,  2 

311. 

b 

447.  1 

292.  N.  1,  2 

496.  N.  3,  4 

311. 

c 

522.  a 

292.  a 

497 

311. 

R. 

522.  N.  1 

292.  b-e 

497.  a-d 

311. 

C.  N. 

522.  X.  2 

292.  b.  N. 

411.  a.  N.  2 

311. 

d 

523 

293 

498 

312 

524 

293.  6 

499 

312. 

R.,  N. 

524.  N.  2,  1 

293.  c 

498.  b 

813 

526,  527 

294 

500 

313. 

d 

549 

294.  a-d 

500.  1-4 

313. 

d.  N. 

549.  N.  3 

295 

502 

813. 

e 

527.  d 

295.  R. 

502.  N. 

313./ 

527.  d.  N. 

296 

503 

313. 

9 

527.  e 

296.  R. 

503.  N.  2 

813. 

h 

535.  e 

297 

601,  502 

313. 

i 

440 

298 

504 

814 

528 

298.  N. 

504.  N.  2 

314. 

b 

528.  a 

298.  R. 

504.  a.  N.  I 

315 

525 

298.  a 

504.  c 

815. 

a.  1 

525.  a 

298.  b 

504.  N.  1 

815. 

a.  2 

525.  a.  3.  N. 

298.  c 

504.  b 

315. 

d 

525.  e 

299 

505.  a 

816 

519 

299.  a 

505 

816. 

a 

620 

300 

506  and  n.  I 

317 

529,  530 

300.  N. 

506.  N.  2 

817: 

2d  par. 

531 

301 

507 

817. 

3 

563 

301.  R. 

503.  a.  N.  2 

817. 

a 

531.  1.  N.  1 

302.  headn. 

508 

817. 

b 

531.  a 

302 

509 

817. 

b.  N.  1 

558.  b 

302.  R. 

509.  N.  1 

817. 

6.  N.  2 

531.  a.  N. 

303 

510 

817. 

c 

532 

303.  N.  R. 

510.  N.  1-3 

817. 

C.  R. 

532.  N. 

P.  320.  Note 

511 

817. 

C.  N.  R. 

531.  2.  N.  2 

304 

512 

318 

533 

304.  d 

513 

P.  343.  Note 

534 

305 

514 

819 

536,  537 

305.  R. 

514.  C.  N. 

319. 

3 

568 

306 

515 

319. 

3.  N.  and  r. 

537.  2.  N.  1, 

307 

516 

319. 

c 

558.  b 

307.  6.  R,  c.  R 

616.  b.  N.  c.  N. 

819. 

d 

558,  559 

308 

617 

819. 

d.  r. 

688 

PARALLEL   REFERE^XES  489 

Old  New  Old  New 


320 

635 

831.  i.  N.  1 

665.  N.  3 

320.  /.  N. 

535.  /.  N.  2 

331.  i.  N.  3 

565.  N.  2 

P.  348,  mid.  n. 

539 

P.  362,  bottom,  n.    567 

321 

640 

332 

568 

32L  N.  3 

640.  a 

832.  a 

569 

32  L  R. 

540.  N.  3 

832.  h 

571.  a 

321.  o-c 

540.  h-d 

832.  c 

462.  a 

P.  349,  bottom,  n. 

541 

332.  d 

571.  h 

322 

642 

832.  c 

568.  N.  I 

322.  R. 

535.  a.  N.  3 

832./ 

571.  c 

323 

645,  546 

832.  ^r 

558 

324 

643 

832.  g.  R. 

558.  a 

325 

645-548 

832.  g.  N.  2 

658.  a.  N.  2 

325.  a 

545 

832.  h 

680.  d 

325.  a.  N. 

646.  N.  4 

833 

672 

325.  h 

646.  a 

333.  6.  R. 

672.  6.  N. 

325.  c 

647 

834 

673-575 

326  and  r. 

649 

384.  c 

676 

326.  a.  R. 

549.  a.  N. 

334.  c.  R. 

576.  N. 

327 

650,  551 

334.  d,  e 

675.  c,  d 

327.  a 

551.  c 

834./ 

676.  a 

327.  h 

651.  c.  N.  2 

834.  g 

447.  a,  5 

328 

652,  55S 

P.  369.  Note 

577 

328.  2 

554,  555 

885 

578 

328.  2.  N.  1 

655.  N.  2 

335.  R. 

578.  N. 

328.  a 

656 

336.  1 

579 

328.  a.  N. 

556.  a.  N.  1 

836.2 

580 

328.  K. 

656.  a.  N.  1 

336.  2.  N.  2 

680.  a 

328.  R. 

656.  a.  N.  2 

836.  2.  N.  3 

680.  c 

329 

560,  561 

836.  a.  1 

681 

329.  N. 

661.  N.  1 

836.  a.  R. 

681.  N.  2 

329.  R. 

661.  N.  2 

836.  a.  2 

682 

329.  (classification)  562 

836.  a.  2.  N.  2 

682.  a.  N.  2 

330 

452 

836.6 

683 

330.  B. 

459 

836.  c 

683.  6 

330.  B.  2,  3 

663.  a,  6 

836.  c.  N.  2 

683.  c 

330.  R. 

662.  N. 

836.  (f 

583.  a 

330.  a,  6 

582 

836.  A 

584 

330.  a.  2 

566.  6 

336.  A.  N.  1 

684.  a  and  n 

330.  6.  2 

666.  c 

336.  B 

685 

330.  c 

682.  a 

836.  B.  N.  2 

685.  a 

330.  d 

682.  N. 

836.  B.  a 

585.6 

330.  e 

579.  ftn.  1 

837 

689 

330.  / 

580.  c 

838 

586 

331  and  h.  n. 

563  and  b 

838.  a 

687 

331.  e.  2 

558.  6 

839 

588 

331./ 

564 

339.  R. 

588.  a 

331.  /.  ftn. 

564.  N. 

P.  378,  mid. 

590 

331.  /.  R. 

565,  a,  569.  2.  n.  2 

840 

691 

331.^ 

563.  N. 

341 

592 

331.  h 

500 

341.  h^l 

592.  1-g 

331.  i  565  341.  r.  592.  n. 


490 


ALLEN  AND    GREENOUGH'S  LATIN   GRAM^MAR 


Old 


New 


Old 


New 


342  693 
342.  ftn.  2d  par.      593.  n.  2 
P.  381  ff.  594 

P.  386,  top.  Note    595 

343  596  and  a 

344  597 

344.  R.  597.  a.  n. 9 
P.  389,  top.  R.  597.  b 

P.  389,  top.  a  598.  a 

345  599 

345.  a  699.  d 
345.  d  599.  a 
P.  392.  Note  600 

346  601 
P.  394.  Note  602 

347  603 
347.  d  603.  / 

347.  d.  N.  1,  2  603.  /.  N.  2,  3 

347.  d.  R.  603.  /.  N.  4 

347.  e.  R.  603.  /.  n.  l 

348  604 

348.  1-10  604.  a-j 
348.  9.  Exc.  604.  L  1-6 
349-351  

351.  b  605 

352,  353  

354  606 

354.  d  606.  c.  n. 
P.  402.  Note  607 

355.  R.  608.  N. 

356  609 

356.  e  309.  n. 

356.  /  609.  e 

357  610 

357.  b  

357.  c  610.  b 

858  611 

359  612 

359.  6,  c  612.  d,  e 

359.  b.  R.  612.  d!.  n. 

359.  c.  R.  612.  e.  n. 

359.  d  and  r  612.  /.  n.  i,  a 

.359.  e  612.  gr 

359.  /,  '/  612.  b  0 


860 

613 

360.  R. 

613.  N. 

361 

614 

362 

616 

362.  a 

615.  a,  6 

362.  a. 

N. 

615.  N. 

862.  b  and  r. 

615.  c  and  n. 

862.  c 

615.  d 

363 

616 

364 

617 

365 

618 

366 

619 

367 

620 

367.6 

620.  c 

P.  414, 

mid.  Note 

621 

868 

622 

369 

623 

370 

624 

371 

625 

872 

626 

873 

627  . 

874 

628 

875 

629 

875.  6, 

c,  e 

629.  b.  1-3 

375.  d 

629.  c 

875.  e 

629.  b   3 

875./ 

375.  g 

629.  d 

375.  g. 

3-5 

629.  d.  IS 

875.  h 

629.  e 

P.  425. 

Note 

630 

376 

631 

377 

682 

378 

683 

379 

634 

380 

686 

881 

636 

882 

687 

888 

638 

884 

— _- 

P.  429  2J3 

689 

386 

640 

886 
387 

641 
842 

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